Group C(Transformers)

Q1. In a 25KVA, 2000/200V single phase transformer, the iron and copper losses on full load
are 350W and 400 W resp. Calculate the efficiency of the transformer at unity power
factor on a) Full load and b) Half load
Q2. A 25 KVA transformer is connected to a supply of 3000V,50 Hz. There are 800 turns on
the primary winding and 60 turns on secondary winding. Calculate (a) Secondary
terminal voltage, (b) The primary and secondary full load current, and (c) the maximum
flux in the core. State any assumptions made.
Q3. A three phase transformer Has 560 turns on primary and 42 turns on secondary. The
primary windings are connected to a line voltage of 6600 volt. Calculate the secondary
line voltage when the transformer is connected as
i) Star – Delta ii) Delta –Star
Q4. A lighting transformer rated at 10 KVA has a full load loss of 0.3 KW, which is made up
equally from iron loss and copper loss. The duty cycle consists of full load for 3hrs, half
load for4 hrs and no load for remainder of 24 hrs period . If the load operates at unity
power factor, calculate the all day efficiency of the transformer.
Group C (Transformers)
Q1. Why transformers are required in electrical installations? How are transformers rated?
What are the losses in a transformer? What do you understand by “All day efficiency of a
transformer?
Q2. With the help of circuit diagram describe ‘Open Circuit Test’ and ‘Short Circuit Test’
carried out on a transformer. Explain the results obtained.
Q3. a) What is meant by step up and up down action of Transformers?
b) What are core characteristics? What is the significance of their characteristics?
c) How are transformers rated?
d) What are the various losses in transformers?
Q4. a) Explain in details what happens when primary windings of transformer applied with an
a,c. voltage with secondary winding of transformer open circuited.
b) What is all day efficiency of transformer? What is difference between ordinary
efficiency and all day efficiency of transformer?

+
Working Principle of a Transformer
The basic principle on which the transformer works is Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction or
mutual induction between the two coils. The working of the transformer is explained below. The
transformer consists of two separate windings placed over the laminated silicon steel core.

The winding to which AC supply is connected is called primary winding and to which load is connected
is called secondary winding as shown in the figure below. It works on the alternating current only because
+an alternating flux is required for mutual induction between the two windings.

When the AC supply is given to the primary winding with a voltage of V , an alternating flux ϕ
1

sets up in the core of the transformer, which links with the secondary winding and as a result of
it, an emf is induced in it called Mutually Induced emf. The direction of this induced emf is
opposite to the applied voltage V , this is because of the Lenz’s law shown in the figure below
1

Physically, there is no electrical connection between the two windings, but they are magnetically
connected. Therefore, the electrical power is transferred from the primary circuit to the
secondary circuit through mutual inductance. The induced emf in the primary and secondary
windings depends upon the rate of change of flux linkage that is (N dϕ/dt). dϕ/dt is the change of
flux and is same for both the primary and secondary windings. The induced emf E in the primary
1

winding is proportional to the number of turns N of the primary windings (E ∞ N ). Similarly

1 1 1

induced emf in the secondary winding is proportional to the number of turns on the secondary
side. (E ∞ N ).
2 2

Transformer on DC supply
As discussed above, the transformer works on AC supply, and it cannot work not DC supply. If
the rated DC voltage is applied across the primary winding, a constant magnitude flux will set up
in the core of the transformer and hence there will not be any self-induced emf generation, as for
the linkage of flux with the secondary winding there must be an alternating flux required and not
a constant flux.
According to Ohm’s Law

The resistance of the primary winding is very low, and the primary current is high. So this
current is much higher than the rated full load primary winding current. Hence, as a result, the
amount of heat produced will be greater and therefore, eddy current loss (I R) loss will be more.
2

Because of this, the insulations of the primary windings will get burnt, and the transformer will
be +damaged.

Turn Ratio

It is defined as the ratio of primary to secondary turns.

If N > N the transformer is called Step up transformer

2 1

If N < N the transformer is called Step down transformer

2 1

Transformation Ratio

The transformation ratio is defined as the ratio of the secondary voltage to the primary voltage. It
is denoted by K.

As (E ∞ N and E ∞ N )
2 2 1 1

Electrical Transformer
Definition: The transformer is the static device which works on the principle of electromagnetic
induction. It is used for transferring the electrical power from one circuit to another without any
variation in their frequency. In electromagnetic induction, the transfer of energy from one circuit
to another takes places by the help of the mutual induction. i.e the flux induced in the primary
winding is linked with the secondary winding.

Construction of an Electrical Transformer

The primary winding, secondary winding and the magnetic core are the three important of the
transformer. These coils are insulated from each other. The main flux is induced in the primary
winding of the transformer. This flux passes through the low reluctance path of the magnetic core
and linked with the secondary winding of the transformer.
 Transformer Working

Consider the T and T are the numbers of the turn on the primary and the secondary winding of
1 2

the transformer shown in the figure above. The voltage is applied to the primary winding of the
transformer because of which the current is induced in it. The current causes the magnetic flux
which is represented by the dotted line in the above figure.

The flux induces in the primary winding because of self-induction. This flux is linked with the
secondary winding because of mutual induction. Thus, the emf is induced in the secondary
winding of the transformer. The power is transferred from the primary winding to the secondary
winding. The frequency of the transferred energy also remains same.

EMF Equation of an Electrical Transformer

The emf induced in each winding of the transformer can be calculated from its emf equation.

