lectrochemistry Encyclopedia

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ELECTROCHEMISTRY OF CORROSION
Jerome Kruger
The Johns Hopkins University
Baltimore, MD 21218, USA
(April, 2001)
Ulick R. Evans, the British scientist who is considered the "Father of Corrosion
Science", has said that "Corrosion is largely an electrochemical phenomenon,
[which] may be defined as destruction by electrochemical or chemical agencies...".
Corrosion in an aqueous environment and in an atmospheric environment (which also
involves thin aqueous layers) is an electrochemical process because corrosion
involves the transfer of electrons between a metal surface and an aqueous
electrolyte solution. It results from the overwhelming tendency of metals to react
electrochemically with oxygen, water, and other substances in the aqueous
environment. Fortunately, most useful metals react with the environment to form
more or less protective films of corrosion reaction products that prevent the
metals from going into solution as ions.

While the term corrosion has in recent years been applied to all kinds of materials
in all kinds of environments, this article will only consider the electrochemistry
of corrosion of metals and alloys in aqueous solutions at ambient temperatures.
Electrochemical corrosion occurring under such conditions is a major destructive
process that results in such costly, unsightly, and destructive effects as the
formation of rust and other corrosion products, the creation of the gaping holes or
cracks in aircraft, automobiles, boats, gutters, screens, plumbing, and many other
items constructed of every metal except gold.

Systems such as boiling water nuclear reactors involving aqueous solutions are also
examples of electrochemical corrosion but will not be covered. This article will
also not cover the non-electrochemical process termed high temperature oxidation, a
destructive process which is the exposure of a metal or alloy to high temperatures
in a gaseous environment (usually including oxygen or gases with sulfur containing
compounds) where much thicker layers of corrosion products are formed. However, it
must be pointed out that if the high temperature oxidation process results in the
formation of salt layers that melt at the high temperatures used, a difference in
electrode potential between phases or heterogeneities in an alloy can lead to hot
corrosion which has electrochemical features similar to that of the condensed
aqueous films involved in atmospheric corrosion. This technologically important
corrosion process leads to the failure of such applications as gas turbines, heat
exchangers, and many others that operate at high temperatures.

