Higher Geometry

Final Exam
Tues Dec 11, 5-7:30 pm
Practice Problems
(1) Know the following definitions, statements of theorems, properties from the notes:
congruent, triangle, quadrilateral, isosceles triangle, equilateral triangle, trape-
zoid, parallelogram, rhombus, rectangle, square, the triangle congruence theorems
(SSS,SAS,AAS,ASA), the triangle similarity theorems (same ones), parallel line/transversal
theorems, the fifth axiom of Euclid, be able to give 2 examples of the first 4 axioms
of Euclid, Playfair’s Postulate, incenter, circumcenter, orthocenter, median, centroid,
altitude, perpendicular bisector, cyclic polygon, supplementary angles, complemen-
tary angles, excircle, Pythagorean theorem, tangent to a circle, orthogonal, power
of a point with respect to a circle, Ceva’s theorem, Menelaus’ Theorem, nine-point
circle, polar coordinates, slopes of parallel and perpendicular lines, definitions of the
trig functions (unit circle), right triangle formulas for trig functions, the important
trig identities, Law of Sines, Law of Cosines, definition of vector dot product, matrix
addition, matrix scalar multiplication, matrix multiplication, rotation and reflection
matrices, translation, isometry, isometric, Euclidean motion, rigid motion, geodesic,
Poincaré disk, sphere, lune.
(2) Be able to do problems similar to those on the three tests.
(3) Derive the formula v · w = |v| |w| cos θ, where v and w are two vectors in Rn .
(4) Derive the trig identity cos (2A) = 2 cos2 (A) − 1. (You may assume the angle sum
identity.)
(5) Derive the Law of Sines.
(6) Perform the following matrix multiplication, and explain how to use this to prove the
formulas for cos (A + B) and sin (A + B):
  
cos (A) − sin (A) cos (B) − sin (B)
sin (A) cos (A) sin (B) cos (B)

(7) Prove Thales’ Theorem: If A, B, and C are points on a circle where the line AC is
a diameter of the circle, then the angle ABC is a right angle.
(8) What are the types of isometries of the plane? Give an interesting example of each
type.
(9) State the theorem concerning collapsing and rigid compasses.
(10) Prove that the angle bisectors of a triangle are concurrent.
(11) Prove that the perpendicular bisectors of the sides of a triangle are concurrent ...
(a) with a proof that uses analytic geometry.
(b) with a proof that does not use analytic geometry.
(12) State Menelaus’ Theorem.
(13) Suppose that three circles of different sizes in the plane are tangent to each other (at
three points). Prove that the tangent lines to the circles at these three points are
concurrent.
(14) Identify all possible geodesics in the Euclidean plane, on a sphere of radius 1, and in
the Poincaré Disk model of hyperbolic space.
(15) What is the maximum length of a geodesic on a sphere of radius 1?
1
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(16) Discuss differences in the geometry of parallel lines in Euclidean, hyperbolic, and
spherical geometry.
(17) Give formulas for the areas of triangles in Euclidean, hyperbolic, and spherical ge-
ometry.
(18) Suppose that a triangle on the sphere of radius 1 has three right angles.
(a) Draw a picture of such a triangle.
(b) Find the area of the triangle.
(c) Is this triangle equilateral? If so, what is the side length?
(19) Suppose that a triangle in the Poincaré disk has three sides that are infinitely long.
(a) Draw a picture of such a triangle.
(b) Find the angles of this triangle.
(c) Find the area of the triangle.
(20) Derive the formula for the area of a lune in spherical geometry.
(21) Suppose that a quadrilateral in the Poincaré Disk is bounded by four infinitely long
geodesics. Find the area of this hyperbolic quadrilateral.
(22) Prove that the area of a geodesic quadrilateral on a sphere of radius 1 with angles
whose radian measures are A, B, C, and D is A + B + C + D − 2π.
 3