The linking of the flux is represented by the faraday law of electrmagentic induction. It is
expressed as,
The above equation may be written as, where E = 4.44ωΦ = maximum value of e. For a sine
m m

wave, the r.m.s value of e.m.f is given by

The emf induced in their primary and secondary winding is expressed as,

The secondary RMS voltage is

Where φ is the maximum value of flux in Weber (Wb), f is the frequency in hertz (Hz) and
m

E and E in volts.
1 2

If, B = maximum flux density in the magnetic circuit in Tesla (T)

m

A = area of cross-section of the core in square meter (m )

2

The winding which has the higher number of voltage has high voltage while the primary winding
has low voltage.

Voltage Ratio and Turns Ratio

The ratio of E/T is called volts per turn. The primary and secondary volts per turns is given by

the formula

The equation (1) and (2) shows that the voltage per turn in both the winding is same, i.e.
The ratio T /T is called the turn ratio. The turn ratio is expressed
1 2

as

The ratio of primary to secondary turn which equals to primary to secondary induced
voltage indicates how much the primary voltage lowered or raised. The turn ratio or induced
voltage ratio is called the transformation ratio, and it is denoted by the symbol a. Thus,

The any desired voltage ratio can be obtained by shifting the number of turns.
 Ideal Transformer
Definition: The transformer which is free from all types of losses is known as an ideal
transformer. It is an imaginary transformer which has no core loss, no ohmic resistance and no
leakage flux. The ideal transformer has the following important characteristic.

1. The resistance of their primary and secondary winding becomes zero.

2. The core of the ideal transformer has infinite permeability. The infinite permeable means
less magnetising current requires for magnetising their core.

3. The leakage flux of the transformer becomes zero, i.e. the whole of the flux induces in
the core of the transformer links with their primary and secondary winding.

4. The ideal transformer has 100 percent efficiency, i.e., the transformer is free from
hysteresis and eddy current loss.

The above mention properties are not possible in the practical transformer. In an ideal
transformer, there is no power loss. Therefore, the output power is equal to the input
power.

Since E ∞ N and E ∞ N , also E is similar to V and E is similar to V

l 2 1 1 1 1 2 2

Therefore, transformation ratio will be given by the equation shown below

The primary and the secondary currents are inversely proportional to their respective turns.

Behavior of Ideal Transformer

Consider the ideal transformer shown in the figure below. The voltage source V is applied across
1

the primary winding of the transformer. Their secondary winding is kept open. The N and N are
1 2

the numbers of turns of their primary and secondary winding.

The current I is the magnetizing current flows through the primary winding of the transformer.
m

The magnetizing current produces the flux φ in the core of the transformer. As the permeability
m

of the core is infinite the flux of the core link with both the primary and secondary winding of
the transformer.

The flux link with the primary winding induces the emf E because of self-induction. The
1

direction of the induces emf is inversely proportional to the applied voltage V . The emf
1

E induces in the secondary winding of the transformer because of mutual induction.

2

Phasor Diagram of Ideal Transformer

The phasor diagram of the ideal transformer is shown in the figure below. As the coil of the
primary transformer is purely inductive the magnetising current induces in the transformer lag
90º by the input voltage V . The E and E are the emf induced in the primary and secondary
1 1 2

winding of the transformer. The direction of the induces emf inversely proportional to the applied
voltage

Point to Remember

The input energy of the transformer is equal to their output energy. The power loss in the ideal
transformer becomes zero.

Transformer ON Load Condition

When the transformer is on loaded condition, the secondary of the transformer is connected to
load. The load can be resistive, inductive or capacitive. The current I flows through the
2

secondary winding of the transformer. The magnitude of the secondary current depends on the
terminal voltage V and the load impedance. The phase angle between the secondary current and
2

voltage depends on the nature of the load.

Operation of the Transformer on Load Condition

The Operation of the Transformer on Load Condition is explained below
 When secondary of the transformer is kept open, it draws the no-load current from the
main supply. The no-load current induces the magnetomotive force N I and this force set up the
0 0

flux Φ in the core of the transformer. The circuit of the transformer at no load condition is shown
in the figure below.

o When the load is connected to the secondary of the transformer, the I current 2

flows through their secondary winding. The secondary current induces the magnetomotive force
N I on the secondary winding of the transformer. This force set up the flux φ in the transformer
2 2 2

core. The flux φ oppose the flux φ, according to Lenz’s law

2

 As the flux φ opposes the flux φ, the resultant flux of the transformer
2

decreases and this flux reduces the induces EMF E . Thus, the strength of the V is more than
1 1

E and an additional primary current I’ drawn from the main supply. The additional current is
1 1

used for restoring the original value of the flux in the core of the transformer so that the V = E . 1 1

The primary current I’ is in phase opposition with the secondary current I . Thus, it is called the
1 2

primary counter balancing current.

 The additional current I’ induces the magnetomotive force N I’ . And this

1 1 1

force set up the flux φ’ . The direction of the flux is same as that of the φ and it cancels the flux
1

φ which induces because of the MMF N I

2 2 2

Now, N I ’ = N I
1 1 2 2

Therefore,

 The phasor difference between V and I gives the power factor angle ϕ of the primary
1 1 1

side of the transformer.

 The power factor of the secondary side depends upon the type of load connected to the
transformer.
 If the load is inductive as shown in the above phasor diagram, the power factor will be
lagging, and if the load is capacitive, the power factor will be leading.The total primary current
I is the vector sum of the current I and I ’. i.e
1 0 1

Step-up & Step-down Transformers

Step-up Transformer
A transformer in which the output (secondary) voltage is greater than its input (primary) voltage
is called a step-up transformer. The step-up transformer decreases the output current for keeping
the input and output power of the system equal.

Considered a step-up transformer shown in the figure below. The E and E are the voltages, and
1 2

T and T are the number of turns on the primary and secondary winding of the transformer.
1 2

The number of turns on the secondary of the transformer is greater than that of the primary, i.e.,
T > T .Thus the voltage turn ratio of the step-up transformer is 1:2. The primary winding of the
2 1

step-up transformer is made up of thick insulated copper wire because the low magnitude current
flows through it.

