Revision Physics

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|11th Grade|Physics|Revision Sheet|
Chapter 1: Physical World
● Science: Science is a systematic and organised attempt to acquire knowledge about

the surrounding through observations, experiments and verifications.
● Scientific Method: Several interrelated steps are involved in the scientific method.
Some of the most significant steps are as follows:
✓ The systematic observations
✓ Reasoning
✓ Mathematical prediction
✓ Theoretical prediction
● Physics: Physics is a fundamental science concerned with understanding the natural

phenomena that occur in our universe. It has many branches such as Mechanics,
Electromagnetism, Thermodynamics, Modem Physics, etc. Between 1600 and 1900,
three broad areas were developed, which is together called Classical Physics. These
three areas of study are classical mechanics, thermodynamics and
electromagnetism. But by 1905 it became apparent that classical ideas failed to
explain several phenomena. Then some new theories were developed in what is
called Modem Physics such as Special Relativity, Quantum Mechanics, etc.
● Scope and Excitement of Physics: The scope of Physics is very broad and covers a
wide range of magnitude of physical quantities such as length, mass, time, energy,
etc. It deals with the macroscopic world l galaxies and universe as well as
microscopic world like nucleus of an atom and fundamental particles like electrons,
protons, neutrons etc. Immense excitement is involved in the study of physics since
it explains every naturally occurring phenomena with a set of rules, so that clear
understanding can be achieved. The challenge to carry out imaginative new
experiments to unlock the secrets of nature, to verify or refute theories, is really
exciting.
● Physics in Relation to Other Sciences: Physics is a very significant branch of science

which plays a crucial role in understanding the developments pertaining to the other
branches of science such as Chemistry, Biology etc.
● Physics in relation to Mathematics: Study of physical variables led to the idea of

differentiation, integration and differential equation. Meaningful interpretation of
Mathematics becomes Physics.
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● Physics in relation to Chemistry: The concept of X-ray diffraction and radioactivity

has helped to distinguish between the various solids and to modify the periodic
table.
✓ Understanding the bonding and the chemical structure of substances is easy
with the help of the concept of interactions between various particles.
● Physics in relation to Astronomy: Optical telescopes of reflecting and refracting type

enabled man to explore the space around. Discoveries like radio telescopes have
revolutionised the study of Astronomy.
● Physics in relation to Biology: The conceptual study of pressure and its

measurement has helped us to know blood pressure and hence the functioning of
the heart. The Invention of X-rays developed the field of diagnosis. Electron and
optical microscopic designs have revolutionised the study of medical science.
● Physics in relation to Meteorology: The discoveries regarding the study of pressure

variations help us to forecast the weather.
✓ Various other inventions of physics have opened new vistas of study in the
field of sciences and social sciences.
● Physics in Relation to Technology and Society: Advancement in physics has led to

new technologies and vice-versa. Sometimes technology gives rise to new dimension
of physics, at other times physics generates new technology. In fact, the
technological development is closely related to the application of science and
physics in particular. Physics has a dominant influence on society. It has helped the
human being to develop its ideas. Development of digital communication systems,
rapid mass transport system, lasers making bloodless surgeries, etc., has made
human life easy and pleasant.
● There are four fundamental forces in nature that govern the diverse phenomena of
the microscopic and macroscopic world. These are the ‘gravitational force’, the
‘electromagnetic force’, the ‘strong nuclear force’, and the ‘weak nuclear force’.
Unification of forces is a basic quest in physics. The electromagnetic and the weak
nuclear forces have now been unified and are seen as aspects of a single ‘electro-
weak’ force. Attempts are being made to unify electro-weak and the strong force.
● Conservation of energy, momentum, angular momentum, charge, etc., are

considered to be the fundamental laws in physics. Conservation laws have a deep
connection with symmetries of nature. Symmetries of space and time, and other
types of symmetries play a central role in modem theories of fundamental forces in
nature.
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Chapter 2: Unit and Measurements
● Measurement: The process of measurement is basically a comparison process. To

measure a physical quantity, we have to find out how many times a standard
amount of that physical quantity is present in the quantity being measured. The
number thus obtained is known as the magnitude and the standard chosen is called
the unit of the physical quantity.
● Unit: The unit of a physical quantity is an arbitrarily chosen standard which is widely
accepted by the society and in terms of which other quantities of similar nature may
be measured.
● Standard: The actual physical embodiment of the unit of a physical quantity is

known as a standard of that physical quantity.
✓ To express any measurement made we need the numerical value (n) and the
unit (μ). Measurement of physical quantity = Numerical value x Unit
For example: Length of a rod = 8 m
where 8 is a numerical value and m (metre) is unit of length.
● Fundamental Physical Quantity/Units: It is an elementary physical quantity, which

does not require any other physical quantity to express it. Which means it cannot be
resolved further in terms of any other physical quantity. It is also known as basic
physical quantity.
✓ The units of fundamental physical quantities are called fundamental units.
For example, in M.K.S. system, Mass, Length and Time expressed in kilogram,
metre and second respectively are fundamental units.
● Derived Physical Quantity/Units: All those physical quantities, which can be derived
from the combination of two or more fundamental quantities or can be expressed in
terms of basic physical quantities, are called derived physical quantities.
✓ The units of all other physical quantities, which car. be obtained from
fundamental units, are called derived units. For example, units of velocity,
density and force are m/s, kg/m3, kg m/s2 respectively and they are examples
of derived units.
● Systems of Units: Earlier three different units systems were used in different
countries. These were CGS, FPS and MKS systems. Now-a-days internationally SI
system of units is followed. In SI unit system, seven quantities are taken as the base
quantities.
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✓ CGS System. Centimetre, Gram and Second are used to express length, mass
and time respectively.
✓ FPS System. Foot, pound and second are used to express length, mass and
time respectively.
✓ MKS System. Length is expressed in metre, mass is expressed in kilogram and
time is expressed in second. Metre, kilogram and second are used to express
length, mass and time respectively.
✓ SI Units. Length, mass, time, electric current, thermodynamic temperature,
Amount of substance and luminous intensity are expressed in metre,
kilogram, second, ampere, kelvin, mole and candela respectively.
● Advantages of SI Unit System: SI Unit System has following advantages over the
other Besides the above mentioned seven units, there are two supplementary base
units. These are systems of units:
✓ It is internationally accepted,
✓ It is a rational unit system,
✓ It is a coherent unit system,
✓ It is a metric system,
✓ It is closely related to CGS and MKS systems of units,
✓ Uses decimal system, hence is more user friendly
● Other Important Units of Length: For measuring large distances e.g., distances of
planets and stars etc., some bigger units of length such as astronomical unit, light
year, parsec etc. are used.
✓ The average separation between the Earth and the sun is called one
astronomical unit.
✓ 1 AU = 1.496 x 1011 m.
✓ The distance travelled by light in vacuum in one year is called light year.
✓ 1 light year = 9.46 x 1015 m.
✓ The distance at which an arc of length of one astronomical unit subtends an
angle of one second at a point is called parsec.
✓ 1 parsec = 3.08 x 1016 m
✓ Size of a tiny nucleus = 1 fermi = If = 10-15 m
✓ Size of a tiny atom = 1 angstrom = 1A = 10-10 m
● Parallax Method: This method is used to measure the distance of planets and stars
from earth.
✓ Parallax. Hold a pen in front of your eyes and look at the pen by closing the
right eye and then the left eye. What do you observe? The position of the
pen changes with respect to the background. This relative shift in the position
of the pen (object) w.r.t. background is called parallax.
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✓ To estimate size of atoms we can use electron microscope and tunneling

microscopy technique. Rutherford’s a-particle scattering experiment enables
us to estimate size of nuclei of different elements.
✓ Pendulum clocks, mechanical watches (in which vibrations of a balance wheel
are used) and quartz watches are commonly used to measure time. Cesium
atomic clocks can be used to measure time with an accuracy of 1 part in 1013
(or to a maximum discrepancy of 3 ps in a year).
✓ The SI unit of mass is kilogram. While dealing with atoms/ molecules and
subatomic particles we define a unit known as “unified atomic mass unit” (1
u), where 1 u = 1.66 x 10-27 kg.
● Estimation of Molecular Size of Oleic Acid: For this 1 cm3 of oleic acid is dissolved in
alcohol to make a solution of 20 cm3. Then 1 cm3 of this solution is taken and diluted
to 20 cm3, using alcohol. So, the concentration of the solution is as follows:
✓ After that some lycopodium powder is lightly sprinkled on the surface of
water in a large trough and one drop of this solution is put in water. The oleic
acid drop spreads into a thin, large and roughly circular film of molecular
thickness on water surface. Then, the diameter of the thin film is quickly
measured to get its area A. Suppose n drops were put in the water. Initially,
the approximate volume of each drop is determined (V cm3).
Volume of n drops of solution = nV cm3
The solution of oleic acid spreads very fast on the surface of water and forms
a very thin layer of thickness t. If this spreads to form a film of area A cm 2, If
we assume that the film has mono-molecular thickness, this becomes the size
or diameter of a molecule of oleic acid. The value of this thickness comes out
to be of the order of 10-9 m.
● Dimensions: The dimensions of a physical quantity are the powers to which the
fundamental units of mass, length and time must be raised to represent the given
physical quantity.
● Dimensional Formula: The dimensional formula of a physical quantity is an

