FPSC SYLLABUS FOR CSS 2017-18

Agriculture & Forestry (100 MARKS)

PART-I: AGRICULTURE (50 MARKS)

1) Concept Of Integrated Agriculture: Components of Natural Resources As Bases For
Agriculture Production (Land, Water, Biological, Environmental, Solar, Energy)
2) Challenges in Pakistan’s Agriculture: Present Scenario and Future Prospects.
Analytical Overview: Issues and Strategies for Improvement of Crop Management,
Livestock Management, Fisheries, Cottage Industry, Resource Management and Rural
Development. Institutions and Policies: Issues and Options.
3) Elements of Climate and Their Relationship With Crop Growth: Farming Systems,
Biological Nitrogen Fixation, Soil Profile, Structure And Texture, Soil Fertility, Soil
Erosion And Conservation, Water Logging And Salinity
4) Genetic Improvement for Crop Production: GMO Crops, Seed Production Technology.
5) Horticulture: Floriculture, Landscaping, Pests and Diseases of Agriculture Crops and
Their Control, Integrated Pest Management.
6) Rainfed and Irrigated Agriculture: Agriculture Mechanization, Land Tenure and Land
Reforms, Role of Agriculture in National Economy.

PART-II: FORESTRY (50 MARKS)

1) Forest, Rangelands And Wildlife Importance And Significance
2) Forest Management And Utilization, Wood Based Industries In Pakistan, Silvi-Culture
3) Range Management And Utilization
4) National and International Forest Wealth Statistics
5) Role Of Wildlife As Value Addition To Forestry
6) Forest Based Wildlife Resources Of Pakistan And Their Management, Eco-Tourism
7) Forestry, Agro-forestry, Social Forestry And Forest Biometrics
8) Socio-Economic And Ecological Impact Of Man-Made Forests
9) Watershed Management And Role Of Forests In Prevailing Climate Change Dilemma
10) National Forest Laws And Policies At National Level, Biodiversity & Environment

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 CONTENTS

AGRICULTURE IN PAKISTAN- AN OVERVIEW

PART 1
CHAPTER 2: CHALLENGES IN AGRICULTURE OF PAKISTAN
CHAPTER 4: GENETIC IMPROVEMENT FOR CROP PRODUCTION
CHAPTER 6: RAINFED AND IRRIGATED AGRICULTURE
PART 2
CHAPTER 2: FOREST MANAGEMENT AND UTILIZATION
CHAPTER 7 & 8: TYPES OF FORESTRY
CHAPTER 10: NATIONAL FOREST POLICY

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 AGRICULTURE IN PAKISTAN- AN OVERVIEW

The foremost objective of Agriculture sector in Pakistan is to ensure adequate production and
availability of food for the population. It is the main source of livelihood for the rural
population and it also ensures food availability to rural and urban inhabitants. It is a key sector
of the economy as it provides raw materials to main industrial units of the country and also
has a major contribution in export earning of the country. The attainment of sustainable
growth in agriculture sector fulfils macroeconomic objectives through its forward and
backward linkages with the other sectors.

BACKGROUND

Pakistan has a rich and vast natural resource base, covering various ecological and climatic
zones; hence the country has great potential for producing all types of food commodities.
Agriculture has an important, direct and indirect, role in generating economic growth. This
sector is truly the backbone of Pakistan's economy. It is a considered opinion of experts that
Pakistan has a huge untapped potential for grabbing a significant share of the world agro-food
exports.

IMPORTANCE

The foremost objective of Agriculture sector in Pakistan is to ensure adequate production and
availability of food for the population. It is the main source of livelihood for the rural
population and it also ensures food availability to rural and urban inhabitants. It is a key sector
of the economy as it provides raw materials to main industrial units of the country and also
has a major contribution in export earning of the country. The attainment of sustainable
growth in agriculture sector fulfils macroeconomic objectives through its forward and
backward linkages with the other sectors.

The agriculture sector accounts for 21.0 percent of GDP and absorbs 43.7 percent of labour
force. The potential role for agriculture in development is to reduce poverty and drive growth
for countries whose economies are agriculture-based. Growing population size requires
agriculture growth compatible to meet required level of food. The potential role for agriculture
in development is to reduce poverty and drive growth.

SIGNIFICANCE OF AGRICULTURAL SECTOR IN THE ECONOMY

Agriculture is an important sector, providing food to the fast-growing population of the
country.
According the 1998 census, the total population of Pakistan is 130 million.
 With a population growth rate of 2.6 percent there is a net addition of 3.4 million people
each year. In 1947 the population of Pakistan was 32.5 million; in 50 years it has increased
fourfold.
 During this period the production of wheat, the major food crop, has increased only 2.9 fold.
 During 1970/71 the amount of wheat imported was 0.3 million tonnes;
 It has increased to 4.1 million tonnes in 1997. Tremendous efforts have been carried out to
narrow the gap between population growth and food production.

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Agriculture contributes about
 24 percent of the gross domestic product (GDP) and employs 47 percent of the national
employed labour force. The contribution of the agricultural sector to the GDP has
declined gradually since Pakistan came into existence, from over 50 percent in 1949-50
to about 24 percent in 1996-97.
 Agriculture still remains the major sector of the GDP composition. A major part of the
economy depends on farming through production, processing and distribution of major
agricultural commodities.
 In foreign trade agriculture again dominates, through exports of raw products such as
rice and cotton and semi-processed and processed products such as cotton yarn, cloth,
carpets and leather production .Agriculture is essential for sustainable improvements in
internal and external balances. Of the total export earnings, the share of primary
commodities and processed and semi-processed products constituted almost 60
percent of the total exports. There have been some structural changes over time, but the
contribution of agro-based products has more or less sustained its position.

More specifically; the agricultural sector plays an important part in Pakistan's economy by:

 Contributing 24 percent towards GDP;

 Providing food to about 130 million people;
 Earning about 60 percent of the country's total export earnings;
 Providing employment to 47 percent of the total work force;

SUBSECTORS AND THEIR PERFORMANCE IN 2013-14

The performance of Agriculture sector in previous fiscal year remained moderate. During fiscal
year 2013-14, agriculture sector recorded a growth of 2.1 percent against the growth of 2.9
percent in 2012-13. The decline in its growth was due to drop in cotton production and other
minor crops due to extreme weather conditions. Let's have a brief analysis of all four
subsectors of the agriculture sector:

1. Crops: The agriculture's crop subsector component, which includes important crops, grew
by 3.7 percent while other crops and cotton ginning showed a negative growth of 3.5 percent
and 1.3 percent, respectively. Important crops accounted for 25.6 percent of agricultural value
added and has experienced a growth of 3.7 percent in fiscal year 2013-14 against growth of 1.2
percent during the same period of 2012-13.

2. Livestock: Livestock sector is the mainstay of farming communities. It plays an important

role in poverty alleviation as it can uplift the socioeconomic conditions of country’s rural
masses. Livestock’s contribution to agriculture value added stood at 55.91 percent while it
contributed 11.8 percent to the national GDP during 2013-14 as compared to 55.5 percent and
11.9 percent during the corresponding period last year, respectively.

3. Fisheries: Fisheries contribute directly to food supplies, a source of livelihood for the
coastal inhabitants, export earnings and boosting the economy. This subsector has 2.03
percent contribution in agriculture and it registered a growth of 0.98 percent as compared to

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the growth of 0.65 percent last year. The sub-components of fisheries such as marine fishing
and in-land fishing contributed to an overall increase in value addition in the fisheries
subsector. The growth is expected to rise further in coming year due to lifting of the ban by EU
in fish export from Pakistan.

4. Forestry: The forestry sector of Pakistan is a main source of lumber, paper, fuel wood, latex,
medicine as well as food and of ecotourism. Growth of the forestry subsector in 2013-14 stood
at 1.52 percent as compared to the growth of 0.99 percent last year.

PROBLEMS AND THEIR SOLUTIONS

Despite the popular lamentations about the neglect of agriculture in the country, the
performance of the sector has been simply impressive. Here is a cursory look at the problems,
which have been impediments to the growth of agriculture in Pakistan, alongwith some
solutions:

1. Irrigation System: Agriculture production in Pakistan is dependent on one of the world's

most elaborate system of irrigation from surface canals and groundwater. In other countries,
this advantage would have been of immense value in transforming the pattern of agriculture.
But, in Pakistan, this resource has not been optimally utilized and has produced much lower
return than its potential. A comparison of wheat yields in the Indian Punjab and Pakistani
Punjab shows that the productivity in Pakistan can be raised by 40 percent through better use
of irrigation water. Inefficient irrigation application at the field level can be curbed through
zero tillage, laser levelling and regular de-weeding.