Applications – Step-up transformer is used in transmission lines for transforming the high
voltage produced by the alternator.The power loss of the transmission line is directly
proportional to the square of the current flows through it.

Power = I R 2

The output current of the step-up transformer is less, and hence it is used for reducing the power
loss. The step-up transformer is also used for starting the electrical motor, in the microwave
oven, X-rays machines, etc.

Step-down Transformer
 A transformer in which the output (secondary) voltage is less than its input (primary) voltage is
called a step-down transformer. The number of turns on the primary of the transformer is greater
than the turn on the secondary of the transformer, i.e., T < T . The step-down transformer is
2 1

shown in the figure below.

The voltage turn ratio of the step-down transformer is 2:1. The voltage turn ratio determines the
magnitude of voltage transforms from primary to secondary windings of the transformer.

Step-down transformer is made up of two or more coil wound on the iron core of the transformer.
It works on the principle of magnetic induction between the coils. The voltage applied to the
primary of the coil magnetise the iron core which induces the secondary windings of the
transformer. Thus the voltage transforms from primary to the secondary winding of the
transformer.

Applications – It is used for electrical isolation, in a power distribution network, for controlling
the home appliances, in a doorbell, etc.

Difference between Step-up and Step-down

transformer
A transformer is a static device which transfers a.c electrical power from one circuit to the other at the same frequency, but the
voltage level is usually changed. For economical reasons, electric power is required to be transmitted at high voltage whereas it has
to be utilized at low voltage from a safety point of view. This increase in voltage for transmission and decrease in voltage for
utilization can only be achieved by using a step-up and step-down transformer.

The major difference between step-up and step-down transformer is, step-up transformer raises the output voltage, whereas step-
down transformer reduces the output voltage. Some other differences are explained below, in the form of a comparison chart,
considering the factors: voltage, winding, the number of turns, thickness of conductor and application.

Content: Step-up Vs Step-down transformer

1. Comparison Chart

2. Definition

3. Key Differences

4. Point to Remember

Comparison Chart
BASIS FOR STEP-UP STEP-DOWN
COMPARISON TRANSFORMER TRANSFORMER

Definition Step-up transformer Step-down transformer

increase the output reduces the output voltage.
voltage.

Voltage Input voltage is low while Input voltage is high while

the output voltage is high. the output voltage is low.

Winding High voltage winding is the High voltage winding is the

secondary winding. primary winding.

Current Current is low on the Current is high on the

secondary winding. secondary winding.

Rating of output 11000 volts or above 110v ,24v, 20v, 10v, etc.
voltage

Size of the Primary winding is made Secondary winding is made

conductor up of thick insulated up of thick insulated copper
copper wire. wire

Application Power plant, X-rays Doorbell, voltage converter,

machine, microwaves, etc. etc.

Definition of Step-up transformer:

When the voltage is raised on the output side, the transformer is called the step-up transformer. In this transformer, the number of
turns in the secondary winding is always greater than the turns in the primary winding because a high voltage is developed on the
secondary side of a transformer.

In countries like India, usually, power is generated at 11kv. For economical reasons, a.c.power is transmitted at very high voltages
(220v-440v) over long distances. Therefore a step-up transformer is applied at the generating station.
Definition of Step-down transformer:
A step-down transformer reduces the output voltages or in other words, it converts high voltage, low current power into a low
voltage, high current power. For example, our power circuit carries 230-110v, but the doorbell requires only 16v. So, a step-down
transformer should be used to reduce the voltage from 110v or 220v to 16v.

For feeding different areas, voltages are stepped down to 440v/230v for safety reasons.Thus, the number of turns on secondary
winding is less than the primary winding so; less voltage is induced at the output (secondary) end of the transformer.

Key Differences between Step-up transformer and Step-down transformer

 When the output (secondary) voltage is greater than its input (primary) voltage, it is called a step-up transformer,
whereas, in step-down transformer output (secondary) voltage is less.

 In a step-up transformer, the low voltage winding is the primary winding, and high voltage winding is the secondary
winding, whereas, in step-down transformer, low voltage winding is the secondary winding.

 In a step-up transformer, the current and magnetic field is less developed in the secondary winding, and it is highly
developed in the primary winding, whereas, in Step-down transformer, voltage is low on secondary end Thus, the current and
magnetic field is high.

o Note1: The current is directly proportional to the magnetic field.

o Note2: According to Ohm’s laws, voltage is directly proportional to the current.If we increase the voltages than
current will also increase.But in transformer for transferring the same amount of power, If we increase the voltage the current will
decrease and vice versa. So the power remains the same in the sending and receiving ends of a transformer.

 In a step-up transformer, the primary winding is made up of thick insulated copper wire, and the secondary is made up of
thin insulated copper wire, whereas, in step-down transformer the output current is high so, the thick insulated copper wire is used
for making secondary winding.

o Note: Thickness of wire depends upon the capacity of current flow through them.

 Step-up transformer extends the voltages from 220v-11kv or above, whereas, step-down transformer reduces the
voltages from 440-220v,220-110v or 110-24v,20v,10vetc.

Point to Remember:
The Same transformer can be used as a step-up or a step-down transformer. It depends upon the ways in which it is connected in
the circuit. If input supply is given on the low voltage winding, then it becomes a step-up transformer. Alternately, if the input
supply is provided on the high voltage winding, the transformer becomes a step-down one.

Current Transformer (CT)

Definition: A current transformer is a device that is used for the transformation of current from a
higher value into a proportionate current to a lower value. It transforms the high voltage current
into the low voltage current due to which the heavy current flows through the transmission
lines is safely monitored by the ammeter.