Consequences of corrosion
Corrosion has many serious economic, health, safety, technological, and cultural
consequences to our society.
Economic effects
Studies in a number of countries have attempted to determine the national cost of
corrosion. The most extensive of these studies was the one carried out in the
United States in 1976 which found that the overall annual cost of metallic
corrosion to the U.S. economy was $70 billion, or 4.2% of the gross national
product. To get a feeling for the seriousness of this loss, we may compare it to
another economic impact everyone is worried about – the importation of foreign
crude oil, which cost $45 billion in 1977.
Health effects
Recent years have seen an increasing use of metal prosthetic devices in the body,
such as pins, plates, hip joints, pacemakers, and other implants. New alloys and
better techniques of implantation have been developed, but corrosion continues to
create problems. Examples include failures through broken connections in
pacemakers, inflammation caused by corrosion products in the tissue around
implants, and fracture of weight-bearing prosthetic devices. An example of the
latter is the use of metallic hip joints, which can alleviate some of the problems
of arthritic hips. The situation has improved in recent years, so that hip joints
which were was at first limited to persons over 60 are now being used in younger
persons, because they will last longer.
Safety effects
An even more significant problem is corrosion of structures, which can result in
severe injuries or even loss of life. Safety is compromised by corrosion
contributing to failures of bridges, aircraft, automobiles, gas pipelines etc. –
the whole complex of metal structures and devices that make up the modern world.
Technological effects
The economic consequences of corrosion affect technology. A great deal of the
development of new technology is held back by corrosion problems because materials
are required to withstand, in many cases simultaneously, higher temperatures,
higher pressures, and more highly corrosive environments. Corrosion problems that
are less difficult to solve affect solar energy systems, which require alloys to
withstand hot circulating heat transfer fluids for long periods of time, and
geothermal systems, which require materials to withstand highly concentrated
solutions of corrosive salts at high temperatures and pressures. Another example,
the drilling for oil in the sea and on land, involves overcoming such corrosion
problems as sulfide stress corrosion, microbiological corrosion, and the vast array
of difficulties involved in working in the highly corrosive marine environment. In
many of these instances, corrosion is a limiting factor preventing the development
of economically or even technologically workable systems.
Cultural effects
International concern was aroused by the disclosure of the serious deterioration of
the artistically and culturally significant gilded bronze statues in Venice, Italy.
Corrosive processes will accelerate the deterioration of precious artifacts such as
those in Venice by the highly polluted environments that now are prevalent in most
of the countries of the world. Likewise, inside the world's museums conservators
and restorers labor to protect cultural treasures against the ravages of corrosion
or to remove its traces from artistically or culturally important artifacts.
Electrochemistry of corrosion
The same metallic surface exposed to an aqueous electrolyte usually possesses sites
for an oxidation (or anodic chemical reaction) that produces electrons in the
metal, and a reduction (or cathodic reaction) that consumes the electrons produced
by the anodic reaction. These "sites" together make up a "corrosion cell". The
anodic reaction is the dissolution of the metal to form either soluble ionic
products or an insoluble compound of the metal, usually an oxide. Several cathodic
reactions are possible depending on what reducible species are present in the
solution. Typical reactions are the reduction of dissolved oxygen gas, or the
reduction of the solvent (water) to produce hydrogen gas. Examples of these
reactions are given in the Appendix. Because these anodic and cathodic reactions
occur simultaneously on a metal surface, they create an electrochemical cell of the
type shown in Figure 1.
Corrosion cell
Fig. 1. The electrochemical cell set up between anodic and cathodic sites on an
iron surface undergoing corrosion.
The sites where the anodic and cathodic reactions take place, the anodes and the
cathodes of the corrosion cell, are determined by many factors: (i) they are not
necessarily fixed in location; (ii) they can be adjacent or widely separated so
that, for example, if two metals are in contact, one metal can be the anode and the
other the cathode, leading to galvanic corrosion of the more anodic metal; (iii)
there can exist variations over the surface of oxygen concentration in the
environment that result in the establishment of an anode at those sites exposed to
the environment containing the lower oxygen content – differential aeration
corrosion; (iv) or similarly, variations in the concentration of metal ions or
other species in the environment, arising because of the spatial orientation of the
corroding metal and gravity; or finally, (v) variations in the homogeneity of the
metal surface, due to the presence of inclusions, different phases, grain
boundaries, disturbed metal, and other causes, can lead to the establishment of
anodic and cathodic sites.

The process occurring at the anodic sites is the dissolution of metal as metallic
ions in the electrolyte or the conversion of these ions to insoluble corrosion
products such as rust. This is the destructive process called corrosion. The flow
of electrons between the corroding anodes and the non-corroding cathodes forms the
corrosion current, the value of which is determined by the rate of production of
electrons by the anodic reaction and their consumption by the cathodic reaction.
The rates of electron production and consumption, of course, must be equal or a
buildup of charge would occur.

Driving force, corrosion tendencies

A driving force is necessary for electrons to flow between the anodes and the
cathodes. This driving force is the difference in potential between the anodic and
cathodic sites. This difference exists because each oxidation or reduction reaction
has associated with it a potential determined by the tendency for the reaction to
take place spontaneously. The potential is a measure of this tendency.
Electrochemical equilibria: oxidation and reduction
Since most corrosion reactions occurring in the presence of a liquid, such as
water, are not chemical but are electrochemical, the use of chemical equilibria is
of minimal use for studying aqueous corrosion. A useful way to study the relation
of potential to corrosion is through the use of an electrochemical equilibrium
diagram – called the "Pourbaix Diagram" – developed by M. Pourbaix, it plots
potential against pH, a parameter also of great importance to corrosion processes.
Pourbaix diagram
Fig. 2. The potential – pH (Pourbaix ) equilibrium diagram for iron.
The simplified Pourbaix diagram for iron is shown in Figure 2. The potential
plotted is that of iron as measured against a standard hydrogen reference
electrode. The Pourbaix diagram enables the determination, by means of potential
and pH measurements, whether (i) a metal surface is in a region of immunity where
the tendency for corrosion is nil, (ii) in a region where the tendency for
corrosion is high, or (iii) in a region where the tendency for corrosion may still
exist but where there is also a tendency for a protective or passive film to exist.
Such a film can drastically affect the rate of corrosion, and, in some cases,
practically stop it (see Passivity and breakdown). Lines (a) and (b) on Figure 2
represent oxygen reduction (Appendix, Equations [2] or [3]) and hydrogen evolution
(Appendix, Equation [4]), respectively. They are a measure of the concentration of
oxygen or hydrogen in solution and show the variation of potential with pH for
solutions in equilibrium with one atmosphere of either oxygen or hydrogen. Lines
drawn parallel to (a), but lower, would give the variation of potential with pH for
a solution containing less oxygen than that represented by (a). Thus, the potential
of a specimen can give some indication of the oxygen concentration in the
environment. The differences in oxygen concentration between different sites on a
metal lead to the differential aeration corrosion mentioned above. By means of the
Pourbaix diagram, through potential and pH measurements, some idea can be gained
about the tendency of a metal to be in an immune, passive, or corroding regime and
also to estimate the influence of limited or ready access of oxygen on the
corrosion process.