2. Water Resources: Water is now becoming scarce and has reached the stress level of 1000
cubic metre per capita and is on a downward slope. The situation has been aggravated by the
latest findings arising out of the studies on climate change. Pakistan is among South Asian
countries going to be adversely affected by the melting of glaciers in Himalayas from where
most of the Indus Basin System draws its sustenance. As water availability decreases, cropping
patterns get disrupted due to changes in the monsoons. With the risks of floods and droughts
increasing, the prospects of decreased agriculture productivity and food insecurity will face us
starkly.

3. Education: The education status of those engaged in the agriculture is a key factor. Farmers
with even five years of average schooling demonstrate higher productivity as compared to
those with no or only a little schooling. They are able to follow the instructions for the use of
fertilizers, seeds and planting techniques better than the illiterate farmers. Expansion in
schooling facilities in the rural areas is an area of public policy that will have a high pay off.

4. Storage and Marketing Facilities: The inadequacy of marketing and processing facilities
needs to be looked into as well. Small farmers are found to suffer relatively higher losses due
to a lot of waste, particularly in perishable commodities such as fruit and vegetable, milk, etc.
because of inadequate storage facilities, absence of agro processing and packaging facilities
nearby and lack of farm-to-market roads and transport infrastructure. Private sector should be
allowed to set up rural markets and the Government's exclusive monopoly in this respect
should be dismantled.

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5. Private Investment: Empirical studies have found that public development expenditure
leads to enhancement in private investment in agriculture. The implementation of well-
targeted public investment in infrastructure projects complements and stimulates private
investment in agriculture. Provincial governments should allocate resources for undertaking
public infrastructure projects such as farm-to-market roads, on-farm storage, silos and cold
storages, lining of water channels, etc. in the rural areas. Small farmers would thus be able to
store, and transport, their goods to the nearest markets. They would not make distress sales to
the middlemen who procure the produce directly by visiting the farms soon after the harvest
and pay much lower prices than the prevailing market prices.

6. Credit Facilities: Next comes the issue of credit to small farmers that has been a major
constraint in the adoption of new technologies and productivity-enhancing inputs such as
fertilizers, seeds, pesticides, renting agriculture machinery, etc. In recent years, microfinance
services have also reached the rural areas. Their penetration rate is still quite low. The
availability of credit on time would facilitate them to purchase certified seeds, fertilizers and
other inputs.

7. Cropping Pattern: The cropping pattern in Pakistan hasn't changed very much during the
last 67 years. The same four major crops figure prominently. Diversification into high value
products such as fruits and vegetables, oil seeds, pulses, etc. should form the main plank of our
agriculture development strategy as the demand of higher household incomes shifts from
cereals and staples to meat, fruits, vegetable, etc. The economics of irrigation also dictates that
water should be utilized for high value crops.

8. Livestock: The potential in livestock subsector has not been fully exploited because of a
number of constraints. Limited supply of forage and fodder, more physical exertion of animal
during grazing, frequent incidence of diseases, drought cycles, lack of access to veterinary
health services and vaccination, limited marketing opportunities for milk, meat and poultry
and non-existence of milk preservation facilities with the herders are some of the difficulties
faced by the farmers. Income from livestock production should be enhanced as it is a powerful
means for poverty reduction.

CONCLUSION
Agriculture sector faces certain challenges which require immediate and focused attention at
research as well as policy level. Sustainable agricultural growth based on paradigm that secure
more profitable farming, high productivity of major farming systems, diversification of high
value crops and demand-based production is the need of the hour.

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 CHALLENGES IN AGRICULTURE OF PAKISTAN

1) Introduction
I. Agriculture is the largest sector in the Pakistan economy and accounts for 24% of
gross domestic product (GDP). Government figures show that average growth in
the sector during the past five years has been 4.6% per annum and, in 1998, a
growth rate of 5.9% was a major contributor to the overall GDP growth rate of
5.4%.
II. Approximately 70% of Pakistan's foreign exchange earnings come from the sale
of agricultural products (such as cotton, rice, fruits and vegetables etc) and this
has stimulated demand for the provision of raw materials, equipment (mostly
second hand) and services to agro-based industries, mainly in the cotton textile
industry which is the largest industrial sub-sector in the country.
III. The sector is also the largest source of employment and accounts for over 50% of
Pakistan's labour force - nearly 2 million new jobs have been added since 1995 of
which 70% are estimated to be in rural areas.
2) Present Scenario (General Overview)
I. The present and previous Government from time to time has introduced a range
of incentives to enable farmers to boost production and increase output by
allowing Foreign Direct Investment in the agricultural sector. New targets have
been set for different crops for the year 2000-2001 with special emphasis on
cotton crop which is estimated at 9.7 million bales of cotton, 51. 6 million tonnes
of sugarcane, 5.1 million tonnes of rice, 1.5 million tonnes of maize and 22 million
tonnes of wheat during the said period.
II. In the foreign trade, it is agriculture, which dominates through exports of raw
commodities like rice, cotton and fruits, semi processed and processed products
like cotton yarn, cloth, carpets and leather products. Of the total export earnings
of Rs 387.2 billion in 1998 - 99, the earnings from export of rice and cotton alone
amounted to Rs 26.3 billion or 7 percent of the total exports.
III. Import of agricultural commodities contributes substantially to total Pakistan
imports. The major agricultural import categories are edible oils and grains,
pulses and tea. During 1998 - 99, the value of the former category is made up of
about 73 percent palm oil and the remainder is mostly soybean oil. The latter
category is made up of over 85 percent wheat imports. Together, these two
import categories represents 13.5 percent of the total imports. However,
expected wheat production targets (19.5 million tonnes) in FY 99 - 00 was
surpassed and the country for the first time exported US $ 250 million worth
wheat.
IV. Agricultural Policy: The agricultural sector is highly politicised because the
majority of landowners have had considerable political influence. This has
resulted in agricultural policy being steered towards supporting the production
of major cash crops such as sugarcane, and exempting almost all agricultural
income from taxes. However, following recent discussions with the IMF and
World Bank on revenue collection in general, the present government is in the

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 process of re-structuring the system to try and increase agricultural taxation. In
addition, successive governments have extended considerable support to the
sector by providing concessionary financing to farmers for the purchase of
agricultural equipment (mainly tractors) and for building irrigation and drainage
systems.
V. Three year Strategy: The Ministry of Agriculture is preparing a new three-year
strategy. This will focus on the enhanced productivity of export oriented crops
and ensure better marketing of exportable crops to get maximum prices of the
produce. The new strategy will envisages to improve the performance of the
agriculture sector including
i. Higher growth rate of agriculture as compared to population growth
ii. Food security and self-reliance in food crops
iii. Enhancing the productivity of wheat, rice, oil seeds, cotton and sugarcane
iv. Land and water development for a sustained agricultural growth
v. Farm input supplies supported by appropriate technology to the farmers
and at the users' end, balanced emphasis on all aspects of agricultural
production including livestock, fisheries and forestry
vi. Improving marketing of agricultural commodities, emphasis on
agricultural research to generate innovative technology including
biotechnology for raising per acre yield of land.
vii. Improving the productivity of small farmers while encouraging the large
farmers for utilisation of modern technology.
VI. Corporate Farming:
i. Agriculture Ministry and Small & Medium Enterprise Authority (SMEDA)
are preparing a policy package for Corporate Agriculture Farming (CAF).
According to the proposed package, the land to be used for the purpose of
CAF will not be included in any land reforms, undertaken by the
government in future.
ii. A support committee will be created in Ministry of Food, Agriculture and
Livestock (MINFAL), comprising officials from the Federal and Provincial
Ministries of agriculture, Board of Investment (BOI), provincial boards of
revenue and farmers organisations to launch a campaign for attracting
foreign and domestic investment in the agriculture sector. All the
proposals for domestic and foreign investment for the CAF will be placed
before the BOI, which will finalise the case in consultation with the
Agriculture Ministry.
iii. The Provincial Governments shall be tasked to identify lands in blocks
greater than 2000 acres, suitable for large-scale mechanised farming along
with the terms and conditions.
iv. The induction of corporate farms will bring modern production
technology, access to capital, direct access to domestic and foreign
markets, and professional management expertise. It will also generate
opportunities for the inputs industry, as the corporate farms will act as