The current transformer is used with the AC instrument, meters or control apparatus where the
current to be measured is of such magnitude that the meter or instrument coil cannot
conveniently be made of sufficient current carrying capacity. The current transformer is shown in
the figure below.
 The primary and secondary current of the current
transformers are proportional to each other. The current transformer is used for measuring the
high voltage current because of the difficulty of inadequate insulation in the meter itself. The
current transformer is used in meters for measuring the current up to 100 amperes.

Construction of Current Transformers

The core of the current transformer is built up with lamination of silicon steel. For getting a high
degree of accuracy the Permalloy or Mumetal is used for the making cores. The primary
windings of the current transformers carry the current which is to be measured, and it is
connected to the main circuit. The secondary windings of the transformer carry the current
proportional to the current to be measured, and it is connected to the current windings of the
meters or the instruments.

The primary and the secondary windings are insulated from the cores and each other. The
primary winding is a single turn winding (also called a bar primary) and carries the full load
current. The secondary winding of the transformers has a large number of turns.
 The ratio of the primary current
and the secondary current is known as acurrent transformer ratio of the circuit. The current
ratio of the transformer is usually high. The secondary current ratings are of the order of 5A, 1A
and 0.1A. The current primary ratings vary from 10A to 3000A or more. The symbolic
representation of the current transformer is shown in the figure below.

The working principle of the current transformer is slightly different

from the power transformer. In a current transformer, the load’s impedance or burden on the
secondary has slightly differed from the power transformers. Thus, the current transformer
operates on secondary circuit conditions.

Burden on a Load

The burden of a current transformer is the value of the load connected across the secondary
transformer. It is expressed as the output in volt-amperes (VA). The rated burden is the value of
the burden on the nameplate of the CT. The rated burden is the product of the voltage and current
on the secondary when the CT supplies the instrument or relay with its maximum rated value of
current.

Effect of Open Secondary Windings of a CT

Under normal operating conditions the secondary winding of a CT is connected to its burden,
and it is always closed. When the current flows through the primary windings, it always flows
through secondary windings and amperes turns of each winding are subsequently equal and
opposite.

The secondary turns will be 1% and 2% less than the primary turns and the difference being used
in the magnetising core. Thus, if the secondary winding is opened and the current flows through
the primary windings, then there will be no demagnetizing flux due to the secondary current.

Due to the absence of the counter ampere turns of the secondary, the unopposed primary MMF
will set up an abnormally high flux in the core. This flux will produce core loss with subsequent
heating, and a high voltage will be induced across the secondary terminal.

This voltage caused the breakdown of the insulation and also the loss of accuracy in the future
may occur because the excessive MMF leaves the residual magnetism in the core. Thus, the
secondary of the CT may never be open when the primary is carrying the current.

Phasor Diagram of Current Transformer

The phasor diagram of the current transformer is shown in the figure below. The main flux is
taken as a reference. The primary and secondary induced voltages are lagging behind the main
flux by 90º. The magnitude of the primary and secondary voltages depends on the number of
turns on the windings. The excitation current induces by the components of magnetising and
working current.

where, I – secondary current

s

E – secondary induced voltage

s

I -primary current
p
E – primary induced voltage
p

K – turn ratio, number of secondary turn/number of primary turn

t

I – excitation current
0

I – magnetising current
m

I – working component
w

Φ – main flux
s

The secondary current lags behinds the secondary induced voltage by an angle θº. The secondary
current relocates to the primary side by reversing the secondary current and multiply by the turn
ratio. The current flows through the primary is the sum of the exciting current I and the product
0

of the turn ratio and secondary current K I t s.

Ratio and Phase Angle Errors of CT

The current transformer has two errors – ratio error and a phase angle error.

Current Ratio Errors – The current transformer is mainly due to the energy component of
excitation current and is given as

Where I is the primary current. K is the turn ratio and is the

p t

secondary current.

Phase Angle Error – In an ideal current transformer the vector angle between the primary and
reversed secondary current is zero. But in an actual current transformer, there is a phase
difference between the primary and the secondary current because the primary current has also
supplied the component of exciting current. Thus, the difference between the two phases is
termed as a phase angle error.

Types of current Transformer

The current transformer is mainly classified into three types, i.e., wound current transformer,
toroidal current transformer and bar-type transformers.

1. Wound Transformer – In this transformer the primary winding is composed inside the
transformer. The primary winding had a single turn and connected in series with the conductor
that measured the current. The wound transformer is mainly used for measuring the current from
1amps to 100 amps.
 2. Bar-type Current Transformer – The
bar type transformer has only secondary windings. The conductor on which the transformer is
mounted will act as primary windings of the current transformers.

3.Toroidal Current Transformer – This transformer does not contain primary windings. The
line through which the current flow in the network is attached through a hole or a window of the
transformers. The major advantage of this transformer is that the transformer has a symmetrical
shape due to which it has a low leakage flux, thus less electromagnetic interference.

Potential Transformer (PT)

Definition – The potential transformer may be defined as an instrument transformer used for the
transformation of voltage from a higher value to the lower value. This transformer step down the
voltage to a safe limit value which can be easily measured by the ordinary low voltage
instrument like a voltmeter, wattmeter and watt-hour meters, etc.

Construction of Potential Transformer

The potential transformer is made with high-quality core operating at low flux density so that the
magnetising current is small. The terminal of the transformer should be designed so that the
variation of the voltage ratio with load is minimum and the phase shift between the input and
output voltage is also minimum.
The primary winding has a large number of turns, and the secondary winding has a much small
number of turns. For reducing the leakage reactance, the co-axial winding is used in the potential
transformer. The insulation cost is also reduced by dividing the primary winding into the sections
which reduced the insulation between the layers.