Kinetics, corrosion rates

While it is necessary to determine corrosion tendencies by measuring potentials, it
will not be sufficient to ascertain whether a given metal or alloy will suffer
corrosion under a given set of environmental conditions. Because even though the
tendency for corrosion may be high, the rate of corrosion may be very low, and thus
corrosion may not be a problem.
Polarization curves
Fig. 3 Schematic illustration of plots of potential "E" against the logarithm of
the current density "i" (polarization curves) produced by making the investigated
metal surface an anode and then a cathode. Two cathodic reactions are shown, the
one with the higher cathodic exchange density "i2o,c" giving the higher corrosion
current "i2corr". The extrapolations of the anodic and cathodic curves produce the
Evans diagrams (see Figure 4).
Corrosion rates are determined by applying a current to produce a polarization
curve (the degree of potential change as a function of the amount of current
applied) for the metal surface whose corrosion rate is being determined. When the
potential of the metal surface is polarized by the application of the current in a
positive direction, it is said to be anodically polarized; a negative direction
signifies that it is cathodically polarized. The degree of polarization is a
measure of how the rates of the anodic and the cathodic reactions are retarded by
various environmental (concentration of metal ions, dissolved oxygen, etc. in
solution) and/or surface process (adsorption, film formation, ease of release of
electrons, etc.) factors. The former is called concentration polarization the
latter activation polarization. The variation of potential as a function of current
(a polarization curve) allows one to study the effect of concentration and
activation processes on the rate at which anodic or cathodic reactions can give up
or accept electrons. Hence, polarization measurements can thereby determine the
rate of the reactions that are involved in the corrosion process – the corrosion
rate.

Figure 3 shows anodic and cathodic polarization curves that represent anodic
reactions (like metal dissolution) or cathodic reactions (for example, oxygen
reduction or hydrogen evolution). In Figure 3 the potential "E" is plotted as a
function of the logarithm of the current density "i". When the corrosion reactions
are controlled by activation polarization, as is frequently observed, polarization
behavior will be a straight line on this plot following the Tafel equation (see
also the Appendix). On this figure, "Eo,a" and "Eo,c" are the equilibrium
potentials for the reactions under consideration (anodic or cathodic). The "Tafel
lines" are characterized by the "slope" of the linear part of the polarization
curve and by their "intercept" when extrapolated to the equilibrium potential. The
"intercept" is proportional to the logarithm of the exchange current density "io"
(that is expressing the inherent rate of the electrode reaction). The values of
these characteristic constants in the Tafel equation depend on the metal and the
environment under consideration. It is possible to extrapolate the anodic and
cathodic linear portions of the polarization curves to the corrosion potential
"Ecorr", where, under ideal conditions, they should intersect. The value of the
current at their intersection will be the rate of corrosion "icorr" expressed in
current density. The values of the exchange current densities for the cathodic and
anodic reactions have a profound effect on the corrosion rate. This is illustrated
with an example of using two values of "io,c" (but assuming, for sake of
simplicity, that "Eo,c" is constant): the larger the "io,c" – the larger the
corrosion rate, "icorr" (see Figure 3).

Evans diagrams
Fig. 4. Evans diagrams (produced from the extrapolation shown in Figure 3,
illustrating three main ways in which the corrosion rate can be mainly controlled:
(a) control by the reactions on the anode; (b) control by the reactions on the
cathode; and (c) control by a mixture of both.
Parts of the extrapolations shown in Figure 3 produce the diagrams (Evans diagrams)
shown in Figure 4. The relative values of the "slopes" of the anodic or cathodic
polarization curves, determine whether the anodic, cathodic, or both reactions
control the rate of the corrosion process. Evans diagrams are used extensively by
corrosion scientists and engineers to evaluate the effect of various factors on
corrosion rates.