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 large consumers of farm inputs. On the marketing side, these farms will
generally undertake the processing and grading and supply of raw
material to agro industry.
VII. Main Crops
i. Four crops dominate agricultural production: wheat, cotton, sugar cane
and rice. They account for around 39% of total agricultural output and
nearly 10% of GDP. This is despite the fact that crop yields in Pakistan are
generally low compared to international standards. For example, wheat
yields are only 75% of international standards, while rice yields are
approximately 66%.
ii. Cotton - Pakistan is one of the largest cotton producing and exporting
countries in the world. Cotton and cotton related products make up 34%
of Pakistan's total exports. Cotton is used in the upstream spinning,
weaving and textile garments industries, which employ the bulk of the
industrial labour force.
iii. Wheat - Wheat is Pakistan's largest food grain crop, and accounts for a
large proportion of the total area under cultivation. The majority of wheat
is grown in the Punjab. Despite increased fertiliser usage and the
government's drive towards self-sufficiency, local demand continues to
outstrip supply, except for the year 1999 - 2000 when wheat production
was 21.1 million tons as against 17.9 million tones in 1998 - 99. The
increase in wheat production was mainly due to increase in area by 2%
and yield 15%. Factors responsible for this increase are:
1. Increase in support price of wheat by Rs 60 per 40 kg
2. Increased use of fertiliser by 9.5%
3. Improvement of seed supply
4. Favourable weather
5. Provision of training to farmers in wheat production technology
iv. Rice - Pakistan grows enough high quality rice to meet both domestic
demand and allow for exports of around one million tonnes per annum.
Two varieties of rice dominate the market: basmati, which is grown
mainly in the Punjab and irri, which is grown mainly in the Punjab and
Sindh. Basmati accounts for around 2% of exports and is of a higher
quality than irri. Quantities of irri are exported to Bangladesh and Africa.
Production of rice during 1999 - 2000 was 5156 thousands tonnes, which
is 10.3 percent higher than 1998 - 1999 as a result of increase in the area,
better yield, favourable climatic conditions and less attack of insects, pests
/ diseases, on the crop during the year. It was cultivated on an area of
2515 thousand hectares, which was 3.7 percent higher as compared to
1998 - 99. The yield per hectare was also higher by 6.3 percent. However
due to the less rains this year government is discouraging the rice
cultivation and instead encouraging the farmers to grow cotton which
consumes less water.

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 v. Sugar cane - Sugar cane is grown in abundance throughout Pakistan and is
the major raw material for the sugar refining and packing industries. Most
sugar is produced in the Punjab (57%) and Sindh (40%). Sugarcane has
been cultivated on an area of 1010 thousand hectares during 1999 - 2000,
showing a decline of 12.5 percent over 1998 - 1999. The production
during 1999 - 2000 remained 46363 thousands tonnes which is lower by
almost 16 percent as compered with 1998 - 1999. The yield per hectare
has also declined by 3.9 percent. Several factors are responsible for the
sharp decline in sugarcane crop. Firstly, the delay in payments by the
sugar mills discouraged farmers to grow sugarcane. Secondly, sugarcane is
an intensive user of water relative to other crops. The abolition of flat
rates of electric tube-wells by the Water and Power Development
Authority (WAPDA) in Punjab also created water constraints. The
Government with its policy to cope up with the problem of water scarcity
is encouraging farmers to grow cotton instead of sugarcane.
VIII. Mechanisation: Mechanisation of agriculture has played an important role in
increasing agricultural production. The policy has been framed to accelerate the
pace of agricultural mechanisation in the country. The sale of tractors for the
period July - March 1999 - 2000 is reported as 26313 or 47.1 percent higher than
17882 tractors delivered during the same period last year. The increase in sale is
largely attributed to the availability of agricultural credit (by ADBP) and ensuring
of tractor pricing within the affordable limits of farmers. Messy Ferguson (UK) in
Joint Venture with "Millat Tractor" are producing tractors to meet the local
demand. ADBP allocated funds to the tune of Rs 7000 million for tractor financing
during the year 1999 - 2000. Furthermore, a sum of Rs 4510 million was
disbursed during 1998-99 for purchase of 16,951 tractors of various makes,
including 2,562 tractors under Punjab Government subsidy and 791 tractors
under Federal Government subsidy for Balochistan.
IX. Characteristics of Market: Government of Pakistan has identified agriculture as
one of the priority sector productive for domestic and foreign investment. Recent
developments include the import of agricultural machinery at concessional
customs duty for non-corporate agriculture. Pakistan faces major difficulties with
crop yields and over use of pesticides when compared to other agricultural
centres in the region. This is compounded by dated infrastructure and farming
techniques that have not changed for decades and a lack of adequate irrigation
and cold storage facilities.
3) Importance for the uplift of economy
I. Increase in Per Capita Income
II. Major Source of Employment
III. Reduction in Poverty
IV. Supply of Food
V. Source of Forex Earning
VI. Supply of Surplus Labour

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 VII. Source of National Income
VIII. Supply of Raw Material
IX. Development of Industrial Sector
X. Balance of Payment Position
XI. Improvement in Living Standard
XII. Extension in Market Size
XIII. Capital Formation
XIV. Increase in Investment
XV. Economic Development
XVI. Self Reliance Policy
XVII. Direct Foreign Investment
XVIII. Controlling Inflation
XIX. Reduction in Regional Disparities
XX. Demand for Industrial Goods
XXI. Balanced Growth Economy
XXII. Increase in Govt. Revenue
4) Crop Management
I. Issues: TECHNO-ECONOMIC PROBLEMS
i. Limited Cultivable Area: The total area of Pakistan is about 79.6 million
hectares, out of which only 23.7 million hectares (28%) area is used for
agricultural purposes. About 8 million hectares area is idle and un-utilized.
There is vast sub-division and fragmentation of land holdings, as a result
modern technology cannot be applied in agriculture sector.
ii. Water Logging and Salinity: Water logging and salinity are twin
problems of agricultural sector due to salinity, deposits of salt in land have
appeared on the surface of land and they have adversely affected the
performance of agricultural sector. Water logging and salinity affect about
0.10 million acre of land in every year. It is not only waste of land but also
reduction in productivity.
iii. Slow Growth of Allied Products: Allied products refer to those
productions, which are not agricultural but indirectly, help the farmer to
improve his living standard. Pakistan is in-sufficient in the production of
fruits, milk, poultry, fisheries, livestock and forestry. As a result not only
our food quality is poor but also industries such as furniture, textiles and
dairy cannot be developed.
iv. Low Per Hectare Yield: The most important problem of agriculture is its
low yield per hectare for almost every major crop. 45.0% of labour force is
engaged in this sector in Pakistan while it is less than 5% in developed
countries. But, other countries of world are getting higher yield per
hectare due to use of modern technology and trained labour.
v. Inadequate Infrastructure: Rural infrastructure like, roads, storage
facilities, transport, electricity, education, sanitation and health facilities
etc. is inadequate to meet the requirement of growth of agriculture. Total

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 length of farm-to-market road is not only shorter but their condition is
also poor. Many villages have no metal-led road at all. Electricity is
available to only 3/4 rural populations.
vi. Uneconomic Land Holdings: Due to increasing population and division of
land under the law of inheritance, landholdings are subdivided over and
over again. The result is that very large number of farmers has less than 2
hectares of area. Moreover holdings are scattered. It is difficult to use
modern machinery on small pieces of land.
vii. Old Methods of Production: No doubt, mechanization of agriculture is
increasing in Pakistan, but in most of the areas, the old implements are
still being used for agricultural production. Old and orthodox techniques
of production cannot increase the production according to international
levels.
viii. Inadequate Supply of Agricultural Inputs: The supply of modern inputs
like high yielding variety (HYV) seeds, chemical fertilizers, pesticides,
mechanized machinery etc. not only costly but also inadequate and
irregular in Pakistan. Numbers of fertilizer producing units are just 10 in
Pakistan.
ix. Lack of Irrigation Facilities: Shortage of irrigation facilities causes a
serious limitation in the expansion of crop area in Pakistan. The lower
water supplies, loses from water course in the fields are the serious
problems of farm sector. Actual surface water availability is 91.8 million
acre feet.
x. Inadequate Agricultural Research: The average crop yield in Pakistan is
very low as compared to the production levels of the advanced countries
of the world. In order to raise the potential of agricultural production,
there should be continuous improvement in the research for agricultural
growth. Total agricultural universities and colleges are only 16 in Pakistan.
xi. Problem of Land Reforms: Land reforms have been implemented against
the will of people. There is an urgent need to conduct a proper land reform
for improving agricultural growth. Due to this problem agricultural
production cannot increase to desired level.
xii. Defective Land Tenure System: Defective land tenure system is also
responsible for low yield per acre in agricultural sector. Landlords and
feudal-lords live in posh urban areas while tenants and peasants have no
or less incentive for their hard work. So, the productivity in agricultural
sector remains low.
xiii. Subsistence Farming: Our farmer is attached with subsistence farming; a
huge of portion of production is consumed at farmer’s own house to
support large family. Hence, less portion of the production is available for
market supply. It causes low income of the farmers. Farming is not
conducted at commercial level in Pakistan.