Connection of Potential Transformer

The potential transformer is connected in parallel with the circuit. The primary windings of the
potential transformer are directly connected to the power circuit whose voltage is to be
measured. The secondary terminals of the potential transformer are connected to the measuring
instrument like the voltmeter, wattmeter, etc.The secondary windings of the potential transformer
are magnetically coupled through the magnetic circuit of the primary windings.

The primary terminal of the transformer is

rated for 400V to several thousand volts, and the secondary terminal is always rated for 400V.
The ratio of the primary voltage to the secondary voltage is termed as transformation ratio or turn
ratio.

Types of Potential Transformer

The potential transformer is mainly classified into two types, i.e., the conventional wound types
(electromagnetic types) and the capacitor voltage potential transformers.

Conventional wound type transformer is very expensive because of the requirement of the
insulations.Capacitor potential transformer is a combination of capacitor potential divider and a
magnetic potential transformer of relatively small ratio.

The circuit diagram of the capacitor potential transformer is shown in the figure below. The stack
of high voltage capacitor from the potential divider, the capacitors of two sections become C and
1

C , and the Z is the burden.

2
The voltage applied to the primary of the intermediate transformer is usually of the order 10kV.
Both the potential divider and the intermediate transformer have the ratio and insulation
requirement which are suitable for economical construction.

The intermediate transformer must be of very small ratio error, and phase angle gives the
satisfactory performance of the complete unit. The secondary terminal voltage is given by the
formula shown below.

Ratio and Phase Angle Errors of Potential Transformer

In an ideal potential transformer, the primary and the secondary voltage is exactly proportional to
the primary voltage and exactly in phase opposition. But this cannot be achieved practically due
to the primary and secondary voltage drops. Thus, both the primary and secondary voltage is
introduced in the system.

Voltage Ratio Error – The voltage ratio error is expressed in regarding measured voltage, and it
is given by the formula as shown below.
Where K is the nominal ratio, i.e., the ratio of the rated primary voltage and the rated secondary
n

voltage.

Phase Angle Error – The phase angle error is the error between the secondary terminal voltage
which is exactly in phase opposition with the primary terminal voltage.

The increases in the number of instruments in the relay connected to the secondary of the
potential transformer will increase the errors in the potential transformers.

Burden of a Potential Transformer

The burden is the total external volt-amp load on the secondary at rated secondary voltage. The
rated burden of a PT is a VA burden which must not be exceeded if the transformer is to operate
with its rated accuracy.The rated burden is indicated on the nameplate.

The limiting or maximum burden is the greatest VA load at which the potential transformer will
operate continuously without overheating its windings beyond the permissible limits. This
burden is several times greater than the rated burden.

Phasor Diagram of a Potential Transformer

The phasor diagram of the potential transformer is shown in the figure below.
 Where, I – secondary current
s

E – secondary induced emf

s

V – secondary terminal voltage

s

R – secondary winding resistance

s

X – secondary winding reactance

s

I – Primary current
p

E – primarily induced emf

p

V – primary terminal voltage

p

R – primary winding resistance

p

X – primary winding reactance

p

K – turn ratio
t

I – excitation current
o

I – magnetising component of I
m o

I – core loss component of I

w o

Φ – main flux
m

Β- phase angle error

The main flux is taken as a reference. In instrument transformer, the primary current is the vector
sum of the excitation current I and the current equal to the reversal secondary current
o

I multiplied by the ratio of 1/k . The V is the voltage applied to the primary terminal of the
s t p

potential transformer.

The voltage drops due to resistance and reactance of primary winding due to primary current is
given by I X and I R . When the voltage drop subtracts from the primary voltage of the potential
p p p p

transformer, the primarily induced emf will appear across the terminals.

This primary emf of the transformer will transform into secondary winding by mutual induction
and converted into secondary induced emf E . This emf will drop by the secondary winding
s

resistance and reactance, and the resultant voltage will appear across the secondary terminal
voltage, and it is denoted by V s.

Applications of Potential Transformer

1. It is used for a metering purpose.

2. For the protection of the feeders.

3. For protecting the impedance of the generators.

4. For synchronising the generators and feeders.

The potential transformers are used in the protecting relaying scheme because the potential coils
of the protective device are not directly connected to the system in case of the high voltage.
Therefore, it is necessary to step down the voltage and also to insulate the protective equipment
from the primary circuit.
 Transformer Efficiency
The Efficiency of the transformer is defined as the ratio of useful power output to the input
power. The input and the output power are measured in the same unit. Its unit is either in Watts
(W) or KW. Transformer efficiency is denoted by Ƞ.

Where,

 V – Secondary terminal voltage

2

 I – Full load secondary current

2

 Cosϕ – power factor of the load

2

 P – Iron losses = hysteresis losses + eddy current losses

i

 Pc – Full load copper losses = I Res 2

2

Consider, the x is the fraction of the full load. The efficiency of the transformer regarding x is
expressed as

The copper losses vary according to the fraction of the load.

Maximum Efficiency Condition of a Transformer

The efficiency of the transformer along with the load and the power factor is expressed by the
given relation.

The value of the terminal voltage V is approximately constant. Thus, for a given power factor the
2

Transformer efficiency depends upon the load current I . In the equation (1) shown above the
2

numerator is constant and the transformer efficiency will be maximum if the denominator with
respect to the variable I is equated to zero.
2

i.e Copper losses = Iron losses

Thus, the transformer will give the maximum efficiency when their copper loss is equal to the
iron loss.