Solutions to Practice Problems

(1)
(2) n/a
(3) n/a
(4) Derive the formula v · w = |v| |w| cos θ, where v and w are two vectors in Rn .
From class notes: Construct a triangle with two adjacent sides corresponding to
the vectors v and w, with tails at one vertex. Let θ be the angle between the vectors.
Then the third side corresponds to the vector v − w. Then the Law of Cosines states
that
|v − w|2 = |v|2 + |w|2 − 2 |v| |w| cos θ.
Then
(v − w) · (v − w) = v · v + w · w − 2 |v| |w| cos θ,
and by using the linearity and symmetry of the dot product we get
(v − w) · (v − w) = v · v − w · v − v · w + w · w
= v · v − 2v · w + w · w.
Substituting back into the previous equation, we get
v · v − 2v · w + w · w = v · v + w · w − 2 |v| |w| cos θ.
Subtracting v · v + w · w from both sides, we get
−2v · w = −2 |v| |w| cos θ ,
and thus we have
v · w = |v| |w| cos θ.

(5) Derive the trig identity cos (2A) = 2 cos2 (A) − 1. (You may assume the angle sum
identity.)
From class notes: Given the identity cos (A + B) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B, we
have
cos (2A) = cos (A + A) = cos2 (A) − sin2 (A) .
Since sin2 (A) + cos2 (A) = 1, we can substitute sin2 (A) = 1 − cos2 (A) to get
cos (2A) = cos2 (A) − 1 − cos2 (A)

= 2 cos2 (A) − 1.

(6) Derive the Law of Sines.

From class notes: Start with a triangle with one side (length c) horizontal and
adjacent angles A and B, corresponding to opposite side lengths a and b, respectively.
Drop an altitude from the vertex opposite the horizontal side, which intersects the
line containing that side. From this you get two right triangles, and you can solve
for the height of the vertex in two different ways (in terms of the sine formula).
4

(7) Perform the following matrix multiplication, and explain how to use this to prove the
formulas for cos (A + B) and sin (A + B):
  
cos (A) − sin (A) cos (B) − sin (B)
sin (A) cos (A) sin (B) cos (B)
 
cos (A) cos (B) − sin (A) sin (B) − cos (A) sin (B) − sin (A) cos (B)
= .
sin (A) cos (B) + cos (A) sin (B) − sin (A) sin (B) + cos (A) cos (B)
 
x
This product of matrices, if applied to a vector , first rotates around the
y
origin by the angle B, then it rotates around the origin by the angle A. But this is
equivalent to rotating around the origin by the angle (A + B). Therefore, the matrix
we computed must be the same as
 
cos (A + B) − sin (A + B)
.
sin (A + B) cos (A + B)
From the computation above, this means that
cos (A + B) = cos (A) cos (B) − sin (A) sin (B) ,
sin (A + B) = sin (A) cos (B) + cos (A) sin (B) .

(8) Prove Thales’ Theorem: If A, B, and C are points on a circle where the line AC is
a diameter of the circle, then the angle ABC is a right angle.
Proof:
Let D be the center of the circle, which is the midpoint of the diameter AC.
Construct the segment BD, and notice that AD = BD = CD since they are all
radii of the circle. Thus, triangles ADB and CDB are isosceles, so that the angles
satisfy m∠DAB = m∠DBA, m∠DCB = m∠DBC. Since the angles in the triangles
add to 180 degrees, 2m∠DBA + m∠ADB = 180◦ = 2m∠DBC + m∠CDB. Also
m∠ADB + m∠CDB = 180◦ , because they add to a straight angle. Substituting
180◦ − 2m∠DBA = m∠ADB and 180◦ − 2m∠DBC = m∠CDB into the previous
equation, we get
180◦ − 2m∠DBA + 180◦ − 2m∠DBC = 180◦ ,
so that
2m∠DBC + 2m∠DBA = 180◦ .
Dividing by two, we get
m∠CBA = m∠DBC + m∠DBA = 90◦ .
QED.
(9) What are the types of isometries of the plane? Give an interesting example of each
type.
They are translations, rotations, reflections, glide reflections. Examples:
(a)
(b) Translation of all points by the vector (−7, 2): F : R2 → R2 , defined by
F (x, y) = (x − 7, y + 2).
 5
 