expression telling us how and which of the fundamental quantities enter into the
unit of that quantity.
✓ It is customary to express the fundamental quantities by a capital letter, e.g.,
length (L), mass (AT), time (T), electric current (I), temperature (K) and
luminous intensity (C). We write appropriate powers of these capital letters
within square brackets to get the dimensional formula of any given physical
quantity.
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● Applications of Dimensions: The concept of dimensions and dimensional formulae

are put to the following uses:
✓ Checking the results obtained
✓ Conversion from one system of units to another
✓ Deriving relationships between physical quantities
✓ Scaling and studying of models.
The underlying principle for these uses is the principle of homogeneity of
dimensions. According to this principle, the ‘net’ dimensions of the various physical
quantities on both sides of a permissible physical relation must be the same; also
only dimensionally similar quantities can be added to or subtracted from each other.
● Limitations of Dimensional Analysis: The method of dimensions has the following

limitations:
✓ by this method the value of dimensionless constant cannot be calculated.
✓ by this method the equation containing trigonometric, exponential and
logarithmic terms cannot be analyzed.
✓ if a physical quantity in mechanics depends on more than three factors, then
relation among them cannot be established because we can have only three
equations by equalizing the powers of M, L and T.
✓ it doesn’t tell whether the quantity is vector or scalar.
● Significant Figures: The significant figures are a measure of accuracy of a particular

measurement of a physical quantity. Significant figures in a measurement are those
digits in a physical quantity that are known reliably plus the first digit which is
uncertain.
● The Rules for Determining the Number of Significant Figures:

✓ All non-zero digits are significant.
✓ All zeros between nonzero digits are significant.
✓ All zeros to the right of the last non-zero digit are not significant in numbers
without decimal point.
✓ All zeros to the right of a decimal point and to the left of a non-zero digit are
not significant.
✓ All zeros to the right of a decimal point and to the right of a non-zero digit are
significant.
✓ In addition and subtraction, we should retain the least decimal place among
the values operated, in the result.
✓ In multiplication and division, we should express the result with the least
number of significant figures as associated with the least precise number in
operation.
✓ If scientific notation is not used:
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■ For a number greater than 1, without any decimal, the trailing zeroes
are not significant.
■ For a number with a decimal, the trailing zeros are significant.
● Error: The measured value of the physical quantity is usually different from its true
value. The result of every measurement by any measuring instrument is an
approximate number, which contains some uncertainty. This uncertainty is called
error. Every calculated quantity, which is based on measured values, also has an
error.
● Causes of Errors in Measurement: Following are the causes of errors in

measurement:
✓ Least Count Error. The least count error is the error associated with the
resolution of the instrument. Least count may not be sufficiently small. The
maximum possible error is equal to the least count.
✓ Instrumental Error. This is due to faulty calibration or change in conditions
(e.g., thermal expansion of a measuring scale). An instrument may also have
a zero error. A correction has to be applied.
✓ Random Error. This is also called chance error. It makes to give different
results for same measurements taken repeatedly. These errors are assumed
to follow the Gaussian law of normal distribution.
✓ Accidental Error. This error gives too high or too low results. Measurements
involving this error are not included in calculations.
✓ Systematic Error. The systematic errors are those errors that tend to be in
one direction, either positive or negative. Errors due to air buoyancy in
weighing and radiation loss in calorimetry are systematic errors. They can be
eliminated by manipulation. Some of the sources of systematic errors are:
■ instrumental error
■ imperfection in experimental technique or procedure
■ personal errors
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Chapter 3: Motion in a Straight Line
● Introduction: Motion is one of the significant topics in physics.

There are two branches in physics that examine the motion of an object.
✓ Kinematics: It describes the motion of objects, without looking at the cause
of the motion.
✓ Dynamics: It relates the motion of objects to the forces which cause them.
● Point Object: If the length covered by the objects are very large in comparison to the
size of the objects, the objects are considered point objects.
● Reference Systems: The motion of a particle is always described with respect to a

reference system. A reference system is made by taking an arbitrary point as origin
and imagining a coordinate system to be attached to it. This coordinate system
chosen for a given problem constitutes the reference system for it. We generally
choose a coordinate system attached to the earth as the reference system for most
of the problems.
● Total Path Length (Distance): For a particle in motion the total length of the actual
path traversed between initial and final positions of the particle is known as the
‘total path length’ or distance covered by it.
● Types of Motion: In order to completely describe the motion of an object, we need

to specify its position. For this, we need to know the position coordinates. In some
cases, three position coordinates are required, while in some cases two or one
position coordinate is required.
Based on these, motion can be classified as:
✓ One dimensional motion. A particle moving along a straight-line or a path is
said to undergo one dimensional motion. For example, motion of a train
along a straight line, freely falling body under gravity etc.
✓ Two dimensional motion. A particle moving in a plane is said to undergo two
dimensional motion. For example, motion of a shell fired by a gun, carrom
board coins etc.
✓ Three dimensional motion. A particle moving in space is said to undergo
three dimensional motion. For example, motion of a kite in sky, motion of
aeroplane etc.
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● Displacement: Displacement of a particle in a given time is defined as the change in

the position of particle in a particular direction during that time. It is given by a
vector drawn from its initial position to its final position.
● Factors Distinguishing Displacement from Distance

✓ Displacement has direction. Distance does not have direction.
✓ The magnitude of displacement can be both positive and negative.
✓ Distance is always positive. It never decreases with time.
✓ Distance ≥ | Displacement |
● Uniform Speed and Uniform Velocity:

✓ Uniform Speed: An object is said to move with uniform speed if it covers
equal distances in equal intervals of time.
✓ Uniform Velocity: An object is said to move with uniform velocity if it covers
equal displacements in equal intervals of time.
● Variable Speed and Variable Velocity:

✓ Variable Speed. An object is said to move with variable speed if it covers
unequal distances in equal intervals of time.
✓ Variable Velocity. An object is said to move with variable velocity if it covers
unequal displacements in equal intervals of time.
● Average Speed and Average Velocity: Average Speed. It is the ratio of total path
length traversed and the corresponding time interval.
● Instantaneous Speed and Instantaneous Velocity:

✓ Instantaneous speed: Instantaneous speed is the limit of the average speed
as the time interval becomes infinitesimally small.
✓ Instantaneous velocity: Instantaneous velocity or simply velocity is defined
as the limit of the average velocity as the time interval Δt becomes
infinitesimally small.
● Acceleration: The rate at which velocity changes is called acceleration.
● Uniform Acceleration: If an object undergoes equal changes in velocity in equal time

intervals it is called uniform acceleration.
● Average and Instantaneous Acceleration: Average Accelerating. It is the change in

the velocity divided by the time-interval during which the change occurs.
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● Instantaneous Acceleration: It is defined as the limit of the average acceleration as

the time-interval Δt goes to zero.
● Kinematics Graphs: The ‘displacement-time’ and the ‘velocity-time’ graphs of a

particle are often used to provide us with a visual representation of the motion of a
particle. The ‘shape’ of the graphs depends on the initial ‘co-ordinates’ and the
‘nature’ of the acceleration of the particle.
● The following general results are always valid:

✓ The slope of the displacement-time graph at any instant gives the speed of
the particle at that instant.
✓ The slope of the velocity-time graph at any instant gives the magnitude of the
acceleration of the particle at that instant.
✓ The area enclosed by the velocity-time graph, the time-axis and the two
coordinates at the time instants t1 to t2 gives the distance moved by the
particle in the time-interval from t1 to t2.
● Equations of Motion for Uniformly Accelerated Motion: For uniformly accelerated

motion, some simple equations can be derived that relate displacement (x), time
taken (f), initial velocity (u), final velocity (v) and acceleration (a). Following equation
gives a relation between final and initial velocities v and u of an object moving with
uniform acceleration a: v = u + at. Suppose a body is projected vertically upward
from a point A with velocity u. In some problems it is convenient to take the
downward direction as positive, in such case all the measurements in downward
direction are considered as positive i.e., acceleration will be +g. But sometimes we
may need to take upward as positive and if such case acceleration will be -g.
● Relative Velocity: Relative velocity of an object A with respect to another object B is

the time rate at which the object A changes its position with respect to the object B.
✓ The relative velocity of two objects moving in the same direction is the
difference of the speeds of the objects.
✓ The relative velocity of two objects moving in opposite direction is the sum of
the speeds of the objects.
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Chapter 4: Motion in a Plane
● Motion: in a plane is called as motion in two dimensions e.g., projectile motion,

circular motion etc. For the analysis of such motion our reference will be made of an
origin and two coordinate axes X and Y.
● Scalar and Vector Quantities:

✓ Scalar Quantities: The physical quantities which are completely specified by
their magnitude or size alone are called scalar quantities.
Examples. Length, mass, density, speed, work, etc.
Vector Quantities: Vector quantities are those physical quantities which are
characterised by both magnitude and direction.
Examples. Velocity, displacement, acceleration, force, momentum, torque
etc.
● Characteristics of Vectors: Following are the characteristics of vectors:

✓ These possess both magnitude and direction.
✓ These do not obey the ordinary laws of Algebra.
✓ These change if either magnitude or direction or both change.
✓ These are represented by bold-faced letters or letters having arrow over
them.
● Unit Vector: A unit vector is a vector of unit magnitude and points in a particular
direction. It is used to specify the direction only. Unit vector is represented by
putting a cap (^) over the quantity.
● Coplanar Vectors: Vectors are said to be coplanar if they lie in the same plane or
they are parallel to the same plane, otherwise they are said to be non-coplanar
vectors.
● Displacement Vector: The displacement vector is a vector which gives the position of
a point with reference to a point other than the origin of the coordinate system.
● Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition: If two vectors, acting simultaneously at a

point, can be represented both in magnitude and direction by the two adjacent sides
of a parallelogram drawn from a point, then the resultant is represented completely
both in magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram passing
through that point.
● Triangle Law of Vector Addition: If two vectors are represented both in magnitude
and direction by the two sides of a triangle taken in the same order, then the
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resultant of these vectors is represented both in magnitude and direction by the

third side of the triangle taken in the opposite order.
● Polygon Law of Vector Addition: If a number of vectors are represented both in

magnitude and direction by the sides of a polygon taken in the same order, then the
resultant vector is represented both in magnitude and direction by the closing side
of the polygon taken in the opposite order.
● Resolution of Vectors: It is a process of splitting a single vector into two or more

vectors in different directions which together produce the same effect as is
produced by the single vector alone.
✓ The vectors into which the given single vector is splitted are called
component of vectors. In fact, the resolution of a vector is just opposite to
composition of vectors. If the components of a given vector are
perpendicular to each other, then they are called rectangular components
● Lami’s Theorem: Lami’s theorem states, “If a particle under the simultaneous action
of three forces is in equilibrium, then each force has a constant ratio with the sine of
the angle between the other two forces”.
● Projectile Motion: The projectile is a general name given to an object that is given an
initial inclined velocity and which subsequently follows a path determined by the
gravitational force acting on it and by the frictional resistance of the air. The path
followed by a projectile is called its trajectory.
● Angular Displacement: Angular displacement of the object moving around a circular

path is defined as the angle traced out by the radius vector at the centre of the
circular path in a given time.
✓ θ (angle) = arc/radius
✓ θ —> the magnitude of angular displacement. It is expressed in radians (rad).
● Angular Velocity: Angular velocity of an object in circular motion is defined as the

time rate of change of its angular displacement.
● Angular Acceleration: Angular acceleration of an object in circular motion is defined

as the time rate of change of its angular velocity.
● Uniform Circular Motion: When a body moves in a circular path with a constant
speed, then the motion of the body is known as uniform circular motion.
✓ The time taken by the object to complete one revolution on its circular path
is called time period.
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● Centripetal Acceleration: To maintain a particle in its uniform circular motion a

radially inward acceleration should be continuously maintained. It is known as the
centripetal acceleration.
Chapter 5: Laws of Motion
● Dynamics: is the branch of physics in which we study the motion of a body by taking
into consideration the cause i.e., force which produces the motion.
● Force: Force is an external cause in the form of push or pull, which produces or tries
to produce motion in a body at rest, or stops/tries to stop a moving body or
changes/tries to change the direction of motion of the body.
✓ The inherent property, with which a body resists any change in its state of
motion is called inertia. Heavier the body, the inertia is more and lighter the
body, lesser the inertia.
● Law of inertia: states that a body has the inability to change its state of rest or
uniform motion (i.e., a motion with constant velocity) or direction of motion by
itself.
● Newton’s Laws of Motion

✓ Law 1. A body will remain at rest or continue to move with uniform velocity
unless an external force is applied to it.First law of motion is also referred to
as the ‘Law of inertia’. It defines inertia, force and inertial frame of reference.
I here is always a need of ‘frame of reference’ to describe and understand the
motion of particle, lhc simplest ‘frame of reference’ used are known as the
inertial frames. A frame of referent, e is known as an inertial frame it, within
it, all accelerations of any particle are caused by the action of ‘real forces’ on
that particle. When we talk about accelerations produced by ‘fictitious’ or
‘pseudo’ forces, the frame of reference is a non-inertial one.
✓ Law 2. When an external force is applied to a body of constant mass the
force produces an acceleration, which is directly proportional to the force
and inversely proportional to the mass of the body.
✓ Law 3. “To every action there is equal and opposite reaction force”. When a
body A exerts a force on another body B, B exerts an equal and opposite
force on A.
● Linear Momentum: The linear momentum of a body is defined as the product of the
mass of the body and its velocity.
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● Impulse: Forces acting for short duration are called impulsive forces. Impulse is
defined as the product of force and the small time interval for which it acts.
✓ Impulse of a force is a vector quantity and its SI unit is 1 Nm.
✓ If force of an impulse is changing with time, then the impulse is measured by
finding the area bound by force-time graph for that force.
✓ Impulse of a force for a given time is equal to the total change in momentum
of the body during the given time. Thus, we have
● Law of Conservation of Momentum: The total momentum of an isolated system of

particles is conserved. In other words, when no external force is applied to the
system, its total momentum remains constant.
✓ Recoiling of a gun, flight of rockets and jet planes are some simple
applications of the law of conservation of linear momentum.
● Concurrent Forces and Equilibrium:

✓ “A group of forces which are acting at one point are called concurrent
forces.”
✓ Concurrent forces are said to be in equilibrium if there is no change in the
position of rest or the state of uniform motion of the body on which these
concurrent forces are acting.
✓ For concurrent forces to be in equilibrium, their resultant force must be zero.
In case of three concurrent forces acting in a plane, the body will be in
equilibrium if these three forces may be completely represented by three
sides of a triangle taken in order. If number of concurrent forces is more than
three, then these forces must be represented by sides of a closed polygon in
order for equilibrium.
● Commonly Used Forces:

✓ Weight of a body: It is the force with which earth attracts a body towards its
centre. If M is mass of body and g is acceleration due to gravity, weight of the
body is Mg in vertically downward direction.
✓ Normal Force: If two bodies are in contact a contact force arises, if the
surface is smooth the direction of force is normal to the plane of contact. We
call this force as Normal force.
Example. Let us consider a book resting on the table. It is acted upon by its
weight in vertically downward direction and is at rest. It means there is
another force acting on the block in opposite direction, which balances its
weight. This force is provided by the table and we call it as normal force.
✓ Tension in string: Suppose a block is hanging from a string. Weight of the
block is acting vertically downward but it is not moving, hence its weight is
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balanced by a force due to string. This force is called ‘Tension in string’.

Tension is a force in a stretched string. Its direction is taken along the string
and away from the body under consideration.
● Apparent Weight and Actual Weight:

✓ ‘Apparent weight’ of a body is equal to its ‘actual weight’ if the body is either
in a state of rest or in a state of uniform motion.
✓ Apparent weight of a body for vertically upward accelerated motion is given
as
Apparent weight =Actual weight + Ma = M (g + a)
✓ Apparent weight of a body for vertically downward accelerated motion is
given as
Apparent weight = Actual weight Ma = M (g – a).
● Friction: The opposition to any relative motion between two surfaces in contact is
referred to as friction. It arises because of the ‘inter meshing’ of the surface
irregularities of the two surfaces in contact.
● Static and Dynamic (Kinetic) Friction: The frictional forces between two surfaces in
contact (i) before and (ii) after a relative motion between them has started, are
referred to as static and dynamic friction respectively. Static friction is always a little
more than dynamic friction.
The magnitude of kinetic frictional force is also proportional to normal force.
● Limiting Frictional Force: This frictional force acts when body is about to move. This
is the maximum frictional force that can exist at the contact surface. We calculate its
value using laws of friction.
● Laws of Friction:
✓ The magnitude of limiting frictional force is proportional to the normal force
at the contact surface.
✓ The magnitude of limiting frictional force is independent of area of contact
between the surfaces.
● Coefficient of Friction: The coefficient of friction (μ) between two surfaces is the
ratio of their limiting frictional force to the normal force between them.
● Angle of Friction: It is the angle which the resultant of the force of limiting friction F
and the normal reaction R makes with the direction of the normal reaction.
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● Angle of Repose: Angle of repose (α) is the angle of an inclined plane with the
horizontal at which a body placed over it just begins to slide down without any
acceleration. Angle of repose is given by α = tan-1 (μ)
● Motion on a Rough Inclined Plane: Suppose a motion up the plane takes place
under the action of pull P acting parallel to the plane.
● Centripetal Force: Centripetal force is the force required to move a body uniformly
in a circle.
● Centrifugal Force: Centrifugal force is a force that arises when a body is moving
actually along a circular path, by virtue of tendency of the body to regain its natural
straight line path.
The magnitude of centrifugal force is same as that of centripetal force.
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Chapter 6: Work Energy and Power
● Work is said to be done when a force applied on the body displaces the body
through a certain distance in the direction of applied force.
It is measured by the product of the force and the distance moved in the direction of
the force, i.e., W = F-S
● If an object undergoes a displacement ‘S’ along a straight line while acted on a force
F that makes an angle 0 with S then,
The work done W by the agent is the product of the component of force in the
direction of displacement and the magnitude of displacement.
● If we plot a graph between force applied and the displacement, then work done can
be obtained by finding the area under the F-s graph.
● If a spring is stretched or compressed by a small distance from its unstretched