From equation (2) the value of output current I at which the transformer efficiency will be
2

maximum is given as

If x is the fraction of full load KVA at which the efficiency of the transformer is maximum

Then, copper losses = x P (where P is the full load copper losses)

2
c c

Iron losses = Pi

For maximum efficiency x P = P 2

c i
Therefore, Output KVA corresponding to maximum efficiency

Putting the value of x from the above equation (3) in equation (4) we will get

The above equation (5) is the maximum efficiency condition of a transformer.

All Day Efficiency of a Transformer

Definition: All day efficiency means the power consumed by the transformer throughout the
day. It is defined as the ratio of output power to the input power in kWh or wh of the transformer
over 24 hours. Mathematically, it is represented as

All day efficiency of the transformer depends on their load cycle. The load cycle of the
transformer means the repetitions of load on it for a specific period.

The ordinary or commercial efficiency of a transformer define as the ratio of the output power to
the input power.
What is the need of All Day Efficiency?

Some transformer efficiency cannot be judged by simple commercial efficiency as the load on
certain transformer fluctuate throughout the day. For example, the distribution transformers are
energised for 24 hours, but they deliver very light loads for the major portion of the day, and they
do not supply rated or full load, and most of the time the distribution transformer has 50 to 75%
load on it.

As we know, there are various losses in the transformer such as iron and copper loss. The iron
loss takes place in the core of the transformer. Thus, the iron or core loss occurs for the whole
day in the distribution transformer.The second type of loss known as copper loss takes place in
the windings of the transformer also known as the variable loss. It occurs only when the
transformers are in the loaded condition.

Hence, the performance of such transformers cannot be judged by the commercial or ordinary
efficiency, but the efficiency is calculated or judged by All Day Efficiency also known as
operational efficiency or energy efficiency which is computed by energy consumed during 24
hours.

Voltage Regulation of a Transformer

Definition: The voltage regulation is defined as the change in the magnitude of receiving and
sending the voltage of the transformer. The voltage regulation determines the ability of the
transformer to provide the constant voltage for variable loads.

When the transformer is loaded with continuous supply voltage, the terminal voltage of the
transformer varies. The variation of voltage depends on the load and its power factor.

Mathematically, the voltage regulation is represented as

where,
E – secondary terminal voltage at no load
2

V – secondary terminal voltage at full load

2

The voltage regulation by considering the primary terminal voltage of the transformer is
expressed as,

Let us understand the voltage regulation by taking an example explained below

If the secondary terminals of the transformer are open circuited or no load is connected to the
secondary terminals, the no-load current flows through it. If the no current flows through the
secondary terminals of the transformer, the voltage drops across their resistive and reactive load
become zero. The voltage drop across the primary side of the transformer is negligible.

If the transformer is fully loaded, i.e., the load is connected to their secondary terminal, the
voltage drops appear across it. The value of the voltage regulation should always be less for the
better performance of transformer.

From the circuit diagram shown above, the following conclusions are made
 The primary voltage of the transformer is always greater than the emf induces on the
primary side. V >E
1 1

 The secondary terminal voltage at no load is always greater than the voltage at full load
condition. E >V
2 2

By considering the above circuit diagram, the following equations are drawn

The approximate expression for the no-load secondary voltage for the different types of load is

1. For inductive load

2. Where,

o For Capacitive load

o
 Open Circuit and Short Circuit Test on
Transformer
The open circuit and short circuit test are performed for determining the parameter of the
transformer like their efficiency, voltage regulation, circuit constant etc. These tests are
performed without the actual loading and because of this reason the very less power is required
for the test. The open circuit and the short circuit test gives the very accurate result as compared
to the full load test.

Contents:

 Open Circuit Test

 Calculation of Open Circuit Test

 Short Circuit Test

 Calculation of Short Circuit Test

Open Circuit Test

The purpose of the open circuit test is to determine the no-load current and losses of the
transformer because of which their no-load parameter are determined. This test is performed on
the primary winding of the transformer. The wattmeter, ammeter and the voltage are connected to
their primary winding. The nominal rated voltage is supplied to their primary winding with the
help of the ac source.

Circuit Diagram of Open Circuit Test on Transformer

 The secondary winding of the transformer is kept open and the voltmeter is connected to their
terminal. This voltmeter measures the secondary induced voltage. As the secondary of the
transformer is open the no-load current flows through the primary winding.

The value of no-load current is very small as compared to the full rated current. The copper loss
occurs only on the primary winding of the transformer because the secondary winding is open.
The reading of the wattmeter only represents the core and iron losses. The core loss of the
transformer is same for all types of loads.

Calculation of open circuit test

Let,

 W – wattmeter reading
0

 V – voltmeter reading
1

 I – ammeter reading
0

Then the iron loss of the transformer P = W and

i 0

The no-load power factor is

Working component I is w
Putting the value of W from the equation (1) in equation (2) you will get the value of working
0

component as

Magnetizing component is

No load parameters are given below

Equivalent exciting resistance is

Equivalent exciting reactance is

The phasor diagram of transformer at no load or when an open circuit test is performed is shown
below
 Phasor Diagram of Open Circuit Test

The iron losses measured by the open circuit test is used for calculating the efficiency of the
transformer.

Short Circuit Test

The short circuit test is performed for determining the below mention parameter of the
transformer.

 It determines the copper loss occur on the full load. The copper loss is used for finding the
efficiency of the transformer.

 The equivalent resistance, impedance, and leakage reactance are known by the short circuit test.

The short circuit test is performed on the secondary or high voltage winding of the transformer.
The measuring instrument like wattmeter, voltmeter and ammeter are connected to the High
voltage winding of the transformer. Their primary winding is shortcircuited by the help of thick
strip or ammeter which is connected to their terminal.
 The low voltage source is connected across the secondary winding because of which the full load
current flows from both the secondary and the primary winding of the transformer. The full load
current is measured by the ammeter connected across their secondary winding.