π 2 2 x
(c) Rotation by around the origin: G : R → R , defined by G =
3 y
1
√
3
!  
1 1
√ 
√2
− 2
x 2
x − y
2 √
3
= 1 1 .
3 1 y 2
y + 2x 3
2 2

(d) Reflection across the y-axis: R : R2 → R2 , defined by R (x, y) = (−x, y).

(e) Glide reflection, reflecting across the y-axis, then sliding in the direction of the
axis 11 units: Q : R2 → R2 , defined by Q (x, y) = (−x, y + 11).
(10) State the theorem concerning collapsing and rigid compasses.
Any construction done with a rigid compass and unmarked straightedge can also
be done with a collapsing compass and unmarked straightedge alone.
(11) Prove that the angle bisectors of a triangle are concurrent.
Let ∆ABC be any triangle, and let the point Z be the intersection of the angle
bisectors from the vertices A and B. Let D be the point on AB that is the foot of the
perpendicular segment from Z, and similarly let E be the foot of the perpendicular
segment from Z to BC and F the foot of the perpendicular segment from Z to AC.
Observe that the angles of ∆AZD and ∆AZF are the same, since AZ bisects ∠DAF
and one other angle is a right angle. Also, the triangles ∆AZD and ∆AZF share side
AZ, so that by the ASA Congruence Theorem, ∆AZD ∼ = ∆AZF . Therefore, ZD =
ZF . Using a similar argument at vertex B, ZD = ZE. Thus, ZE = ZF . Since
∆CZE and ∆CZF are right triangles and since q the correspondingqsides satisfy CZ =
CZ, ZE = ZF , we also have that CE = (CZ)2 − (ZE)2 = (CZ)2 − (ZF )2 =
CF . Thus, by the SSS congruence theorem, ∆CZE ∼
= ∆CZF . Therefore, since
∼
∠ZCF = ∠ZCE, CZ bisects ∠BCA, and thus the angle bisectors of ∆ABC are
concurrent. 
(12) Prove that the perpendicular bisectors of the sides of a triangle are concurrent ...
(a)
(b) with a proof that uses analytic geometry.
Proof: We place an arbitrary triangle ∆ABC so that it has vertices A =
(−a, 0) , B = (a, 0) , C = (b, c), and note that a, c 6= 0. Then the y-axis is
the perpendicular bisector of AB. We now calculate the equation for the per-
c
pendicular bisector of AC. The slope of AC is b+a (including the possibility of
b + a = 0, where the slope is undefined), and so the slope of the perpendicular
bisector is − b+a b−a c


c
(which is always defined). The midpoint of AC is 2
, 2
, so
that the equation of the perpendicular bisector of AC is

 
c b+a b−a
y− = − x− , or
2 c 2
c b+a b 2 − a2
y− = − x+ , or
2 c 2c
b+a b 2 − a2 c
y = − x+ + .
c 2c 2
6
 2 2 
−a
Thus, this perpendicular bisector of AC intersects the y-axis at the point 0, b 2c + 2c =
 2 2 +b2

0, −a +c
2c
. By a similar calculation (interchanging −a with a in all places),
 
−(−a)2 +c2 +b2
the perpendicular bisector of BC intersects the y-axis at the point 0, 2c
=
 2 2 2

0, −a +c
2c
+b
. Thus, the perpendicular bisectors of ∆ABC are concurrent. 

(c) with a proof that does not use analytic geometry.