Passivity and the breakdown of passivity

Since both driving force (corrosion-tendency) and kinetic (corrosion-rate)
considerations are crucial in determining the extent of corrosion of a metal
surface, a crucial factor controlling the rate is the existence of the phenomenon
of passivity for certain metals and alloys, such as stainless steels and titanium.
Considerable controversy still exists about what process is responsible for the
existence of the phenomenon of passivity, even though many studies were carried out
to develop a better understanding of it. For the purposes of this discussion, it is
sufficient to characterize passivity as the conditions existing on a metal surface,
because of the presence of a protective film whose nature is the source of the
controversy, that markedly lower the rate of corrosion, even though active
corrosion would be expected from driving force (corrosion-tendency) considerations.
To be effective, a passive film must provide a protective barrier that keeps the
corrosion current on a metallic surface at a low enough value so that the extent of
corrosion damage is minimized. An effective film is one that resists the breaching
(called the breakdown) of the passive film. Breakdown processes lead to the forms
of localized corrosion that are some of the major sources of corrosion failures,
pitting, crevice, intergranular, and stress corrosion (see below). They cause the
disruption of the passive film and thus expose discrete bare sites on the metal
surface to an environment where the tendency for attack is very high. The many
mechanisms proposed for chemical breakdown are based on two models, each having
many variations. They are (i) Adsorbed Ion Displacement Models and (ii) Ion
Migration or Penetration Models. Two types of breakdown processes exist:
electrochemical breakdown where many studies have found that breakdown takes place
at a potential above a specific "breakdown potential," and mechanical breakdown
which occurs when the passive film is ruptured as a result of stress or abrasive
wear. It should be noted that all breakdown mechanisms involve a damaging species.
Unfortunately, one of the major species causing breakdown of passivity is the
chloride ion, a damaging species abundantly available in nature.

Competing with the passive film breakdown process is the passive film repassivation
process. Thus, an effective alloy for resisting localized corrosion would be one
whose surface not only forms a passive film that resists the process leading to
breakdown but also is capable of repassivating at a rate sufficiently high so that,
once breakdown has occurred, exposure to a corrosive environment is minimal.

Types of corrosion
The breakdown and repair of passivity process just described is involved in many
but not all of the various types of corrosion.
Pitting corrosion
The initiation of a pit occurs when electrochemical or chemical breakdown exposes a
small local site on a metal surface to damaging species such as chloride ions. The
sites where pits initiate are not completely understood, but some possibilities are
at scratches, surface compositional heterogeneities (inclusions), or places where
environmental variations exist. The pit grows if the high current density – the
area of breakdown initiation is exceedingly small – involved in the repassivation
process does not prevent the formation of a large local concentration of metal ions
produced by dissolution at the point of initiation. If the rate of repassivation is
not sufficient to choke off the pit growth, two new conditions develop. First, the
metal ions produced by the breakdown process are precipitated as solid corrosion
products (such as the Fe(OH)2, Appendix, Equation [7]) which usually cover the
mouth of the pit. This covering traps the solution in the pit and allows the
buildup of positive hydrogen ions through a hydrolysis reaction (Appendix, Equation
[5]). Then, chloride or another damaging negative ions diffuse into the pit to
maintain charge neutrality. Consequently, the repassivation becomes considerably
difficult because the solution in the pit is highly acidic, contains a large
concentration of damaging ions and metallic ions, and contains a low oxygen
concentration. Thereby the rate of pit growth accelerates.
The pit is the anode of an electrochemical corrosion cell, and the cathode of the
cell is the non-pitted surface. Since the surface area of the pit is a very small
fraction of the cathodic surface area, all of the anodic corrosion current flows to
the extremely small surface area of the breakdown initiation site. Thus, the anodic
current density becomes very high, and penetration of a metal structure bearing
only a few pits can be rapid.