The circuit diagram of the short circuit test is shown below

Circuit Diagram of Short Circuit Test on Transformer

The low voltage source is applied across the secondary winding which is approximately 5 to
10% of the normal rated voltage. The flux is set up in the core of the transformer. The magnitude
of the flux is small as compared to the normal flux.

The iron loss of the transformer depends on the flux. It is less occur in the short circuit test
because of the low value of flux. The reading of the wattmeter only determines the copper loss
occur on their windings. The voltmeter measures the voltage applied to their high voltage
winding. The secondary current induces in the transformer because of the applied voltage.

Calculation of Short Circuit Test

Let,

 W – Wattmeter reading
c

 V – voltmeter reading
2sc

 I – ammeter reading
2sc
Then the full load copper loss of the transformer is given by

Equivalent resistance referred to secondary side is

The phasor diagram of the short circuit test of the transformer is shown below

Phasor Diagram of Short Circuit Test

From the phasor diagram

Equivalent impedance referred to the secondary side is given by

 The Equivalent reactance referred to the secondary side is given by

The voltage regulation of the transformer can be determined at any load and power factor after
knowing the values of Z and R .
es es

In the short circuit test the wattmeter record, the total losses including core loss but the value of
core loss are very small as compared to copper loss so, the core loss can be neglected.

Auto Transformer
An Auto Transformer is a transformer with only one winding wound on a laminated core. An
auto transformer is similar to a two winding transformer but differ in the way the primary and
secondary winding are interrelated. A part of the winding is common to both primary and
secondary sides. On load condition, a part of the load current is obtained directly from the supply
and the remaining part is obtained by transformer action. An Auto transformer works as
a voltage regulator.

Contents:

 Explanation of Auto Transformer with Circuit Diagram

 Saving of Copper in Auto Transformer as Compared to Ordinary Two Winding Transformer

 Advantages of Auto transformer

 Disadvantages of Auto transformer

 Applications of Auto transformer

Explanation of Auto Transformer with Circuit Diagram

In an ordinary transformer, the primary and the secondary windings are electrically insulated
from each other but connected magnetically as shown in the figure below and in auto transformer
the primary and the secondary windings are connected magnetically as well as electrically. In
fact, a part of the single continuous winding is common to both primary and secondary.
 Figure A: Ordinary Two Winding Transformer

There are two types of auto transformer based on the construction. In one type of transformer,
there is continuous winding with the taps brought out at convenient points determined by desired
secondary voltage and in another type of auto transformer, there are two or more distinct coils
which are electrically connected to form a continuous winding. The construction of Auto
transformer is shown in the figure below.
 Figure B: Auto – Transformer

The primary winding AB from which a tapping at C is taken, such that CB acts as a secondary
winding. The supply voltage is applied across AB, and the load is connected across CB. The
tapping may be fixed or variable.When an AC voltage V is applied across AB, an alternating flux
1

is set up in the core, as a result, an emf E is induced in the winding AB. A part of this induced
1

emf is taken in the secondary circuit.

Let,

 V – primary applied voltage

1

 V – secondary voltage across the load

2

 I – primary current
1

 I – load current
2

 N – number of turns between A and B

1
 N – number of turns between C and B
2

Neglecting no load current, leakage reactance and losses,

V = E and V = E
1 1 2 2

Therefore the transformation ratio

As the secondary ampere-turns are opposite to primary ampere turns, so the current I is in phase 2

opposition to I . The secondary voltage is less than the primary. Therefore current I is more than
1 2

the current I . Therefore, the resulting current flowing through section BC is (I – I )

1 2 1

The ampere-turns due to section BC = current x turns

Equation (1) and (2) shows that the ampere turns due to section BC and AC balance each other
which is characteristic of the transformer action.

Saving of Copper in Auto Transformer as Compared to Ordinary Two Winding Transformer

The weight of the copper is proportional to the length and area of a cross section of the
conductor.

The length of the conductor is proportional to the number of turns, and the cross section is
proportional to the product of current and number of turns.

Now, from the above figure (B) shown of the auto transformer, the weight of copper required in
an auto transformer is

Wa = weight of copper in section AC + weight of copper in section CB

Therefore

If the same duty is performed with an ordinary two winding transformer shown above in the
figure (A)

The total weight of the copper required in the ordinary transformer

W = weight of copper on its primary winding + weight of copper on its secondary winding
0

Therefore,

Now, the ratio of the weight of the copper in an auto transformer to the weight of copper in an
ordinary transformer is given as
 Saving of copper affected by using an auto transformer = weight of copper required in an
ordinary transformer – weight of copper required in an auto transformer

Therefo
re,

Saving of copper = K x weight of copper required for two windings of the transformer

Hence, saving in copper increases as the transformation ratio approaches to unity. Hence the auto
transformer is used when the value of K is nearly equal to unity.

Advantages of Auto transformer

 Less costly

 Better regulation

 Low losses as compared to ordinary two winding transformer of the same rating.

Disadvantages of Auto transformer

There are various advantages of the auto transformer, but then also one major disadvantage, why
auto transformer is not widely used, is that

 The secondary winding is not insulated from the primary winding.

If an auto transformer is used to supply low voltage from a high voltage and there is a break in the
secondary winding, the full primary voltage comes across the secondary terminal which is dangerous to
the operator and the equipment. So the auto transformer should not be used to for interconnecting high
voltage and low voltage system.

 Used only in the limited places where a slight variation of the output voltage from input voltage
is required.

Applications of Auto transformer

 It is used as a starter to give upto 50 to 60% of full voltage to the stator of a squirrel cage
induction motor during starting.

 It is used to give a small boost to a distribution cable, to correct the voltage drop.

 It is also used as a voltage regulator

 Used in power transmission and distribution system and also in the audio system and railways.