Proof: Given any triangle ∆ABC, let D, E, F be the midpoints of AB, BC,
and AC, respectively. Let Z be the intersection of the perpendicular bisectors of
segments AB and BC. Construct the segments AZ, BZ, and CZ. Observe that
since AD = DB, ZD = ZD, and since ∠ADZ and ∠BDZ are both right angles,
by the SAS Congruence Theorem ∆ADZ ∼ = ∆BDZ. Then AZ = BZ. Similarly,
by considering the perpendicular bisector EZ, we deduce that BZ = CZ. Thus,
AZ = CZ. Now, since AZ = CZ, ZF = ZF , and AF = CF , by the SSS
Congruence Theorem, ∆AF Z ∼ = ∆CF Z. Then ∠AF Z ∼ = ∠CF Z , and these
two angles are supplementary, and thus they are two right angles. Thus, F Z is
on the perpendicular bisector of AC, and hence the perpendicular bisectors of
∆ABC are concurrent. 
(13) State Menelaus’ Theorem.
Given a triangle ∆ABC, fix a directional orientation for each of the segments AB,
←→ ←→ ←→ ←→
BC, and CA. Consider the transversal line XZ that crosses AB, BC and CA at
points X, Y , and Z respectively. Let AX, XB, etc. denote the signed lengths of
the line segments, where for example AX is considered positive if A is before X
with respect to the fixed directional orientation of AB. If the points X, Y, Z are not
vertices of the triangle, then
(AX) (BY ) (CZ)
= −1.
(ZA) (XB) (Y C)

(14) Suppose that three circles of different sizes in the plane are tangent to each other
(at three points). Prove that the tangent lines to the circles at these three points
are concurrent. (Note: the last part of this problem is a bit harder than anything I
would ask you on the final.)
Proof: Let A, B, and C be the centers of the three circles SA , SB , SC that are
tangent, and construct the segments AB, BC, and AC. At the point D of tangency
between the circles SA and SB , the tangent line is perpendicular to both AD and DB,
and thus A, D, B are collinear. Thus, the point of tangency is on the segment AB.
Similarly, define the points E and F on BC and AC be the corresponding points of
tangency between the circles. Now, let Z be the point of intersection of the tangent
lines through D and F , and construct the
qline AZ. Observe thatq AD = AF since they
equal the radius of SA , and thus DZ = (AZ)2 − (AD)2 = (AZ)2 − (AF )2 = F Z
by the Pythagorean theorem. Thus the triangles ∆ADZ and ∆AF Z are congruent
by the SSS Congruence Theorem. Then ∠DAZ ∼ = ∠F AZ, and so AZ actually bisects
∠BAC. By a similar argument, the intersection of any two of these tangent lines
must lie on an angle bisector of ∆ABC.
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The question remains whether the tangent lines are concurrent. Suppose not, and
call Z2 the point of intersection of the tangent lines through D and E, and call Z3
the point of intersection of the tangents through E and F . Suppose that DZ < DZ2 ,
which then implies that F Z3 < F Z. (If instead DZ2 < DZ, the same argument
works but with a relabeling of points.) We label a = DZ, b = EZ2 , c = F Z3 ,
α = ZZ2 , β = Z2 Z3 ,γ = Z3 Z. Using DZ = F Z and the corresponding facts for the
other intersection points, we get the equations
a = c+γ
a+α = b
b + β = c,
from which we have that
a = b + β + γ = a + α + β + γ, so that
α + β + γ = 0,
which is impossible since by assumption α, β, γ > 0. Since the original assumption
must be wrong, Z = Z2 = Z3 , and the three tangent lines are concurrent.
(15) Identify all possible geodesics in the Euclidean plane, on a sphere of radius 1, and in
the Poincaré Disk model of hyperbolic space.
Euclidean plane: the geodesics are lines, rays, and line segments.
Sphere of radius 1: the geodesics are great circles (of radius 1) or parts of great
circles.
Poincaré Disk: the geodesics are either diameters of the unit circle or arcs of
circles within the disk that are perpendicular to the boundary circle, or parts of
these diameters and perpendicular circles.
(16) What is the maximum length of a geodesic on a sphere of radius 1?
The maximum length is the length of a great circle, which is 2π (circumference of
circle of radius 1).
(17) Discuss differences in the geometry of parallel lines in Euclidean, hyperbolic, and
spherical geometry.
Euclidean geometry: Given a line ` in R2 and a point p not on that line, there
exists a unique line through the point p that is parallel to ` .
Hyperbolic geometry: Given a geodesic α in the Poincaré Disk and a point P not
on α, there exist an infinite number of geodesics through P that do not meet α.
Spherical geometry: Given a great circle β on the sphere and a point Q not on β,
then every great circle through Q intersects β.
(18) Give formulas for the areas of triangles in Euclidean, hyperbolic, and spherical ge-
ometry.
Euclidean geometry: many formulas; for example A = 21 ab sin θ, where a and b are
the lengths of two of the sides of the triangle and θ is the angle between the sides.
Hyperbolic geometry: Area = π − A − B − C, where A, B, C are the three angle
measures in radians.
Spherical geometry: Area = A + B + C − π, where A, B, C are the three angle
measures in radians.
8