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 xiv. Low Cropping Intensity: Cropping intensity means the number of crops
grown on a piece of land in one year. At the present stage of our
development, there is low level of cropping intensity as compared to
advanced countries. Cultivable area under double or multiple cropping is
inadequate in Pakistan.
xv. Improper Crop Rotation: Proper turning round of crops is essential to
re-establish the fertility of the land. The constant cultivation of one crop or
two; exhausts the fertility of the soil. Proper rotation of crops is necessary
in order to restore the fertility.
II. Issues: NATURAL PROBLEMS
i. Various Plant Diseases: Various agricultural crops like cotton, sugarcane,
tobacco, wheat and rice often come under attack of pests and insects. Pests
and plant diseases reduce the annual productivity of agriculture.
ii. Natural Calamities: Labour is in the hand of mankind but its result is in
the hands of ALLAH in agriculture sector. So, growth of agriculture is
dominated by nature. In case if there is too much rain, reduction in the
productivity. There is 20% reduction in productivity due to unnecessary
rain and unfavourable climatic situations in Pakistan.
iii. Scarcity of HYV Seeds: Our poor farmers have to use lower quality seeds
due to non-availability of High Yielding Variety (HYV) seeds. On the other
hand, if seed is available they cannot be purchased due to low income.
Agricultural production is badly affected because of inferior quality of
seeds.
iv. Under Utilization of Land: Mostly poor population is attached with
agricultural sector in Pakistan. They are using orthodox and traditional
means of cultivation. Our farmer is not interested to use the advanced and
modern means of farming, as a result area under cultivation remains
under utilized, un-utilized or mis-utilized.
III. Issues: SOCIO-ECONOMIC PROBLEMS
i. Consumption Oriented: Our farmers have no proper records of their
incomes and expenses. Mostly, they spend more when they have more due
to illiteracy. A huge part of the farmer’s income is consumed on occasions
of marriage, birth, death and several other rural ceremonies and festivals
in Pakistan.
ii. Farmer’s Litigation: There are frequent and continuous litigations among
the farmers directly or indirectly. They are often seen in courts, police
stations, irrigation offices, revenue boards and other official problems. Due
to mentioned problems, our farmer cannot devote his time, energy,
efficiency and labour to agricultural productions.
iii. Joint Family System: Joint family system is also a big problem in
agricultural sector. Our farmer is poor; on the other hand he has to
support his big family. It creates deficiency in saving and investment. A
huge part of farmer’s productivity is consumed at his own house.

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 iv. Illiteracy and Ill-health: Most of the farmers, labourers and tenants in
our country are illiterate. They are untrained and inefficient to boost up
the agricultural productivity. On the other side, the health of our farmers is
improper due to rural backwardness. Literacy rate is only 57.7 % in
Pakistan. Economic Survey of Pakistan shows that literacy remains higher
in urban areas (73.2 percent) than in rural areas (49.2 percent).
v. Political Instability: Political instability has affected development in all
economic and social sectors. Unfortunately, the political situations in
Pakistan are not stable. It creates unrest among the farmers to sell the
productions to various industries as a raw material. On the other hand,
people hesitate to invest in agricultural sector due to political unrest.
IV. Issues: FINANCIAL PROBLEMS
i. Lack of Credit: Basically our farmer is poor and he has low level of income.
Agricultural credit facilities are not common in Pakistan. Credit that can
facilitate agriculture is not available easily. Moreover non-institutional
sources are available but these are not reliable due to high rate of interest.
About 50.8% poor borrow from landlords in Pakistan.
ii. Poor Financial Position of Farmers: It is a common saying about our
farmer that he borns in debts, grows in debts and dies in debts. It means
that financial position of Pakistani farmer is weak and poor. According to
“Pakistan Human Development Report 2003” about 57.4% poor are
working for feudal-lords without wages.
iii. Instability in Market Prices: The price market of agricultural goods
generally remains unstable in the country. Cobweb theorem is very
popular in case of market prices; it means that a price of one commodity is
much high in this year and much low in the next year and vice versa. The
farmers, do not get due reward from the sale of their productions. So, they
remain unsatisfied.
iv. Shortage of Agricultural Finance: Agricultural credit facilities are not
sufficient in Pakistan. Rate of interest on agricultural credit is high and
loan is not provided in time. According to “Pakistan Human Development
Report 2003” in Pakistan about 50.8% poor borrow from landlords at very
high rate of interest.
V. Strategies for improvement:
i. Government policies for Short term and long term:
ii. Supply of Agriculture Credit: Poor farmers cannot afford the expensive
technology from their own resources in Pakistan. So, supply of agriculture
credit at easy terms and conditions is very necessary. An amount of Rs.
85,177 million is disbursed by commercial banks in 2009 and Rs. 49
billion was distributed by ZTBL. ZTBL issued credit or Rs. 37.4 billions
during 2010-11.
iii. Water Logging and Salinity Control: Water logging and salinity destroys
about one million acre of land every year in Punjab and Sindh. It reduces

15
 our cultivable area. For this purpose, installation of tube wells, repair of
canal banks and drainage of water etc. are needed. The Ministry of
Agriculture proposed to invest Rs. 18.5 billion with the objective of
converting 2,00,000 acres of irrigated land to drip and shower irrigation
system.
iv. Construction of Dams: Sometimes, due to heavy unwanted rains and
floods agricultural productivities destroys. To tackle this problem it is
necessary to construct dames and bands on rivers.
v. Provision of HYV Seed: High yielding variety seed is not available at
suitable price in Pakistan. So, farmers have to depend upon low quality of
seeds that causes 20% reduction in total production. Government should
provide HYV seed at minimum price in this case.
vi. Mechanization: Farm mechanization is necessary to remove the
problems to agriculture sector. Sowing, cultivation and harvesting of crops
through agricultural machines increase the productive quality and
quantity.
vii. Agricultural Research: Agricultural research is compulsory to remove
the backwardness of agriculture sector. Major agricultural colleges and
universities are only about 16 in Pakistan. Government should increase
the research work in the field of agriculture.
viii. Agro-based Industries: Agro-based industries like poultry, fisheries,
dairy and livestock should establish. These industries indirectly lead to
improve the agricultural sector.
ix. Tax Concessions: Mechanization is necessary to remove the problems of
agriculture sector. Government should give tax concession on imports of
agricultural technologies to enhance the process of farm mechanization.
x. Training of Farmers: Our farmers are illiterate and ill trained so, their
efficiencies are poor. Government should start special education
programme for farmers and give them training about farming.
xi. Prices of Agricultural Productivities: Sometimes, our farmers receive
low prices of their crops. There is no proper effective price policy of
government. Government should set reasonable prices of agricultural
productions to develop the living standard of farmers.
5) Livestock Management
I. Status:
i. Livestock is an important sector of agriculture and occupies a unique
position in the National Agenda of the economic development of the
present government. The sector meets the domestic demand of milk, meat
and eggs.
ii. It also provides net source of foreign earnings. More than 8.0 million rural
families are involved in raising livestock. It is central to the livelihood of
the rural poor in the country and can play an important role in poverty
alleviation and can uplift the socioeconomic conditions of our rural masses.

16
 iii. Livestock contributed to agriculture value added stood at 56.3 percent
while it contributes 11.8 percent to the national GDP during 2014-15
compared to 55.6 percent and 11.8 percent during the same period last
year, respectively. Gross value addition of livestock has increased from Rs.
778.3 billion (2013-14) to Rs. 801.3 billion (2014-15), recorded an
increase of 3.0 percent as compared to previous year.
iv. The major products of livestock are milk and meat which for the last three
years
v. The population growth, urbanization, increases in per capita income and
export opportunities are few of the main factors to fuel the demand of
livestock and livestock products in the country. The overall livestock
development strategy revolves to foster "private sector-led development
with public sector providing enabling environment through policy
interventions and play capacity building role to improve livestock
husbandry practices". The emphasis will be on improving per unit animal
productivity and moving from subsistence to market oriented and then
commercial livestock farming in the country to meet the domestic demand
and surplus for export. The objective is to use livestock sector as engine
for economic growth and food security for the country and further leading
to rural socioeconomic uplift.
vi. Government Policy Measure: Livestock Wing with its redefined role
under 18th Constitutional Amendment continued regulatory measures
that included allowing import of high yielding animals, semen and
embryos for the genetic improvement of indigenous dairy animals,
allowing import of high quality feed stuff/micro ingredients for improving
the nutritional quality of animal & poultry feed and allowing duty free
import of veterinary, dairy and livestock machinery / equipment in order
to encourage establishment of value added industry in the country.
Livestock insurance scheme for farmers having 10 animals or more have
been introduced during 2014-15. Zero rating on processed valued added
chicken products has been withdrawn. Livestock Wing also provided
facilitation for export of red meat. A total of 49.5 thousand tons of red
meat was exported from July-March 2014-15. The export of meat fetched
US$ 145.6 million. This meat was exported from 29 private sector
slaughterhouses. During same period export facilitation was also provided
for livestock by- products like animal casing, bones, horns and hooves,
gelatin. Efforts are on way to access new markets like Russia, China, South
Africa, and Indonesia for export of our meat and meat products.
II. Issues
i. Nutrition: Adequate nutrition is a major problem in livestock production in
Pakistan. Without providing the required nutrition for the animal the genetic
potential cannot be exploited. It is yet to be decided that how much nutrients
our animals need to express their full genetic potential of productivity. To