Difference Between Autotransformer &

Conventional Transformer
There are several differences between the autotransformer and the conventional transformer. One
of the major difference between them is that the autotransformer has only one winding whereas
the conventional transformer has two separate windings. The other differences between them are
explained below in the form of the comparison chart.

Content: Autotransformer V/S Conventional Transformer

1. Comparison Chart

2. Definition

3. Key Differences

4. Similarities

Comparison Chart

Basis For Conventional

Autortransformer
Differences transformer

Definition A transformer, having It is a static machine

only one winding a which transfers
part of which acts as a electrical energy from
primary and the other one end to another
as a secondary. without changing
frequency.

Number of Auto-transformer has It has two separate

Windings only one winding winding, i.e., primary
wound on a laminated and secondary
core winding.
Basis For Conventional
Autortransformer
Differences transformer

Symbol

Insulation The primary and The primary and

secondary winding are secondary winding are
not electrically electrically insulated
insulated. from each other.

Induction Self Induction Mutual Induction

Size Small Large

Power Partly by Through

Transfer transformation and transformation
partly by direct
electrical connection.

Voltage Better Good

Regulation

Winding Less requires More requires

Material

Circuit The primary and The primary and

secondary winding secondary winding
circuits are connected circuits are connected
magnetically. both electrically and
magnetically.

Connection Depends upon the Connect directly to the

Basis For Conventional
Autortransformer
Differences transformer

tapping load.

Starting Decreases Decreases by 1/3

current times.

Excitation Small Large

current

Economical More Less

Cost Less costly More costly

Efficient More Less

Leakage flux Low High

and
resistance

Impedance Less High

Cost Cheap Very costly

Losses Low High

Output Variable Constant.

voltage

Applications Use as a starter in an Use in power system

induction motor, as a for step up and step
voltage regulator, in down the voltage.
railways, in a
Basis For Conventional
Autortransformer
Differences transformer

laboratory.

Definition of Autotransformer
A transformer, having only one winding a part of which acts as a primary winding and the other
as secondary is called an autotransformer. The windings of the autotransformer are connected
magnetically and electrically.

When the primary voltage is greater than the secondary voltage, then the transformer is called
step down autotransformer, and when the primary voltage is smaller than secondary, then it is
called step-up auto-transformer.
 The autotransformer has a low cost, better
regulation and low losses. The disadvantage of the autotransformer is that the primary winding of
the auto-transformer is not insulated from the secondary. Thus, if the low voltage is supplied
from the high voltage, then the full voltage came across the secondary terminal which is
dangerous for the load and operator.

The auto-transformer is not used for interconnecting the high voltage and low voltage system. It
is used in the places where slight variation is required
.

Definition of Conventional Transformer

A conventional transformer is a static device which transfers electrical energy from one circuit to
another at the same frequency but different voltage. It works on the principle of electromagnetic
induction, i.e., the electromotive force is induced in the closed circuit due to the variable
magnetic field around it. The windings of the conventional transformer are electrically insulated,
but magnetically connected.
 The conventional transformer has two windings. i.e., the
primary winding and the secondary winding. The primary winding takes the input from the
supply, and the secondary winding is connected to a load and supply energy to the load.

When the output voltage of the transformer is greater than the input voltage, then such type of
transformers is called step up transformer, and when the output voltage is less than the input
voltage, then it is called a step-down transformer. A transformer in which receiving voltage and
the sending voltage is same, then such type of transformer is called one to one transformer.

Key Differences Between Autotransformer and Transformer

1. An autotransformer has only one winding which acts both as a primary and the secondary
whereas the conventional transformer has a two separate windings, i.e., the primary and the secondary
winding.

2. The auto-transformer works on the principle of self-induction i.e. induce the electromagnetic
force in the circuit due to variation in current. The conventional transformer works on the principle of
mutual induction in which the emf induces in the coil by changing the current in the adjacent coil.

3. The auto-transformer is smaller in size, whereas the conventional transformer is larger in size.

4. The autotransformer is more economical as compared to a conventional transformer.

5. In an autotransformer, electrical power is transferred from primary to secondary partly by the

process of transformation and partly by the direct current. The conventional transformer transfers the
electrical power through the electric transformation due to which power loss occurs.

6. The voltage regulation of an auto-transformer is much better than the conventional transformer

o The voltage regulation is the change in the secondary terminal voltage from no load to
full load.
7. The autotransformer has only one winding. Thus, less conductor is required for winding as
compared to the conventional transformer.

8. The primary and secondary windings of the autotransformer are not electrically insulated
whereas the windings of the conventional transformerare electrically insulated from each other.

9. The starting current of the auto-transformer is less than the actual current, whereas the starting
current of the conventional transformer is one-third of the main current.

10. The auto-transformer is more efficient as compared to the conventional transformer.

11. The leakage flux and resistance of an auto-transformer are low because it has only one winding
whereas it is high in the conventional transformer.

12. The autotransformer has less impedance as compared to conventional current. The smaller
impedance results in the large short circuit current.

13. The cost of the autotransformer is very less whereas the conventional current is very costly.

14. The losses in the auto-transformer are less as compared to theconventional transformer.

15. The output voltage of the secondary transformer varies when the sliding contacts are used in the
secondary winding whereas the output voltage of the conventional transformer always remains
constant.

16. The autotransformer is used as a voltage regulator, in the laboratory, in the railway stations, as a
stator in an induction motor, etc., whereas the conventional transformer is used to step-up and step-
down the voltage in the power grid.

Similarities: The autotransformer and the conventional transformer both work on the principle
of electromagnetic induction. They used copper conductor for making the windings. The cores of
both the transformers are made up of CRGO steel. The primary and the secondary of both the
transforms are magnetically connected to each other.