Crevice corrosion
Crevice corrosion
Fig. 5. An idealized picture of the environment that develops in a crevice by the
corrosion cell produced on iron by an anode in a crevice and a cathode outside of
the crevice.
Crevice corrosion results when a portion of a metal surface is shielded in such a
way that the shielded portion has limited access to the surrounding environment.
Such surrounding environments contain damaging corrosion species, usually chloride
ions. A typical example of crevice corrosion is the crevice formed at the area
between two metal surfaces in close contact with a gasket or another metal surface.
The environment that eventually forms in the crevice is similar to that formed
under the precipitated corrosion product that covers a pit (Figure 5). Similarly,
an electrochemical corrosion cell is formed from the couple between the unshielded
surface and the crevice interior exposed to an environment with a lower oxygen
concentration compared with the surrounding medium. This combination of being the
anode of a corrosion cell and existing in an acidic, high-chloride environment
where repassivation is difficult makes the crevice interior subject to corrosive
attack.
Stress corrosion cracking, hydrogen damage, and corrosion fatigue
Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) is a form of localized corrosion which produces
cracks in metals by the simultaneous action of a corrodent and tensile stress. The
electrochemical cell between the exterior and the interior environments of a crack
is similar to that described above for a crevice. Because of the necessity for the
application of stress, the breakdown of the passive layer on a metal surface in SCC
is generally ascribed to mechanical causes but many suggest that electrochemistry
is a significant factor because it controls the rate of repair of the passive layer
ruptured by mechanical stress.
Corrosion fatigue has a somewhat similar mode of failure to SCC. It mainly differs
from SCC in that it involves situations where the stress is applied cyclically
rather than as a static sustained tensile stress. With both corrosion fatigue and
SCC, the issues of film mechanical breakdown, repassivation, adsorption of damaging
species, hydrogen embrittlement, and electrochemical dissolution are to greater or
lesser extents involved in determining susceptibility.

Intergranular corrosion
With the exception of metallic glasses, the metals used in practical devices are
made up of small crystals (grains) whose surfaces join the surfaces of other grains
to form grain boundaries. Such boundaries or the small regions adjacent to these
boundaries can under certain conditions be considerably more reactive (by being
more anodic) than the interior of the grains. The resulting corrosion is called
intergranular corrosion. It can result in a loss of strength of metal part or the
production of debris (grains that have fallen out).
Uniform corrosion
Uniform corrosion results from the sites, not necessarily fixed in location, that
are distributed over a metal surface where the anodic and cathodic reactions take
place. Uniform corrosion damage, sometimes called wastage, is usually manifested in
the progressive thinning of a metal part until it virtually dissolves away or
becomes a delicate lace-like structure.
Galvanic (and thermogalvanic) corrosion
Two metals having different potentials in a conducting electrolyte result in the
more anodic metal usually being attacked by galvanic corrosion. Because of
electrical contact between two different metals, galvanic corrosion differs from
the other forms of corrosion described previously in that the anodic and cathodic
sites of the corrosion cell reside separately on the two coupled different metals
comprising the corrosion cell, while for the other forms of corrosion, the cathodes
and anodes exist on the surface of the same metal.
The value for the differences in potential between two dissimilar metals is usually
obtained from a listing of the standard equilibrium potentials for the various
metals (for reactions of the type given in Appendix, Equation [1]). However, since
the standard potentials assume bare metal surfaces in a standard solution
containing their ions at unit concentration (strictly speaking, activity), while in
practice metals invariably have films on their surfaces and are exposed to
nonstandard environments, these potentials are not always reliable guides to the
corrosion tendencies of the anodic member of a corrosion cell produced by two
coupled dissimilar metals. Another factor besides the coupling of two different
metals that can lead to galvanic corrosion is a difference in temperature at
separated sites on the same metal surface. Such a situation leads to thermogalvanic
corrosion. This kind of corrosion can be encountered in heat exchanger systems
where temperature differences are common.