17
 develop feeding standards of buffaloes, cattle, sheep and goat, no serious effort
have been made. It is difficult for extension workers to recommend accurately
to livestock farmers that what standard he has to follow to feed his cow for
cost-effective milk and meat production. Some advancement has been made in
this regard however there is a lot need to do for revolution in animal nutrition.
The availability of green fodder is not sufficient.
ii. Health: Livestock health is a limiting factor to productivity. A major problem is
the lack of proper knowledge and awareness about the productive benefits of
disease control. Those farmers, who are aware of the benefits, have limited
access to appropriate vaccines and therapeutic drugs. Animal production
systems are affected by different types of diseases with varying capacity like
mastitis, foot and mouth, helminthosis, parasites and tick-borne are most
important regarding animal productivity. In short the diseases seriously affect
productivity and profitability. Vaccination and treatment for the animals was
usually ignored by farmers which fallout to huge losses regarding productivity
and the number of heads. Farmers use to practise traditional methods for
animal care which exacerbate the problems for animal health. Lack of
diagnosis of diseases is a major factor in low productivity. In Pakistan, quacks
are very active in curing animals in the rural areas. These non-technical
persons often treat animals with hit and trial methods which some time cause
even death of the animal.
iii. Animal Productivity/Genetic Potential: Pakistan has bred with low genetic
potential Sire (bull). The breed with best potential such as Sahiwal cow and
Nili-Ravi buffalo are rarely found on the farms of small and medium farmers
who contribute a bigger share of heads. These pure breeds are in fact in danger.
There is need to save and exploit the genetic potential of the high yielding
breeds. It is common observation that there is a tendency among farmers to
cross the animals by imported semen. This practice is a big threat to our local
and potential breeds. It is interesting to say that Australia had demanded the
100 pure Sahiwal breed and Pakistan could not provide. It shows that the
country is being lost to the breed.
iv. Lack of Livestock Credit: To establish the modern livestock farms, it needs
huge capital. Unlike crop sector, livestock sector required more investment.
The absence of credit disbursement to small and medium-scale farmers the
involvement of poor farmers in the commercialization of livestock production
is restricted.
v. Deprived livestock extension activities: Livestock extension wing in the
country is inadequately performing and partial toward large farmers tending
to neglect poor rural livestock-keepers. Public sector follows a top-down
transfer of technology approach. It is now universally accepted that this
approach is not result oriented instead bottom up approach should be adopted
in which the participation of the livestock farmers should be ensured. In
extension programs, only large ruminants are focused and the other species

18
 are almost excluded which need to be addressed. The extension services are
concentrated in the areas where potential for livestock is high. The services
should be evenly provided to the farmers, and neglected areas in fact deserve
more. The extension messages are not frequently disseminated through print
and electronic media. There is a dire need to educate the farmers as without
educating there the dream of high productivity cannot be realized.
vi. Poor Marketing System: Proper marketing system encourages the animal
productivity. Poor marketing system is also a noteworthy limitation in the
animal productivity. The private sector has organized the farmers’ association
for their own interest. These associations collect milk for the organizations.
Regarding marketing farmers are at the mercy of milkmen and commission
agents (middle man). These market players utilize the poor farmers. There
should be a systematic marketing system which could ensure the profit share
of the farmers.
III. Strategies for improvement:
i. Improving the genetic potential of native livestock through selection,
crossbreeding and Artificial insemination.
ii. Quality of poor fodders and straws can be improved with treatment of
urea and molasses. The urea is an economical source of nitrogen while
molasses offer ample energy to the ruminants.
iii. Good, economical, efficient and flexible housing strategies should be
developed through animal production experts or any other feasible and
sustainable sources.
iv. Enforcement of vaccination schedules beside proper and timely veterinary
cover.
v. Control of ecto and endo-parasites through proper dipping and drenching
with suitable chemicals. Response of proper feeding and improved
nutritional management is much lower if animals are infested with the
parasites.
vi. Upgrading of breed potential and high-quality management will increase
conception rate, growth rate, and milk yield and diminish calving interval.
vii. Price stability in livestock production is a must for avoiding great seasonal
fluctuations. Implementation of sound policies can bring the livestock
economy to a great assurance.
viii. Preservation of spare milk in winter by converting it into powder and
saving massive amounts of foreign exchange being spent on the import of
dry milk.
ix. Replacing draught animals to beef route through fattening and finishing
programs. A feedlot system for cattle, male buffalo calves, sheep, goats and
other culled animals should be encouraged.
x. Proper pricing system is also the need of the hour. Meat grading,
preservation and suitable marketing are required.

19
 xi. Commercial producers should be encouraged by providing incentives and
services.
xii. Manure should be handled properly along with its preservation, timely
application for increasing soil fertility and keeping pollution under control.
6) Fisheries
I. Status:
i. Fishery plays an important role in Pakistan’s economy and is considered
to be a source of livelihood for the coastal inhabitants. A part from marine
fisheries, inland fisheries (based in rivers, lakes, ponds, dams etc.) is also
very important activity throughout the country. Fisheries share in GDP
although very little but it adds substantially to the national income
through export earnings.
ii. During 2014-15 (July-March), total marine and inland fish production was
estimated 499,000 m. tonnes out of which 365,000 m. tonnes was marine
production and the remaining catch came from inland waters. Whereas
the production for the period 2013-14 (July-March), was estimated to be
494,000 m. tons in which 345,000 m. tons was for marine and the
remaining was produced by inland fishery sector.
iii. Pakistan’s major buyers are China, Thailand, Malaysia, Middle East, Sri
Lanka, Japan, etc. During 2014-15 (July-March), a total of 100,321
m.tonnes of fish and fishery products were exported earning US$ 253.625
million. Whereas the export for 2013-14 (July-March), was 102,967
m.tonnes of fish and fishery products were exported earning US$ 254.728
million. The export of fish & fishery products has been decreased by 2.57
percent in quantity and in value have been decreased by 0.43 percent
during 2014-15 (July-March).
iv. Government of Pakistan is taking a number of steps to improve fisheries
sector which includes inter alia strengthening of extension services,
introduction of new fishing methodologies, development of value added
products, enhancement of per capita consumption of fish, up-gradation of
socio-economic conditions of the fishermen’s community.
v. Biological and Hydrological Research: During July-March 2014-15,
sample of seawater collected from coastal areas were analyzed to
determine parameters which affect fish distribution. Fish samples of
different species were examined for study of length-weight relationship,
sex ratio, maturity, food and feeding habit and fecundity etc. Monitoring
for fish landing to determine stock position was also carried out at Karachi
Fish Harbour.
vi. Quality Control Services: Marine Fisheries Department is responsible to
regulate quality and promote export of fish and fishery products and to
prevent export of substandard quality of seafood products and for matters
connected therewith and ancillary thereto. During July-March 2014-15,
the Quality Control Section of MFD has issued 12,555 certificates of

20
 Quality & Origin and health for seafood commodities exported from
Pakistan.
vii. Accreditation of Quality Control Laboratories Under ISO / IEC-17025
International Standards: Two (02) laboratories (namely Microbiology
and Chemical) of MFD achieved international accreditation under ISO /
IEC -17025 international standards. Thus the MFD has fulfilled the
requirements of EU and other importing countries and now, the test
reports issued by these laboratories are acceptable all over the world.
viii. Extension in Accreditation of Testing Laboratories: The Biochemical
laboratory of MFD is planned for achievements of accreditation under
ISO/17025 International Standards.
ix. Marine fisheries in Pakistan is being carried out on two distinct grounds i.e.
coastline covering Mekran (Balochistan) as well as the coast of Karachi
(Sindh). Sindh and Balochistan coasts comprise of many widely dispersed,
small landing places utilized by small craft equipped with sails and/or
outboard engines. The marine fish are marketed as fresh, freezing,
canning for local consumption. Karachi and Mekran being the most
important fishing ports are being developed by the Government of
Pakistan as a fishing centre.
x. Inland fisheries are getting much popularity. Some inland resources
include small rivers, dams (Tarbela, Mangla and Chashma), lakes (Haleji,
Keenjhar and Manchhar), barrages, reservoirs, ponds and canals.
xi. The major marine harbors of Pakistan are:
1. Karachi Fish Harbor handles about 90% of fish and seafood catch in
Pakistan and 95% of fish and seafood exports from Pakistan.
2. Karachi Fisheries Harbor is being operated by Provincial
Government of Sindh.
3. Korangi Fish Harbor is being managed by Federal Ministry of Food,
Agriculture and Livestock.
4. Pasni Fish Harbor being operated by Provincial Government of
Balochistan.
5. Gwadar Fish Harbor being operated by Federal Ministry of
Communication.
xii. Aquaculture: In Pakistan farming of different kinds of fishes is practiced in
the Punjab, North West Frontier and Sindh provinces but on limited scale.
Aquaculture is receiving increasing attention as it appears to have a good
profit potential for small and medium sized investors. Government has
established several fish hatcheries and training facilities for fish farmers.
xiii. Fish Marketplace: Pakistan has a domestic and an international market for
fish, shrimps and fish products.
xiv. Domestic Market: At domestic level the catch from marine fisheries is
supplied to the local fish markets. Frozen or processed fish is supplied to
only a few large departmental stores in some cities.