configuration, the spring will exert a force on the block given by
F = -kx,
where x is compression or elongation in spring, k is a constant called spring
constant whose value depends inversely on unstretched length and the nature of
material of spring.
The negative sign indicates that the direction of the spring force is opposite to x, the
displacement of the free-end.
● Energy: The energy of a body is its capacity to do work. Anything which is able to do
work is said to possess energy. Energy is measured in the same unit as that of work,
namely, Joule.
● Mechanical energy: is of two types: Kinetic energy and Potential energy.
● Kinetic Energy:: The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion is known as
its kinetic energy.
For an object of mass m and having a velocity v, the kinetic energy is given by:
K.E. or K = 1/2 mv2
● Potential Energy: The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its position or

condition is known as its potential energy.
There are two common forms of potential energy: gravitational and elastic.
● Gravitational potential energy: of a body is the energy possessed by the body by

virtue of its position above the surface of the earth.
18
It is given by (U)P.E. = mgh

where m —> mass of a body
g —> acceleration due to gravity on the surface of earth. h —> height through which
the body is raised.
—> When an elastic body is displaced from its equilibrium position, work is needed
to be done against the restoring elastic force. The work done is stored up in the body
in the form of its elastic potential energy.
If an elastic spring is stretched (or compressed) by a distance Y from its equilibrium
position, then its elastic potential energy is given by
U= 1/2 kx2
where, k —> force constant of given spring
● Work-Energy Theorem: According to work-energy theorem, the work done by a

force on a body is equal to the change in kinetic energy of the body.
● The Law of Conservation of Energy: According to the law of conservation of energy,

the total energy of an isolated system does not change. Energy may be transformed
from one form to another but the total energy of an isolated system remains
constant.
✓ Energy can neither be created, nor destroyed. Besides mechanical energy,
the energy may manifest itself in many other forms. Some of these forms are:
thermal energy, electrical energy, chemical energy, visual light energy,
nuclear energy etc.
● Equivalence of Mass and Energy: According to Einstein, mass and energy are
interconvertible. That is, mass can be converted into energy and energy can be
converted into mass.
● Collision: Collision is defined as an isolated event in which two or more colliding

bodies exert relatively strong forces on each other for a relatively short time.
● Collision between particles have been divided broadly into two types.
(i) Elastic collisions (ii) Inelastic collisions
✓ Elastic Collision: A collision between two particles or bodies is said to be
elastic if both the linear momentum and the kinetic energy of the system
remain conserved.
■ Example: Collisions between atomic particles, atoms, marble balls and
billiard balls.
✓ Inelastic Collision: A collision is said to be inelastic if the linear momentum of

the system remains conserved but its kinetic energy is not conserved.
19
■ Example: When we drop a ball of wet putty on to the floor then the
collision between ball and floor is an inelastic collision.
● Collision is said to be one dimensional, if the colliding particles, move along the
same straight line path both before as well as after the collision.
✓ In one dimensional elastic collision, the relative velocity of approach before
collision is equal to. the relative velocity of separation after collision.
● Coefficient of Restitution or Coefficient of Resilience: Coefficient of restitution is

defined as the ratio of relative velocity of separation after collision to the relative
velocity of approach before collision.
● Non-conservative Forces: A force is said to be non-conservative if the work done in

moving from one point to another depends upon the the path followed.
● Examples of non-conservative forces are :

(i) Force of friction (ii) Viscous force
✓ Law of conservation of energy holds goods for both conservative and non-
conservative forces.
20
Chapter 7: System of Particles and Rotational Motion.
● A rigid body is a body with a perfectly definite and unchanging shape. The distances
between all pairs of particles of such a body do not change.
● Centre of Mass: For a system of particles, the centre of mass is defined as that point
where the entire mass of the system is imagined to be concentrated, for
consideration of its translational motion.If all the external forces acting on the
body/system of bodies were to be applied at the centre of mass, the state of rest/
motion of the body/system of bodies shall remain unaffected.
● The centre of mass of a body or a system is its balancing point. The centre of mass of
a two- particle system always lies on the line joining the two particles and is
somewhere in between the particles.
● Motion of centre of Mass: The centre of mass of a system of particles moves as if

the entire mass of the system were concentrated at the centre of mass and all the
external forces were applied at that point. If no external force acts on the body, then
the centre of mass will have constant momentum. Its velocity is constant and
acceleration is zero.
● Torque: Torque is the moment of force. Torque acting on a particle is defined as the
product of the magnitude of the force acting on the particle and the perpendicular
distance of the application of force from the axis of rotation of the particle.
● Angular Momentum: The angular momentum (or moment of momentum) about an

axis of rotation is a vector quantity, whose magnitude is equal to the product of the
magnitude of momentum and the perpendicular distance of the line of action of
momentum from the axis of rotation and its direction is perpendicular to the plane
containing the momentum and the perpendicular distance.
● Axis of Rotation: A rigid body is said to be rotating if every point mass that makes it
up, describes a circular path of a different radius but the same angular speed. The
circular paths of all the point masses have a common centre. A line passing through
this common centre is the axis of rotation.
✓ A rigid body is said to be in equilibrium if under the action of forces/torques,
the body remains in its position of rest or of uniform motion.
✓ For translational equilibrium, the vector sum of all the forces acting on a body
must be zero. For rotational equilibrium, the vector sum of torques of all the
forces acting on that body about the reference point must be zero. For
complete equilibrium, both these conditions must be fulfilled.
21
● Couple: Two equal and opposite forces acting on a body but having different lines of
action, form a couple. The net force due to a couple is zero, but they exert a torque
and produce rotational motion.
● Moment of Inertia: The rotational inertia of a rigid body is referred to as its moment
of inertia. The moment of inertia of a body about an axis is defined as the sum of the
products of the masses of the particles constituting the body and the square of their
respective perpendicular distance from the axis.
● Radius of Gyration: The distance of a point in a body from the axis of rotation, at
which if whole of the mass of the body were supposed to be concentrated, its
moment of inertia about the axis of rotation would be the same as that determined
by the actual distribution of mass of the body is called radius of gyration.
✓ If we consider that the whole mass of the body is concentrated at a distance
K from the axis of rotation, then moment of inertia I can be expressed as I =
MK2
● Theorem of Parallel Axes: According to this theorem, the moment of inertia I of a

body about any axis is equal to its moment of inertia about a parallel axis through
centre of mass, Icm, plus Ma2 where M is the mass of the body and V is the
perpendicular distance between the axes, i.e.,
✓ I = Icm + Ma2
● Theorem of Perpendicular Axes: According to this theorem, the moment of inertia I

of the body about a perpendicular axis is equal to the sum of moments of inertia of
the body about two axes at right angles to each other in the plane of the body and
intersecting at a point where the perpendicular axis passes.
● Rolling Motion: The combination of rotational motion and the translational motion
of a rigid body is known as rolling motion.
● Law of Conservation of Angular Momentum: According to the law of conservation

of angular momentum, if there is no external couple acting, the total angular
momentum of a rigid body or a system of particles is conserved.
22
Chapter 8: Gravitation.
● Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion: Johannes Kepler formulated three laws which
describe planetary motion. They are as follows:
✓ Law of orbits. Each planet revolves around the sun in an elliptical orbit with
the sun at one of the foci of the ellipse.
✓ Law of areas. The speed of planet varies in such a way that the radius, vector
drawn from the sun to planet sweeps out equal areas in equal times.
● Newton’s Law of Gravitation: Newton’s law of gravitation states that every particle
in the universe attracts every other particle with a force directly proportional to the
product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them. The direction of the force is along the line joining the particles.
● Universal constant of gravitation G: It numerically equal to the force of attraction

between two particles of unit mass each separated by unit distance.
● Important Characteristics of Gravitational Force:

✓ Gravitational force between two bodies is a central force i.e., it acts along the
line joining the centres of the two interacting bodies.
✓ Gravitational force between two bodies is independent of the nature of the
intervening medium.
✓ Gravitational force between two bodies does not depend upon the presence
of other bodies.
✓ It is valid for point objects and spherically symmetrical objects.
✓ Magnitude of force is extremely small.
● Acceleration Due to Gravity: The acceleration produced in a body on account of the

force of gravity is known as acceleration due to gravity. It is usually denoted by ‘g’. It
is always towards the centre of Earth.
● Mass and Mean Density of Earth: Mass and Mean density of Earth is given in the
following manner.
● Variation of Acceleration Due to Gravity: The value of acceleration due to gravity

changes with height (i.e., altitude), depth, shape of the earth and rotation of earth
about its own axis.
Effect of Altitude. As one goes above the surface of Earth, value of acceleration due
to gravity gradually goes on decreasing.
23
● Gravitational Field: The space around a body within which its gravitational force of
attraction is experienced by other bodies is called gravitational field.
● Intensity of Gravitational Field: The intensity of the gravitational field of a body at a

point in the field is defined as the force experienced by a body of unit mass placed at
that point provided the presence of unit mass does not disturb the original
gravitational field.
● Gravitational Potential: The gravitational potential at a point in the gravitational

field of a body is defined as the amount of work done in bringing a body of unit mass
from infinity to that point.
● Gravitational Potential Energy: The work done in carrying a mass ‘m’ from infinity to
a point at distance r is called gravitational potential energy. Gravitational potential
energy = gravitational potential x mass of the body.
It is a scalar quantity and measured in joule.
● Escape Velocity: The minimum velocity required to project a body vertically upward
from the surface of earth so that it comes out of the gravitational field of earth is
called escape velocity.
● Satellite: A satellite is a body which is revolving continuously in an orbit around a

comparatively much larger body.
The orbit may be either circular or elliptical. A man-made object revolving in an orbit
around a planet is called an artificial satellite.
● Orbital Velocity: Orbital velocity of a satellite is the minimum velocity required to

put the satellite into a given orbit around earth.
● Geostationary Satellite: The satellite having the same time period of revolution as
that of the earth is called geostationary satellite. Such satellites should rotate in the
equatorial plane from west to east. The orbit of a geostationary satellite is called
‘parking orbit’. These satellites are used for communication purposes.
A geostationary satellite revolves around the earth in a circular orbit at a height of
about 36,000 km from the surface of earth.
24
Chapter 9: Mechanical Properties of Solids.
● Intermolecular Force: In a solid, atoms and molecules are arranged in such a way
that each molecule is acted upon by the forces due to the neighbouring molecules.
These forces are known as intermolecular forces.
● Elasticity: The property of the body to regain its original configuration (length,
volume or shape) when the deforming forces are removed, is called elasticity.
The change in the shape or size of a body when external forces act on it is
determined by the forces between its atoms or molecules. These short range atomic
forces are called elastic forces.
● Perfectly elastic body: A body which regains its original configuration immediately
and completely after the removal of deforming force from it, is called perfectly
elastic body. Quartz and phosphor bronze are the examples of nearly perfectly
elastic bodies.
● Plasticity: The inability of a body to return to its original size and shape even on
removal of the deforming force is called plasticity and such a body is called a plastic
body.
● Stress: Stress is defined as the ratio of the internal force F, produced when the
substance is deformed, to the area A over which this force acts. In equilibrium, this
force is equal in magnitude to the externally applied force.
● Stress is of two types:

✓ Normal stress: It is defined as the restoring force per unit area perpendicular
to the surface of the body. Normal stress is of two types: tensile stress and
compressive stress.
✓ Tangential stress: When the elastic restoring force or deforming force acts
parallel to the surface area, the stress is called tangential stress.
● Strain: It is defined as the ratio of the change in size or shape to the original size or
shape. It has no dimensions, it is just a number.
✓ Strain is of three types:
■ Longitudinal strain: If the deforming force produces a change in
length alone, the strain produced in the body is called longitudinal
strain or tensile strain.
■ Volumetric strain: If the deforming force produces a change in
volume alone, the strain produced in the body is called volumetric
strain.
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■ Shear strain: The angle tilt caused in the body due to tangential stress
expressed is called shear strain.
● The maximum stress to which the body can regain its original status on the removal
of the deforming force is called elastic limit.
● Hooke’s Law: Hooke’s law states that, within elastic limits, the ratio of stress to the
corresponding strain produced is a constant. This constant is called the modulus of
elasticity.
● Young’s Modulus: For a solid, in the form of a wire or a thin rod, Young’s modulus of
elasticity within elastic limit is defined as the ratio of longitudinal stress to
longitudinal strain.
● Bulk Modulus: Within elastic limit the bulk modulus is defined as the ratio of
longitudinal stress and volumetric strain.
● Reciprocal of bulk modulus is commonly referred to as the “compressibility”. It is

defined as the fractional change in volume per unit change in pressure
● Shear Modulus or Modulus of Rigidity: It is defined as the ratio of the tangential

stress to the shear strain.
● Poisson’s Ratio: The ratio of change in diameter (ΔD) to the original diameter (D) is
called lateral strain. The ratio of change in length (Δl) to the original length (l) is
called longitudinal strain. The ratio of lateral strain to the longitudinal strain is called
Poisson’s ratio.
● Elastic Fatigue: It is the property of an elastic body by virtue of which its behaviour
becomes less elastic under the action of repeated alternating deforming forces.
Relations between Elastic Moduli For isotropic materials (i.e., materials having the
same properties in all directions), only two of the three elastic constants are
independent. For example, Young’s modulus can be expressed in terms of the bulk
and shear moduli.
● Breaking Stress: The ultimate tensile strength of a material is the stress required to
break a wire or a rod by pulling on it. The breaking stress of the material is the
maximum stress which a material can withstand. Beyond this point breakage occurs.
Hence, the elastic potential energy of a wire (energy density) is equal to half the
product of its stress and strain.
26
Chapter 11: Thermal Properties of Matter
● Heat is the form of energy transferred between two (or more) systems or a system
and its surroundings by virtue of temperature difference. The SI unit of heat energy
transferred is expressed in joule (J).
● In CGS system, unit of heat is calorie and kilocalorie (kcal).

1 cal = 4.186 J and 1 kcal = 1000 cal = 4186 J.
● Temperature of a substance is a physical quantity which measures the degree of

hotness or coldness of the substance. The SI unit of temperature is kelvin (K) and °C
is a commonly used unit of temperature.
● A branch of science which deals with the measurement of temperature of a

substance is known as thermometry. A device used to measure the temperature of a
body is called thermometer.
● A thermometer calibrated for a temperature scale is used to measure the value of

given temperature on that scale. For the measurement of temperature, two fixed
reference points are selected. The two convenient fixed reference points are the ice
point and the steam point of water at standard pressure, which are known as
freezing point and boiling point of water at standard pressure.
● The two familiar temperature scales are the Fahrenheit temperature scale and the
Celsius temperature scale. The ice and steam point have values 32°F and 212°F
respectively, on the Fahrenheit scale and 0°C and 100°C on the Celsius scale. On the
Fahrenheit scale, there are 180 equal intervals between two reference points, and
on the Celsius scale, there are 100.
● If tc and tF are temperature values of a body on Celsius temperature scale and

Fahrenheit temperature scale respectively, then the relationship between
Fahrenheit and Celsius temperature is given by
● An ideal gas obeys the following law. That is PV = gRT, where P,V and T are the
pressure, volume and temperature of the gas respectively, g is the number of moles
in an ideal gas and R = 8.31 J mol-1 K-1 is known as universal gas constant. The
equation, PV – gRT is known as ideal gas equation.
● The absolute minimum temperature for an ideal gas, inferred by extrapolating the
straight line P – T graph is found to be – 273.15 °C and is designated as absolute
zero. Absolute temperature scale (T) and Celsius scale are related by
27
t° C = T – 273.15.
● Thermal Expansion: The increase of size of a body due to the increase in the
temperature is called thermal expansion. Three types of expansions can take place in
solids viz. linear, superficial and volume expansion,
✓ Linear Expansion: The increase in the length of a solid on heating is called

linear expansion.
If the temperature of a rod of original length l is raised by a small amount Δt,
its length increases by Δl. Then the linear expansion is given by
Δl = l ∞ Δt
where a is the coefficient of linear expansion of the given solid. The unit of α
is per degree Celsius (°C-1) in the CGS and per kelvin (K-1) in the SI system.
✓ Superficial or Area Expansion: The increase in surface area of the solid on

heating is called superficial expansion.
If A0 is the area of a solid at 0°C and A( its area at t°C then At = A0(l + βt)
where β is known as the coefficient of superficial expansion. Unit of β is °C-1
or K-1.
✓ Volume Expansion: The increase in volume of the solid on heating is called

volume expansion.
The change in the volume of a solid with a change in temperature Δt is given
by Δv = Vγ Δt
where y is the coefficient of volume expansion.
● For a given solid, the three coefficients of expansion α , β, γ are not constant. Their
values depend on the temperature range.
● Liquids have volume expansion only. If we do not take into account the expansion of
solid container, then the expansion of liquid is called apparent expansion. On the
other hand, if we take into account the expansion of solid too, it is referred as the
real expansion of liquid. It is found that γr = γa + γg.
where, γr= real expansion coefficient of liquid, γa = apparent expansion coefficient of
liquid and γg = volume expansion coefficient of container vessel (glass).
● Water exhibits an anomalous behaviour. It contracts on heating between 0 °C and 4