(19) Suppose that a triangle on the sphere of radius 1 has three right angles.
(a)
(b) Draw a picture of such a triangle.
Should look like one fourth of the upper hemisphere of the sphere.
(c) Find the area of the triangle.
π
2
+ π2 + π2 − π = π2 .
(Alternately, it is 18 of the whole sphere, which is 1
8
(4π) = π2 .)
(d) Is this triangle equilateral? If so, what is the side length?
Yes. Using the picture of the one fourth of the upper hemisphere, the side length
is 41 of a great circle, or π2 .
Note that in spherical geometry, the angles determine the triangle, so any such
triangle must be equilateral and have that side length.
(20) Suppose that a triangle in the Poincaré disk has three sides that are infinitely long.
(a)
(b) Draw a picture of such a triangle.
Should look like http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ideal circles.GIF
(There are actually three different triangles like this in the picture, the red one,
blue one, and green one.)
(c) Find the angles of this triangle.
All zero.
(d) Find the area of the triangle.
Area = π − 0 − 0 − 0 = π.
(21) Derive the formula for the area of a lune in spherical geometry.
A lune with angle A is the portion of the sphere between two halves of great circles
A
intersecting with an angle A. The area is 2π times the area of the whole sphere,
A
which is 2π (4π) = 2A.
(22) Suppose that a quadrilateral in the Poincaré Disk is bounded by four infinitely long
geodesics. Find the area of this hyperbolic quadrilateral.
The four geodesics must touch at vertices on the boundary circle. If the vertices
are (in order) A, B, C, D, connect A and C with a geodesic, so that the quadrilateral
is split into two triangles, both of which have all zero angles. Thus the area of the
quadrilateral is
Area = (π − 0 − 0 − 0) + (π − 0 − 0 − 0)
= 2π.

(23) Prove that the area of a geodesic quadrilateral on a sphere of radius 1 with angles
whose radian measures are A, B, C, and D is A + B + C + D − 2π.
Given any quadrilateral on the sphere, connect opposite vertices with a geodesic
so that the quadrilateral is the union of two triangles with no overlap that intersect
on that geodesic. Then, if the radian measures of the angles of the first triangle
are θ1 , θ2 , θ3 and those of the second triangle are β1 , β2 , β3 , then the area of the
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quadrilateral is
Area = (θ1 + θ2 + θ3 − π) + (β1 + β2 + β3 − π)
= θ1 + θ2 + θ3 + β1 + β2 + β3 − 2π.
The sum of the radian measures of the angles of the two triangles is the same as the
sum of the measures of the four angles of the quadrilateral, so that
Area = A + B + C + D − 2π.