21
 xv. International Market: At international level Pakistan has a market for fish
and fish products. Pakistan exports reasonable quantity of shrimp, fish and
its products and earns a substantial amount of foreign exchange. Fish and
fish products are processed and exported to many countries, European
Countries being at the top. Major markets for export are: Canada,USA
Denmark , Japan, Holland, Norway, Iceland, Korea, Hong Kong, Taiwan,
Singapore Malaysia, Gulf
xvi. The organizations that are part of different projects or research and
development for industry, fisheries and aquaculture are:
1. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) – Fisheries Department
2. The Pakistan Agricultural Research Council (PARC) is carrying out
the research of the industry.
3. Aquaculture Technologies Pakistan
4. Many universities are also involved for research and development
of the industry.
II. Issues
III. Strategies for improvement
7) Cottage Industry
I. Status
i. Surgical manufacturers. This type of business requires stainless steel which can
only acquired through imports. However, its end product is exported. The
Lahore and Sialkot cater to surgical manufacturers.
ii. Metalworking. In Peshawar area of Pakistan metalworking is done, it is famous
for copper and brass. The items produced include tins, trays, cans, plants.
iii. Ceramics. Ceramic painting and manufacturing is a famous cottage industry of
Pakistan. A well known example of ceramic painting is Pakistani piggy banks
called “ Gallas”. Children use “Gallas” to save their money. Gujrat, Bahawalpur,
and Rawalpindi are areas where ceramic manufacturing is aesthetically done.
The items usually produced are crockery items like pots, mugs, cups and more.
iv. Jewelers. The level of perfection with which the jewellery is manufactured in the
cottage industry is to be praised, albeit, they are hand made but the perfection
with which it is made makes it commendable.
v. Textiles. The intelligence of report of ‘ECONOMIST’ in August 2003 claims,”
Despite Government efforts to diversify exports and widen the industrial base,
the industrial sector remains dominated by the Textile sector. Textile Sector still
represents 46% of total manufacturing and provides 68% of Pakistan’s Export
receipts”. The items produced through textile industry of Pakistan include
Chiffon, Georgette, Lawn, Linen, Silk, and Taffeta.
vi. Carpets & Rugs. The Quetta is known for selling the best rugs in the country. The
customers can get Moroccan rugs, Persian rugs, Turkish rugs, Afghani rugs, and
Russian rugs. These carpets and rugs have hand-knotted materials which have a
demand globally.

22
 vii. The President of ICCI claimed that Cottage industry has provided employment to
almost 80% of industrial workers.
II. Issues
i. Lack of Finance: The cottage and small scale industry is facing the problem of
capital shortage. The financial institutions are not ready to provide the credit on
low rate of interest. It is an obstacle in the ways of small scale industry
development.
ii. Competition: There is a stiff competition between the large scale industry and
small scale industry and usually small scale industry suffers a loss.
iii. Import Policy: The import [policy of the government is also not favorable for the
small scale industry. It discourages the small scale industry.
iv. Smuggling: Smuggling of large scale consumer goods from Russia, Iran and
Singapore has also discouraged the small scale industry.
v. Problem of Raw Material: The owner of the small scale industry can not get
enough raw material what he wants. Poor quality of raw material is provided on
higher prices to the small industry.
vi. Old Methods of Production: Small industries use old machines and old methods
of production. Due to this the quality of small scale industries product is very
poor. So they are helpless to sell the product at low rate.
vii. Lack of Marketing Facility: The marketing facilities are inadequate in the country.
The small and cottage industries are selling their product at the low prices in the
hands of middleman. Even they can not advertise their product on T.V because
they have not sufficient capital for this purpose.
viii. Lack of Qualified Staff: The cottage industries can not employ the qualified
engineers and economists. It reduces the quality of product.
ix. Shortage of Electricity: There are a large number of villages where electricity is
no available. The non availability of electricity is an obstacle in the way of small
scale industries.
x. Breakdown of Electricity: The regular break down of electricity has also affected
the production of small scale industry adversely. Prices of electricity are also
rising day by day. Higher prices has increased the cost of production.
xi. Lack of Standardization: The mixing of good and bad product creates problems
of marketing inside and outside the country. The product is not standardized.
xii. High Cost of Production: The mostly cost of cottage industry is very high.
Because the process of production is very slow and raw material is also bought
at higher prices. Rates of electricity charges are also increasing.
xiii. Entrepreneur is Uneducated: Mostly cottage industries are owned managed and
controlled by literate people. They follow the old methods and production
remains very low.
xiv. Lack of Roads and Transport Facilities: There is a lack of roads, transport, water
supply, electricity and telephone facilities for the small scale industry. When
infrastructure will not be available how those can flourish.

23
 xv. Lack of Storage Facilities: The small scale industry in particularly in villages is
lacking storage facilities. A huge product is wasted due to the problem.
III. Strategies for improvement
8) Resource Management and Rural Development
I. Status
i. Rural development is a total process of economic, social and human
development. Development programmes have different connotations in different
political and social systems, but common to all is the need to reduce
unemployment, poverty and inequality with the participation of the masses.
ii. Despite the rhetoric and insistence on local or popular participation in decision
making, all development models had the same “up-down” relationship, but with
full government support to safeguard rural Pakistan from the clutches of
stagnation and poverty. The programmes were expected to raise agricultural
productivity, improve marketing infrastructure, provide welfare services,
develop cottage industry and other income/employment generating activities.
iii. These development paradigms improved the rural scene somewhat, but the
available commentaries and statements on the performance of these
programmes are highly contradictory. However, the available information
reveals that each programme achieved a limited success with little tangible
benefits to the real clientele.
iv. Since its independence, Pakistan has embarked upon a number of rural and
agricultural development programmes to increase the productivity and quality
of life of rural people.
v. These programes were Village Aid Programme, Basic Democracies system, Rural
Works Programme,Integrated Rural Development, Peoples Works Programme,
Local Govt. and Rural Development,Peoples Programme, Tameer-e-Watan, Social
Action Programmes, Khushal Pakistan, Tameer-ePakistan and Khushal Pakistan
Programme-1.
vi. These programmes were partially or fully extended to all parts of the country.
The overall objectives of these programmes were the social welfare,
improvement in quality of life and agricultural development. These programmes
did not achieve the desired results because the objectives of one programme
conflicted with those of others, and there was no institutional mechanism for
reconciling them.
vii. Consequently, many programmes not only failed to produce the intended
benefits, but also caused harm to other programmes.
viii. Common causes of failure of these programmes were loose and uncoordinated
institutional framework; lack of mutual understanding and collaboration within
the nation-building departments and with the departments of rural development;
absence of efforts to help evolve rural leadership from the grass roots; lack of
proper supervision, follow-up, research and evaluation of projects.
II. Issues