Selective leaching
When one component of an alloy is removed selectively by corrosion because there
exist differences in potential between different constituents of an alloy – a
situation analogous to that of the galvanic corrosion of coupled dissimilar metals.
This results in an increase in the concentration of the remaining components and
selective leaching occurs. This type of corrosion is also called parting and, after
the most common example, the selective leaching out of zinc from brass,
dezincification.
Erosion corrosion
Erosion corrosion result from the disruption of protective passive films by erosive
or abrasive processes. Once the protective or passive film is removed in an aqueous
electrolyte, the electrochemical processes for the types of corrosion described
above take place.
Corrosion prevention
The types of electrochemical corrosion just described can be prevented or
controlled by utilizing the current understanding of the principles underlying
corrosion processes. This understanding has been the basis for the development of a
number of corrosion prevention measures.
Corrosion protection methods
Fig. 6. Pourbaix diagram for iron showing how corrosion protection can be achieved
by using measures that bring a corroding system into either the immunity or the
passivity region.
Three corrosion control measures are based on electrochemical driving force as
shown in the Pourbaix diagram given in Figure 6: (i) Cathodic protection – proposed
to the British Admiralty for corrosion protection of copper-sheathed ships by Sir
Humphry Davy in 1824 – provides corrosion control by making the structure to be
protected the cathode of a corrosion cell by bringing the potential of the
structure into or near the immunity region of the Pourbaix diagram; (ii) Anodic
protection makes the structure to be protected an anode and an applied current
brings the structure's potential into the passivity region of the Pourbaix diagram;
and (iii) Environment modification by changing the pH to bring the structure to be
protected into either the immunity or passivation regions.

Other measures used to control electrochemical corrosion processes are the

following: (i) Corrosion resistant alloys are developed to be corrosion resistant
and contain constituents such as chromium, which produce more effective protective
films that resist breakdown and repassivate rapidly. (ii) Coatings are an
artificial barrier to the corrosive environment on a metal surface as contrasted to
the naturally formed barrier that a corrosion resistant alloy provides. The most
widely used organic coatings are paints. Other organic coatings include lacquers,
waxes, and greases. Some metallic coatings such as chrome plate provide a
protective barrier because they are more corrosion resistant than the metals they
protect. Zinc coatings, however, act in the opposite manner. This coating, because
it has a greater tendency to corrode than the metal to which it is applied,
cathodically protects it. Finally, ceramic coatings such as porcelain enamels and
glasses are used to protect metal surfaces by providing chemically resistant
barriers, usually oxides, which are more stable than metals. (iii) Corrosion
inhibitors are added to the environment in which a given metal must be used to make
the environment less corrosive. The inhibitors act either by adsorbing on metal
surfaces by providing barriers to the environment or by keeping the environment
from becoming more corrosive by providing a buffering action.

Appendix
Corrosion rections
Some examples of the anodic and cathodic reactions that occur simultaneously on a
metal surface in a "corrosion cell" are as follows.
A typical anodic oxidation that produces dissolved ionic product, for example for
iron metal is:

[1] Fe ==> Fe2+ + 2e-

Examples of cathodic reductions involved in corrosion process are:

[2] O2 + 2H2O + 4e- ==> 4OH-

[3] O2 + 4H+ + 4e- ==> 2H2O

[4] 2H+ + 2e- ==> H2

The cathodic reaction represented by Equation [2] exemplifies corrosion in natural

environments where corrosion occurs at nearly neutral pH values. Equations [3] and
[4] represent corrosion processes taking place in the acidic environments
encountered in industrial processes or for the confined volumes (pits, crevices)
where the pH can reach acidic values because of hydrolysis reactions such as:

[5] Fe2+ + 2H2O ==> Fe(OH)2 + 2H+

This reaction produces H+ ions, the concentration of which can, uder certain
conditions, become large if the H+ ions cannot readily move out from a confined
volume. The overall corrosion reaction is, of course, the sum of the cathodic and
anodic partial reactions. For example, for a reaction producing dissolved ions (sum
of reactions [1] and [4]):

[6] Fe + 2H+ ==> Fe2+ + H2

or, for a reaction producing insoluble hydroxide (sum of reactions [1] and [2]):

[7] 2Fe + O2 + 2H2O ==> 2Fe(OH)2

Tafel equation
The Tafel equation is an early (1905) empirical relation between the overpotential
of the electrode and the current density passing through the electrode:
equation

"a" and "b" are characteristic constants of the electrode system. A plot of
electrode potential against the logarithm of the current density is called the
"Tafel plot" and the resulting straight line the "Tafel line". "b" is the "Tafel
slope" that provides information about the mechanism of the reaction, and "a" the
intercept, provides information about the rate constant (and the exchange current
density) of the reaction.
Related articles
Anodizing
Corrosion inhibition
Bibliography
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Listings of electrochemistry books, review chapters, and proceedings volumes are
also available in the Electrochemistry Science and Technology Information Resource
(ESTIR). (http://electrochem.cwru.edu/estir/)