°C but expands on heating beyond 4 °C. Thus, specific volume of water is minimum at
4 °C or density of water is maximum at 4 °C. This property of water has an important
environmental effect.
28
● Thermal Stress: When a rod is held between two fixed supports and its temperature
is increased, the fixed supports do not allow the rod to expand, which results in a
stress which is called thermal stress.
● Thermal Capacity: The thermal capacity of a body is the quantity of heat required to
raise the temperature of the whole of the body through a unit degree. It is measured
in calorie per °C or joule per K.
● Specific Heat Capacity: The specific heat capacity (also referred to as specific heat)
of a substance is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit
mass of substance through 1 °C. It is measured in cal g-1(°C)-1 or J kg-1 K-1.
● Molar specific heat capacity: of a substance is defined as the amount of heat

required to raise the temperature of 1 mole of the substance by 1°C.
The unit of molar specific heat capacity is J mol-1 K-1 in SI system and Cal mol-1 °C-1
in CGS system.
The dimensional formula of molar specific heat capacity is [ML2T-2 K-1 mole-1].
● Calorimetry: Calorimetry is concerned with the measurement of heat, the basic

apparatus for this purpose being called the calorimeter.
When two bodies at different temperatures are ‘mixed’, heat ‘flows’ from the body
at a higher temperature to the one at a lower temperature, until a common
‘equilibrium’ temperature is reached. Assuming this ‘heat exchange’ to be confined
to the two bodies alone (i.e, neglecting any heat loss to the surroundings) we have,
from the law of energy conservation:
Heat gained by one body = heat lost by the other.
● Transition of matter from one state (solid, liquid and gas) to another is called a
change of state.
● The change of state from solid to liquid is called melting and from liquid to solid is
called fusion. It is observed that the temperature remains constant until the entire
amount of the solid substance melts i.e., both the solid and liquid states of the
substance co-exist in thermal equilibrium during the change of state from solid to
liquid.
● The temperature at which a solid melts is called its melting point. The value of
melting point of a solid is characteristic of the substance and depends on pressure
also.
29
● Melting of ice under increased pressure and refreezing on reducing the pressure is
called regelation.
● The change of state from liquid to vapour (or gas) is called vaporisation. The
temperature at which the liquid and vapour states of a substance co-exist is called its
boiling point.
● The change from solid state to vapour state without passing through the liquid state
is called sublimation.
● Latent Heat: Latent heat of a substance is the amount of heat energy required to
change the state of unit mass of the substance from solid to liquid or from liquid to
gas/vapour without any change in temperature.
● The latent heat of fusion (Lf) is the heat per unit mass required to change a
substance from solid into liquid at the same temperature and pressure. The latent
heat of vaporization (Lv) is the heat per unit mass required to change a substance
from liquid to vapour state without change in temperature and pressure.
● Heat Transfer: Heat can be transferred from one place to another by three different
methods, namely, conduction, convection and radiation. Conduction usually takes
place in solids, convection in liquids and gases, and no medium is required for
radiation.
✓ Conduction: According to Maxwell, conduction is the flow of heat through an
unequally heated body from places of higher temperature to those of lower
temperature. Rate of heat transfer is given by where K is called Thermal
Conductivity and A is area of cross-section.
✓ Convection: Maxwell defines convection as the flow of heat by the motion of
the hot body itself carrying its heat with it.
✓ Radiation: Radiation is the mode of heat transfer in which heat travels
directly from one place to another without the agency of any intervening
medium.
● thermal conductivity: is defined as heat energy transferred in unit time from unit
area having a unit difference in temperature over unit length. It is expressed in Js -1
m-1 °C-1 or W-1 K-1.
● Newton’s Law of Cooling: Newton’s law of cooling states that the rate of loss of heat
of a body is directly proportional to the difference in temperature of the body and
the surroundings, provided the difference in temperature is small, not more than 40
30
°C.
– ve sign implies that as time passes, temperature T decreases.
● Black Body Radiation:

✓ Emissive Power: The amount of heat energy radiated per unit area of the
surface of a body, per unit time and per unit wavelength range is constant
which is called as the ’emissive power’ (eλ) of the given surface, given
temperature and wavelength. Its S.I. unit is Js-1 m-2 .
✓ Absorptive Power : When any radiation is incident over a surface of a body, a

part of it gets reflected, a part of it gets refracted and the rest of it is
absorbed by that surface. Therefore, the ‘absorptive power’ of a surface at a
given temperature and for a given wavelength is the ratio of the heat energy
absorbed by a surface to the total energy incident on it at a certain time. It is
represented by (aλ). It has no unit as it is a ratio.
✓ Perfect Black Body: A body is said to be a perfect black body is its

absorptivity is 1. It neither reflects or transmits but absorbs all the thermal
radiations incident on it irrespective of their wavelengths.
✓ Wien's Displacement Law: This law states that as the temperature increases,
the maximum value of the radiant energy emitted by the black body, move
towards shorter wavelengths. Wein found that “The product of the peak
wavelength ( λm) and the Kelvin temperature (T) of the black body should
remain constant.” λm x T= b,
Where b is constant known as Wien's constant. Its value is 2.898 x 10-3 mk.
✓ Stefan’s Law: This law states that the thermal radiations energy emitted per
second from the surface of a black body is directly proportional to its surface
area A and to the fourth power of its absolute temperature T.
Emission coefficient or degree of blackness of a body is represented
by a dimensionless quantity ε, 0 < ε < 1. If ε = 1 then the body is perfectly
black body. Hence Let us consider an object at absolute temperature T and
To be the temperature of the surroundings. H1 = Rate of energy emitted by
the body.
✓ The Solar Constant: The average energy emitted from the surface of the sun,
absorbed per unit area, per minute by the earth is constant which is called as
solar constant which is represented by S whose value is 8.135 jm-2 min-1.
31
Chapter 12: Thermodynamics
● The branch of physics which deals with the study of transformation of heat into
other forms of energy and vice-versa is called thermodynamics.
● Thermodynamics is a macroscopic science. It deals with bulk systems and does not
go into the molecular constitution of matter.
● A collection of an extremely large number of atoms or molecules confined within

certain boundaries such that it has a certain values of pressure (P), volume (V) and
temperature (T) is called a thermodynamic system.
● Thermal Equilibrium: A thermodynamic system is in an equilibrium state if the

macroscopic variables such as pressure, volume, temperature, mass composition etc.
that characterise the system do not change in time. In thermal equilibrium, the
temperature of the two systems are equal.
● Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics: This law identifies thermal equilibrium and

introduces temperature as a tool for identifying f equilibrium. According to this law
“If two systems are in thermal equilibrium with a third system then those two
systems themselves are in equilibrium.”
● Heat, Work and Internal Energy

✓ Energy that is transferred between a system and its surroundings whenever
there is temperature difference between the system and its surroundings is
called heat.
✓ Work is said to be done if a body or a system moves through a certain
distance in the direction of the applied force. It is given as
✓ dW = PdV
✓ where P is the pressure of the gas in the cylinder.
✓ If we consider a bulk system consisting of a large number of molecules, then
internal energy of the system is the sum of the kinetic energies and potential
energies of these molecules.
✓ This energy is possessed by a system due to its molecular motion and
molecular configuration. The internal energy is denoted by U.
U = Ek + Ep
✓ where Ek and Ep represent the kinetic and potential energies of the
molecules of the system.
✓ Internal energy of a system is a macroscopic variable and it depends only on
the state of the system. Its value depends only on the given state of the
system and does not depend on the path taken to arrive that state.
32
● First Law of Thermodynamics: The first law of thermodynamics is simply the general
law of conservation of energy applied to any system. According to this law, “the total
heat energy change in any system is the sum of the internal energy change and the
work done.”
✓ When a certain quantity of heat dQ is subjected to a system, a part of it is
used in increasing the internal energy by dU and a part is used in performing
external work dW, hence
dQ = dU + dW
✓ For gases, the specific heat capacity depends on the process or the conditions
under which heat capacity transfer takes place. There are mainly two
principal specific heat capacities for a gas. These are specific heat capacity at
constant volume and specific heat capacity at constant pressure.
✓ From First Law of Thermodynamics we find a relation between two principal
specific heats of an ideal gas. According to the relation
Cp-Cυ = R
✓ Here Cp and Cυ are molar specific heats under constant pressure and
constant volume condition respectively.
✓ The specific heat capacity of a gas at constant pressure is greater than the
specific heat capacity of the gas at constant volume i.e. Cp > Cυ. Reason is
that when heat supplied to a gas at constant volume, no work would be done
by the gas against the external pressure and all the energy is used to raise the
temperature of the gas. On the other hand when the heat is supplied to the
gas at constant pressure, its volume increases and the heat energy supplied
to it is used to increase the temperature of the gas as well as in doing the
work against the external pressure.
✓ The difference, between the two specific heats is the thermal equivalent of
the work done in expanding the gas against the external pressure.
● Thermodynamic State Variables: Thermodynamic state variables of a system are the

parameters which describe equilibrium states of the system. For example,
equilibrium state of gas is completely specified by the values of pressure, volume,
temperature, mass and composition.
● Equation of State: The equation of state represents the connection between the
state variables of a system. For example, the those equation of state of an
ideal/perfect gas in represented as PV = μRT.
✓ where g is number of moles of the gas and R is gas constant for one mole of
the gas.
✓ Thermodynamic state variables are of two kinds, extensive and intensive.
Extensive variables indicate the size of the system but intensive variables do
33
not indicate the size. Volume, mass, internal energy of a system are extensive
variables but pressure, temperature and density are intensive variables.
● Thermodynamic Processes: Any process in which the thermodynamic variables of a

thermodynamic system change is known as thermodynamic process.
● Quasi-Static Processes: Processes that are sufficiently slow and do not involve
accelerated motion of piston and/or large temperature gradient are quasi-static
processes.
In this process, the change in pressure or change in volume or change in
temperature of the system is very small.
● Isothermal Process: A change in pressure and volume of a gas without any change in
its temperature, is called an isothermal change. In such a change, there is a free
exchange of heat between the gas and its surroundings.
● Adiabatic Process: A process in which no exchange of heat energy takes place

between the gas and the surroundings, is called an adiabatic process.
● P-V Diagram: A graph representing the variation of pressure with the variation of
volume is called P-V diagram. The work done by the thermodynamic system is equal
to the area under P-V diagram.
● Reversible Process: A process which can retrace so that the system passes through
the same states is called a reversible process, otherwise it is irreversible.
✓ Irreversibility arises mainly from two causes:
✓ (i) Many processes like free expansion or an explosive chemical reaction take
the system to non-equilibrium states.
✓ (ii) Most processes involve friction, viscosity and other dissipative effects.
● Second Law of Thermodynamics:

✓ This principle which disallows certain phenomena consistent with the First
law of thermodynamics is known as the second law of thermodynamics.
✓ Following are the two statements of second law of thermodynamics.
■ Kelvin-Planck Statement: It is impossible to construct an engine,
operating in a cycle, to extract heat from hot body and convert it
completely into work without leaving any change anywhere i.e., 100%
conversion of heat into work is impossible.
■ Clausius Statement: It is impossible for a self acting machine,
operating in a cycle, unaided by any external energy to transfer heat
34
from a cold body to a hot body. In other words heat cannot flow itself
from a colder body to a hotter body.
✓ A heat engine is a device by which a system is made to undergo a cyclic
process that results
✓ in conversion of heat to work. Basically, a heat engine consists of: (i) a heat
source, (ii) a heat sink, and (iii) a working substance.
● Carnot’s Engine. He proposed a hypothetical engine working on a cyclic/reversible

process operating between two temperatures. Its efficiency is independent of the
working substance and is given by, η=1-T2/T1 where T1 is the temperature of source
and T2 is the temperature of sink.
✓ According to Carnot’s theorem:
■ (a) working between two given temperatures T1 and T2 of the hot
and cold reservoirs respectively, no engine can have efficiency more
than that of Carnot’s engine.
■ (b) the efficiency of the Carnot engine is independent of the nature of
the working substance.
● Refrigerator: The process of removing heat from bodies colder than their
surroundings is called refrigeration and the device doing so is called refrigerator.
✓ In the refrigerator, heat is absorbed at low temperature and rejected at
higher temperature with the help of external mechanical work. Thus, a
refrigerator is a heat engine working backward and hence it is also called
heat pump.
✓ Refrigerator works on the reverse process of Carnot engine. By the work
done on the system, heat is extracted from low temperature sink T2 and
passed on to high temperature source T1.
35
Chapter 13: Kinetic Theory
● The kinetic theory: was developed in the nineteenth century by Maxwell,

Boltzmann and others. Kinetic theory explains the behaviour of gases based on the
idea that the gas consists of rapidly moving atoms or molecules.
● Ideal Gas: An ideal gas or a perfect gas is that gas which strictly obeys gas laws such
as Boyle’s law, Charles's law, Gay Lussac’s law etc.
✓ An ideal gas has following characteristics:
■ Molecule of an ideal gas is a point mass with no geometrical
dimensions.
■ There is no force of attraction or repulsion amongst the molecules of
the gas.
● Boyle’s Law: According to this law, the volume (V) of a fixed mass of a gas is
inversely proportional to the pressure (P) of the gas, provided temperature of the
gas is kept constant.
● Charles's Law: According to this law, the volume (V) of a given mass of a gas is
directly proportional to the temperature of the gas, provided pressure of the gas
remains constant.
● Gay Lussac’s Law (or Pressure Law): According to this law, the pressure P of a given
mass of a gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature T, provided the
volume V of the gas remains constant.
● Equation of State of an Ideal Gas: The relationship between pressure P, volume V

and absolute temperature T of a gas is called its equation of state. The equation of
state of an ideal gas
✓ PV = nRT
✓ where n is the number of moles of the enclosed gas and R is the molar gas
constant which is the same for all gases and its value is
✓ R = 8.315 JK-1 mob-1
● Avogadro's Law: Equal volumes of all gases under S.T.P. contain the same number of
molecules equalling 6.023 x 1023.
● Graham’s Law of Diffusion of Gases: It states that rate of diffusion of a gas is

inversely proportional to the square root of the density of the gas. Hence, denser the
gas, the slower is the rate of diffusion.
36
● Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures According to this law, the resultant pressure
exerted by a mixture of non-interacting gases is equal to the sum of their individual
pressures. i-e., P = P1 + P2 + ————-Pn
✓ Mean (or average) speed of molecules of a gas is defined as the arithmetic

mean of the speeds of gas molecules.
✓ Root mean square speed of gas molecules is defined as the square root of the
mean of the squares of the speeds of gas molecules.
✓ Most probable speed of gas molecules is defined as the speed which is

possessed by maximum number of molecules in a gas
● Kinetic Interpretation of Temperature: The total average kinetic energy of all the
molecules of a gas is proportional to its absolute temperature (T). Thus, the
temperature of a gas is a measure of the average kinetic energy ‘IT of the molecules
of the gas.
U = 3/2 RT
✓ According to this interpretation of temperature, the average kinetic energy U
is zero at T = 0, i.e., the motion of molecules ceases altogether at absolute
zero.
● Degrees of Freedom: The total number of independent coordinates required to

specify the position of a molecule or the number of independent modes of motion
possible with any molecule is called degree of freedom.
✓ Mono-, di-, and polyatomic (N) molecules have, 3,5 or (3 N-K) number of
degrees of freedom where K is the number of constraints [restrictions
associated with the structure].
● Law of Equipartition of Energy: For a dynamic system in thermal equilibrium, the

energy of the system is equally distributed amongst the various degrees of freedom
and the energy associated with each degree of freedom per molecule is 1/2 kT,
where k is Boltzmann constant.
37
● Mean Free Path: Mean free path of a molecule in a gas is the average distance
travelled by the molecule between two successive collisions
✓ Smaller the number of molecules per unit volume of the gas, larger is the
mean free path.
✓ Smaller the diameter, larger is the mean free path.
✓ Smaller the density, larger is the mean free path. In the case of vacuum, ρ =
0, λ —>∞
✓ Smaller the pressure of a gas, larger is the mean free path.
✓ Higher the temperature of a gas, larger is the mean free path.
38
Chapter 14: Oscillations
● Periodic Motion: Motions, processes or phenomena, which repeat themselves at

regular intervals, are called periodic.
● Oscillatory Motion: The motion of a body is said to be oscillatory motion if it moves

to and fro about a fixed point after regular intervals of time. The fixed point about
which the body oscillates is called mean position or equilibrium position.
● Simple Harmonic Motion: Simple harmonic motion is a special type of periodic

oscillatory motion in which:
✓ The particle oscillates on a straight line.
✓ The acceleration of the particle is always towards a fixed point on the line.
✓ The magnitude of acceleration is proportional to the displacement of the
particle from the equilibrium.
● Characteristics of SHM:
✓ The displacement x in SHM at time t is given by X = A sin (wt+Q).
✓ Where the three constants A, w and Q characterize the SHM, i.e., they
distinguish one SHM from another. A SHM can also be described by a cosine
function as follows: X = A cos (wt+Q).
✓ The displacement of an oscillating particle at any instant is equal to the
change in its position vector during that time. The maximum value of
displacement in an oscillatory motion on either side of its mean position is
called “displacement amplitude” or “simple amplitude”
✓ Thus, amplitude A = x (max).
● Frequency: The number of oscillations in one second is called frequency. It is

expressed in sec-1 or Hertz. Frequency and time period are independent of
amplitude.
● Phase: The quantity (wt+Q) is called the phase of SHM at time t, it describes the
state of motion at that instant. The quantity Q is the phase at time f=0 and is called
the phase constant or initial phase or epoch of the SHM. The phase constant is the
time-independent term in the cosine or sine function.
✓ The force responsible for maintaining the SHM is called restoring force.
✓ If the displacement (x) from the equilibrium position is small, the restoring
force (F) acting on the body is given by F = -kx.
✓ Where k is a force constant.
39
● Energy in SHM: When a body executes SHM, its energy changes between kinetic and
potential, but the total energy is always constant.
● Springs in Series: If two springs, having spring constant k1 and k2, are joined in series,
the spring constant of the combination is given by
● Springs in Parallel: If two springs, having spring constant k1 and k2, are joined in
parallel, the spring constant of the combination is given by
● Simple Pendulum: A simple pendulum is the most common example of bodies

executing SHM. An ideal simple pendulum consists of a heavy point mass body
suspended by a weightless in extensible and perfectly flexible string from a rigid
support about which it is free to oscillate.
✓ The time period of a simple pendulum depends on
■ length of the pendulum.
■ the acceleration due to gravity (g).
● A second’s pendulum is a pendulum whose time period is 2s. At a place where g =

9.81 ms-2, the length of a second’s pendulum is found to be 99.3 cm.
● Undamped and Damped Simple Harmonic Oscillations:

✓ Undamped Simple Harmonic oscillations: When a simple harmonic system
oscillates with a constant amplitude which does not change with time, its
oscillations are called undamped simple harmonic oscillations.
✓ Damped Simple Harmonic oscillations: When a harmonic system oscillates
with a decreasing amplitude with time, its oscillations are called damped
simple harmonic oscillations.
● A system is said to execute free oscillations, if on being displaced or disturbed from

its position of equilibrium, it oscillates itself without outside interference.
● When a system is compelled to oscillate with a frequency other than its natural
frequency, it is said to execute forced oscillations.
● Resonance is the phenomenon of setting a body into oscillations with large

amplitude under the influence of some external periodic force whose frequency is
exactly equal to the natural frequency of the given body, such oscillations are called
the “resonant oscillations”.
40
● The two or more oscillations linked to together in such a way that the exchange of
energy takes place between them are called coupled oscillators. The oscillations
produced by coupled oscillators are known as “coupled oscillations”.
Chapter 15: Waves
● Wave: Wave is a form of disturbance which travels through a material medium due
to the repeated f periodic motion of the particle of the medium about their mean
positions without any actual transportation of matter.
● Characteristics of wave:
The characteristics of waves are as follows:
✓ The particles of the medium traversed by a wave execute relatively small
vibrations about their mean positions but the particles are not permanently
displaced in the direction of propagation of the wave.
✓ Each successive particle of the medium executes a motion quite similar to its
predecessors along/perpendicular to the line of travel of the wave.
✓ During wave motion only transfer of energy takes place but not that of a
portion of the medium.
● Waves are mainly of three types:

✓ Mechanical or Elastic waves.
Mechanical waves can be produced or propagated only in a material
medium. These waves are governed by Newton’s laws of motion. For
example, waves on water surface, waves on strings, sound waves etc.
✓ Electromagnetic waves
These are the waves which require no material medium. Common examples
of electromagnetic waves are visible light, ultraviolet light, radio waves,
microwaves etc.
✓ Matter waves
These waves are associated with moving particles of matter, like electrons,
protons, neutrons etc.
■ Transverse wave motion,
■ Longitudinal wave motion.
✓ Transverse wave motion: In transverse waves the particles of the medium at

right angles to the direction in which the wave propagates. Waves on strings,
surface water waves and electromagnetic waves are transverse waves, In
41
electromagnetic waves (which include light waves) the disturbance that

travels is not a result of vibrations of particles but it is the oscillations of
electric and magnetic fields which takes place at right angles to the directions
in which the wave travels.
✓ Longitudinal wave motion: In these types of waves, particles of the medium

vibrate to and fro about their mean position along the direction of
propagation of energy. These are also called pressure waves. Sound waves
are longitudinal mechanical waves.
● Wavelength: The distance travelled by the disturbance during the time of one
vibration by a medium particle is called the wavelength. In case of a transverse wave
the wavelength is equal to distance from centre of one compression to another.
● Wave Velocity: Wave velocity is the time rate of propagation of wave motion in the
given medium. It is different from particle velocity. Wave velocity depends upon the
nature of medium.
Wave velocity (u) = frequency (v) x wavelength (lambda)
● Amplitude: The amplitude of a wave is the maximum displacement of the particles

of the medium from their mean position.
● Frequency: The number of vibrations made by a particle in one second is called

frequency. It is represented by v. Its unit is hertz (Hz) v = 1/T.
● Time period: The time taken by a particle to complete one vibration is called time
period.
T = 1/v, it is expressed in seconds.
● Factors Influencing Velocity of Sound: The velocity of sound in any gaseous medium
is affected by a large number of factors like density, pressure, temperature,
humidity, wind velocity etc.
✓ The velocity of sound in a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of
density of the gas.
✓ The velocity of sound is independent of the change in pressure of the gas,
provided temperature remains constant.
✓ The velocity of sound in a gas is directly proportional to the square root of its
absolute temperature.
✓ The velocity of sound in moist air is greater than the velocity of sound in dry
air.
42
✓ If wind flows at an angle Q to the direction of propagation of sound, the

velocity of sound is v + w cos Q, where w is the velocity of wind.
● General Equation of Progressive Waves: A progressive wave is one which travels in a

given direction with constant amplitude, i.e., without attenuation.
A in wave motion, the displacement is a function of space as well as time, hence
displacement relation is expressed as a combined function of position and time as:
y(x,t) = A sin (kx - wt+Q)
We may also choose a cosine function instead of sine function. Here A, K, w and Q
are four constant for a given wave and are known as amplitude, angular
wavenumber, angular frequency and initial phase angle of given wave.
● Relation between phase and path difference: A wave motion can be reflected from
a rigid as well as from a free boundary. A travelling wave, at a rigid boundary or a
closed end, is reflected with a phase reversal but the reflection at an open boundary
takes place without any phase change.
● The principle of superposition of wave: When any number of waves meet

simultaneously at a point in a medium, the net displacement at a given time is the
algebraic sum of the displacements due to each wave at that time.
● Standing waves or Stationary waves: When two sets of progressive wave trains of
the same type (i.e., both longitudinal or both transverse) having the same amplitude
and time period/frequency/ wavelength travelling with same speed along the same
straight line in opposite directions superimpose, a new set of waves are formed.
These are called stationary waves or standing waves.
● Progressive Waves: The disturbance progresses onwards, it being handed over from
particle to particle. Each particle executes the same type of vibration as the
preceding once, though at a different time.
The waves are in the form of crests and troughs, i.e., sine/cosine functions, which
move onwards with a definite velocity.
Every particle has the same amplitude, which it attains in its own time depending
upon the progress of the wave.

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1

|11th Grade|Physics|Revision Sheet|

Chapter 1: Physical World

● Science: Science is a systematic and organised attempt to acquire knowledge about

● Physics: Physics is a fundamental science concerned with understanding the natural

● Physics in Relation to Other Sciences: Physics is a very significant branch of science

● Physics in relation to Mathematics: Study of physical variables led to the idea of

|11th Grade|Physics|Revision Sheet|

● Physics in relation to Chemistry: The concept of X-ray diffraction and radioactivity

● Physics in relation to Astronomy: Optical telescopes of reflecting and refracting type

● Physics in relation to Biology: The conceptual study of pressure and its

● Physics in relation to Meteorology: The discoveries regarding the study of pressure

● Physics in Relation to Technology and Society: Advancement in physics has led to

● Conservation of energy, momentum, angular momentum, charge, etc., are

|11th Grade|Physics|Revision Sheet|

Chapter 2: Unit and Measurements

● Measurement: The process of measurement is basically a comparison process. To

● Standard: The actual physical embodiment of the unit of a physical quantity is

● Fundamental Physical Quantity/Units: It is an elementary physical quantity, which

|11th Grade|Physics|Revision Sheet|

|11th Grade|Physics|Revision Sheet|

✓ To estimate size of atoms we can use electron microscope and tunneling

● Dimensional Formula: The dimensional formula of a physical quantity is an

|11th Grade|Physics|Revision Sheet|

● Applications of Dimensions: The concept of dimensions and dimensional formulae

● Limitations of Dimensional Analysis: The method of dimensions has the following

● Significant Figures: The significant figures are a measure of accuracy of a particular

● The Rules for Determining the Number of Significant Figures:

|11th Grade|Physics|Revision Sheet|

● Causes of Errors in Measurement: Following are the causes of errors in

|11th Grade|Physics|Revision Sheet|

Chapter 3: Motion in a Straight Line

● Introduction: Motion is one of the significant topics in physics.

● Reference Systems: The motion of a particle is always described with respect to a

● Types of Motion: In order to completely describe the motion of an object, we need

|11th Grade|Physics|Revision Sheet|

● Displacement: Displacement of a particle in a given time is defined as the change in

● Factors Distinguishing Displacement from Distance

● Uniform Speed and Uniform Velocity:

● Variable Speed and Variable Velocity:

● Instantaneous Speed and Instantaneous Velocity:

● Acceleration: The rate at which velocity changes is called acceleration.

● Uniform Acceleration: If an object undergoes equal changes in velocity in equal time

● Average and Instantaneous Acceleration: Average Accelerating. It is the change in

|11th Grade|Physics|Revision Sheet|

● Instantaneous Acceleration: It is defined as the limit of the average acceleration as

● Kinematics Graphs: The ‘displacement-time’ and the ‘velocity-time’ graphs of a

● The following general results are always valid:

● Equations of Motion for Uniformly Accelerated Motion: For uniformly accelerated

● Relative Velocity: Relative velocity of an object A with respect to another object B is

|11th Grade|Physics|Revision Sheet|

Chapter 4: Motion in a Plane

● Motion: in a plane is called as motion in two dimensions e.g., projectile motion,

● Scalar and Vector Quantities:

● Characteristics of Vectors: Following are the characteristics of vectors:

● Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition: If two vectors, acting simultaneously at a

|11th Grade|Physics|Revision Sheet|

resultant of these vectors is represented both in magnitude and direction by the

● Polygon Law of Vector Addition: If a number of vectors are represented both in

● Resolution of Vectors: It is a process of splitting a single vector into two or more

● Angular Displacement: Angular displacement of the object moving around a circular

● Angular Velocity: Angular velocity of an object in circular motion is defined as the

● Angular Acceleration: Angular acceleration of an object in circular motion is defined

|11th Grade|Physics|Revision Sheet|