24
 i. Rural development policy always had a heavy bias towards large farmers,
whereas small landholders making more than 90 percent of total farms
were ignored along with landless labor community.
ii. Rigid cropping pattern prevailing in the country results in lack of
intensification and diversification of agriculture sector, thereby increasing
unemployment in rural areas.
iii. Natural resource base is deteriorating overtime. Due to inappropriate
agricultural practices and climate change, land degradation is more and
land productivity is declining. Almost 40 percent of land in Sindh alone has
turned saline. The rangelands on which 70 percent of local livestock
thrives have been degraded and no rehabilitation plans are in place (Baig
and Khan, 2006).
iv. Literacy rate is very low in these areas and illiterate farmers cannot
realize the benefits of modern, scientific and technical know-how in
farming business. Moreover, rural areas are deprived of schools. In case, if
schooling facilities are available, then qualified staff is not available. Basic
health care is the prime need of every individual. Unfortunately, this
component is totally ignored by the Govt. Most villages in Pakistan still are
lacking in hospitals, dispensaries and other health centers. According to an
estimate 70-80 million people do not have requisite access to education
and health services (Pirzada, 1999).
v. Poor health, malnutrition and high population growth rates are
widespread in rural areas, badly affecting productivity. According to an
estimate, 30-50 million people are malnourished (Pirzada, 1999).
vi. Water supply and sanitation condition is not satisfactory in rural areas.
Population having access to safe water is 87 percent and 35 percent of
total population has access to sanitation (ADB, 2005).
vii. Appropriate facilities for healthy activities are not available in rural areas.
So, the frustrated young people indulge in obnoxious activities such as
drug addiction, rape, robbery, murder, etc.
III. Strategies for improvement
i. The rural poor (small landholders and landless class) need to participate
in the development and implementation of the relevant policies and
programs. It requires institutional and technological reforms.
ii. For sustainable rural development, conservation and development of
natural resources, focusing on protection of environment and biodiversity
must be undertaken.
iii. Strengthening rural institutions in the country can satisfy the thrust for
rural development.
iv. There is a need to address the issues of inequality in terms of resources
along with the innovation and adoption of cost saving technologies.
v. There is a strong need to develop and promote agro-based industry in
rural areas to create employment opportunities through private-public

25
 interventions. This will definitely help in reducing the rural urban
migration on one hand and rural poverty on the other. It could be achieved
by promoting savings in rural areas, thereby increasing investment
opportunities for overall improvement in the income of the rural
communities.
vi. Proper monitoring and evaluation of rural development programmes must
be carried out to ensure successful implementation of programme
activities and those who are responsible for not achieving the results must
be accounted for.
vii. Initiatives must be taken to address the problems of public health and
education for fast growing population. This demand for establishment of
schools and health facilities on modern lines. Such facilities would provide
productive, healthy and educated labour force to agriculture in particular
and to the economy in general
9) Institutions and Policies
I. General Overview of MAJOR INSTITUTIONS PROVIDING EXTENSION/
ADVISORY SERVICES
i. Public Institutions
1. Provincial Directorates General of Extension : In spite of devolution, the
Directorate-General of Agriculture and Applied Research still exists.
This office carries out various duties including advice on agriculture
sector to the provincial government, implementation of provincial
projects and maintenance of links with the district governments for
agricultural extension matters. The responsibility for livestock
extension lies with the Veterinary Officers and Veterinary Assistants of
the provincial Livestock and Dairy Department. A Directorate-General
for On-Farm Irrigation exists at provincial level. But like the
Directorate-General of Extension, it also provides policy advice to the
provincial government.
2. District level extension organization: Under the District Coordination
Officer are a number of Executive District Officers (EDO), and one of
them is for agriculture, called Executive District Officer for Agriculture
(EDOA). The EDOA coordinates agricultural activities with other
departments at district level. Under the EDOA is a District Officer for
Agriculture (DOA) who is also based at district level, and is responsible
for overall agricultural extension work in the particular district. At
district level, the Livestock and Dairy Department has more or less the
same structure as the Department of Agriculture, staffed by District
Livestock Officers, Veterinary Officers and Veterinary Assistants. The
Irrigation and On-farm Water Management Directorate provides
extension advice on relevant matters mainly through Water Users
Associations. Within the districts, extension offices are located at the
following lower layers of bureaucracy:

26
 3. Tehsil level extension offices: Under the DOA are many Deputy District
Officers for Agriculture (DDOA), based at tehsil level. Their number
corresponds with the number of tehsils in the particular district. The
DDOAs handle agricultural extension activities in their respective tehsils.
4. Markaz level extension offices: Under the DDOA, there are many
Agriculture Officers (AOs) based at markaz level. These numbers
correspond with the number of markaz in the particular tehsil. The AOs
are responsible for carrying out agricultural extension responsibilities
in their respective markaz.
5. Union Council level extension offices: Under each AO are several Field
Assistants (FA) based at Union Council level. Their number corresponds
with the number of Union Councils in the particular markaz. The FAs
are frontline agricultural extension workers. Extension advice is
provided in the areas of crops, fruit, vegetables, livestock, fisheries, and
marketing. Under each FA are two Beldars who are fieldworkers. They
are more laborers than technical persons, and help the FA in daily
agricultural activities.
ii. Pakistan Agricultural Research Council (PARC) http://www.parc.gov.pk
1. Although PARC is essentially apex agricultural research body, it has
a social sciences wing, which is engaged in policy level activities in
marketing and extension. Statutory functions of PARC are to aid,
promote and coordinate agricultural research, expedite utilization
of research results, establish research facilities, train high-level
scientific human resources, generate, acquire and disseminate
agricultural information, and establish a research library. The PARC
sets national agricultural research agenda, maintains national and
international coordination and conducts in-house strategic
research on national issues. Pakistan’s national agricultural
research system (NARS) consists of 20 federal research
establishments for basic and applied research, 10 provincial
research institutes for applied research, 14 agricultural universities
and colleges for basic research, and private agro-industry research
organizations for applied research on pesticides, fertilizers, seed
and machinery, and it is PARC which provides strategic thinking
and orientation to the entire NARS.
iii. Number of Key Agricultural Extension Staff in Provinces of Pakistan as in
2011
1. Province/Number of Agriculture Officers/ Number of Field
Assistants: Punjab/763/3,264, Sindh/573/1,026,
Balochistan/586/1,016, Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa/222/539, Gilgit and
Baltistan/ 180/673: Total/2,324/ 6,518
iv. Public universities
1. University of Agriculture, Faisalabad (in Punjab province)

27
 2. Arid Agriculture University (or Barani University), Rawalpindi
3. Sindh Agriculture University, Tandojam (Sindh province),
4. Agricultural University, Peshawar (Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province)
5. All these universities have agricultural extension departments
which offer degrees up to Doctorate. University of Agriculture at
Faisalabad is the oldest and largest institution in Pakistan among
agricultural academic institutions. Besides a Directorate of
Extension, the university has six faculties covering disciplines of
agriculture, agricultural economics and rural sociology, agricultural
engineering and technology, animal husbandry, veterinary science,
and basic sciences.
v. Non-Public Institutions
1. Private sector
a. Syngenta (sells both pesticides and seed),
b. Fauji Fertilizer Company
c. Lakson Tobacco Company
d. Pioneer Pakistan
e. METRO and MACRO
f. Nestle
g. Seed Association of Pakistan
2. These companies work in most cases with only those farmers who
have signed contracts with them or have informally agreed to
follow their instructions in crop production. They do not charge
any fee to their farmers. Motives behind extension support by the
private companies are either to obtain good quality raw materials
from growers, and/or to enhance the sale of companies’ products.
Of course, farmers also benefit in many ways such as gaining
technical knowledge and skills and enjoying satisfaction of a
guaranteed market for their harvest at reasonable prices. The
extension support by private companies excludes those farmers
who do not join their programs.
3. Subjects of extension advice include plant protection, plant
nutrition, introduction of new and improved varieties, entire crop
production cycle (sugarcane covered by sugar mills; tobacco
covered by national and multi-national tobacco companies; maize
by seed and corn-processing companies; oil seed by edible oil
processing companies and Oil Seed Development Board; and milk
by national and multi-national companies), and credit (covered by
micro-finance institutions and commercial banks).
4. The companies maintain well-equipped, well-educated,
experienced and mobile staff in the field, and are apparently
popular among farmers. Their extension methods include
demonstrations, field days, and visits to individual farmers,

28
 farmers’ group meetings, training of farmers, tours to model farms,
phone calls, and published materials. The staff usually works
through progressive farmers who are in most cases large
landholders.
vi. Non-governmental organizations
1. National Rural Support Program (NRSP), Islamabad
2. Rural Development Foundation, Islamabad
3. CABI South Asia, Rawalpindi
4. Kashf Foundation, Lahore
5. Plan Pakistan, Islamabad
vii. Farmers-based organizations and cooperatives
1. Pakistan Agriculture & Dairy Farmers Association,
2. Farmers Associates Pakistan
3. Livestock Farmers & Breeders Association
4. Dairy Association of Pakistan
5. Farmers Association of Pakistan
6. Mango Growers Association Pakistan
7. Poultry Farming Association
viii. TRAINING OPTIONS FOR EXTENSION PROFESSIONALS
1. Pre-service education of would-be extension professionals takes
place at the agricultural universities located at Faisalabad,
Peshawar, Rawalpindi, and Tandojam (mentioned in a previous
section) which offer academic degrees in a number of agricultural
disciplines including extension. These universities also offer short
training courses on regular basis.
2. For the purpose of in-service training, the following institutes are
used by agricultural staff:
a. In-service Agricultural Training Institute, Sargodha
b. Barani Agricultural Training Institute, Dahgal, Rawalpindi
c. In-service Agricultural Training Institute, Rahim Yar Khan
d. Pak-German Institute of Co-operative Agriculture, Multan
e. Extension Services Management Academy (ESMA), Garhi
Dopatta, Azad Jammu & Kashmir
ix. INFO-MEDIARIES AND INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION
TECHNOLOGY (ICT) FOR AGRICULTURE AND EXTENSION
1. Pakistan has a National Information and Communication Technology
Strategy developed by the Ministry of Education. It has National ICT
R&D Fund established in 2007. The ICT expenditure (% of GDP) in
Pakistan was reported at 4.37 in 2008. Recently, the ICT sector has been
deregulated by the government. In spite of all this, the use of ITC in
support of extension is quite limited. Several cellular phone companies
launched Interactive Voice Response based agricultural services in the
Punjab Province but were discouraged due to lack of revenue. While

29
 urban areas have been increasingly adopting modern ICT, most rural
areas are still behind due to low literacy and poor infrastructure not to
mention the absence of electricity and frequent lengthy power outages.
In cities and in some villages especially those close to major cities, the
use of the Internet is becoming common as indicated by the presence of
Internet cafes. The cellular phone though is prevalent in both urban and
rural areas. There are hundreds of “call centers” at private shops in
mostly cities but some located in rural areas are also available to the
public for making international telephone calls.
2. According to the World Bank, in 2010, the number of mobile cellular
subscriptions (per 100 people) in Pakistan was 57.13. The number of
Internet users (per 100 people) in the country during the same year
was 16.78.
3. The Punjab province has a Directorate of Agriculture Information,
which has established a “help line” for farmers. However, its use has
been very limited as most farmers are unaware of this facility. The
country has been having radio and television programs for farmers for
several decades. An NGO, Pakistan Social Association (PSA), has started
a project under the title of E-Village with the objective of reaching rural
population through the Internet.
II. Issues
i. Human Resources Issues
1. Pay structure & career opportunities
2. Research managers selection
3. Training opportunities
ii. Research Efficiency Issues
1. Priority setting
2. Collaboration / Linkage with external agencies
3. Funding for research to action
iii. Functional Issues
1. Funding and funding patterns
2. Facilities and equipments
3. Mobility
III. Options/ Future Prospects
10) Way Forward/General Strategy
I. Government Policies Short Term
II. Government Policies Long Term
i. Federal Authority
ii. Provincial Authority
iii. Division Authority
iv. District Authority
v. Tehsil Authority
11) Conclusion

30
 GENETIC IMPROVEMENT FOR CROP PRODUCTION

1) Introduction
I. Biotechnology can be described as any technology that uses living organisms to
make or modify a product for a practical purpose. Some traditional techniques
have been used for thousands of years. Natural yeasts, for instance, have been
used to make bread, beer, and wine through a process called fermentation.
II. In the last century, more sophisticated techniques have used other micro-
organisms to make antibiotics, amino acids, vitamins, and other useful products.
Modern biotechnology, developed during the past 30 years, usually makes
changes to the hereditary material of a living organism by a technique called
genetic engineering or genetic modification.
III. In crop plant breeding, biotechnologies are used to develop plants resistant to
pests, diseases, drought, heat, or cold, as well as to improve the nutritional
content of plant food.
2) Genetic Engineering
I. The code which regulates all biological processes is stored in the DNA present in
every cell of living organisms. Only a small share of the DNA in a cell actually
makes up genes, which contain coded information. The cells use this information
to produce proteins, the basic building blocks and tools for running biological
processes. An organism's entire set of chromosomes, and thus its entire set of
genetic information, is called the genome.
II. Genetic engineering differs from conventional plant breeding. In conventional
plant breeding half of the genes of an individual come from each parent, whereas
in genetic engineering one or a few specially selected genes are added to the
plant genome.
III. Method of Genetic Engineering: GM crops are made through a process known as
genetic engineering. Genes of commercial interest are transferred from one
organism to another. Two primary methods currently exist for introducing
transgenes into plant genomes. The first involves a device called a ‘gene gun.’
The DNA to be introduced into the plant cells is coated onto tiny particles. These
particles are then physically shot onto plant cells. Some of the DNA comes off
and is incorporated into the DNA of the recipient plant. The second method uses
a bacterium to introduce the gene(s) of interest into the plant DNA.
IV. A number of economically valuable characteristics have been introduced into
plants by genetic engineering. Most of the genetically modified crop plants used
so far have transgenes that provide resistance to herbicides or insects. To
improve crop production and soil management, research is now exploring how
to increase the variety of transgenic characteristics to include resistance to
drought, heat, cold, acid soils, and heavy metals. These characteristics will
increase the range of soils and climates that are able to support agriculture.
V. A GM or transgenic crop is a plant that has a novel combination of genetic
material obtained through the use of modern biotechnology. For example, a GM
crop can contain a gene(s) that has been artificially inserted instead of the plant

31
 acquiring it through pollination.The resulting plant is said to be “genetically
modified” although in reality all crops have been “genetically modified” from
their original wild state by domestication, selection, and controlled breeding
over long periods of time.
VI. In 1994, Calgene’s delayed-ripening tomato (Flavr-Savr™) became the first
genetically modified food crop to be produced and consumed in an
industrialized country. Since the recorded commercialization of GM crops in
1996 to 2013, several countries have contributed to 100-fold increase in the
global area of transgenic crops.
VII. The area planted to GM crops shot up from 1.7 million hectares in 1996 to 175.2
million hectares in 2013, with an increasing proportion grown by developing
countries. In 2013, there were 27 biotech countries, 19 of which growing 50,000
hectares or more, 20 developing countries and 8 industrial countries; they were,
in order of hectarage: USA, Brazil, Argentina, India, Canada, China, Paraguay,
South Africa, Pakistan, Uruguay, Bolivia, Philippines, Australia, Burkina Faso,
Myanmar, Spain, Mexico, Colombia, Sudan, Chile, Honduras, Portugal, Cuba,
Czech Republic, Costa Rica, Romania, and Slovakia.
VIII. In the developed world, there is clear evidence that the use of GM crops has
resulted in significant benefits. These include:
i. Higher crop yields
ii. Reduced farm costs
iii. Increased farm profit
iv. Improvement in health and the environment
IX. Potential risks
i. The danger of unintentionally introducing allergens and other antinutrition
factors in foods
ii. The likelihood of transgenes escaping from cultivated crops into wild relatives
iii. The potential for pests to evolve resistance to the toxins produced by GM crops
iv. The risk of these toxins affecting nontarget organisms.
3) GMO crops
I. Genetically modified crops (GMCs, GM crops, or biotech crops) are plants used in
agriculture, the DNA of which has been modified using genetic engineering
techniques. In most cases the aim is to introduce a new trait to the plant which
does not occur naturally in the species.
II. Examples in food crops include resistance to certain pests, diseases, or
environmental conditions, reduction of spoilage, or resistance to chemical
treatments (e.g. resistance to a herbicide), or improving the nutrient profile of
the crop. Examples in non-food crops include production of pharmaceutical
agents, biofuels, and other industrially useful goods, as well as for
bioremediation.
III. Farmers have widely adopted GM technology. Between 1996 and 2013, the total
surface area of land cultivated with GM crops increased by a factor of 100, from

32
 17,000 square kilometers (4,200,000 acres) to 1,750,000 km2 (432 million
acres).
IV. 10% of the world's croplands were planted with GM crops in 2010. In the US, by
2014, 94% of the planted area of soybeans, 96% of cotton and 93% of corn were
genetically modified varieties. In recent years GM crops expanded rapidly in
developing countries. In 2013 approximately 18 million farmers grew 54% of
worldwide GM crops in developing countries.
V. There is general scientific agreement that food on the market derived from GM
crops poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food. GM crops
also provide a number of ecological benefits. However, opponents have objected
to GM crops per se on several grounds, including environmental concerns,
whether food produced from GM crops is safe, whether GM crops are needed to
address the world's food needs, and economic concerns raised by the fact these
organisms are subject to intellectual property law.
VI. Gene Transfer: DNA transfers naturally between organisms. Several natural
mechanisms allow gene flow across species. These occur in nature on a large
scale – for example, it is one mechanism for the development of antibiotic
resistance in bacteria. This is facilitated by transposons, retrotransposons,
proviruses and other mobile genetic elements that naturally translocate DNA to
new loci in a genome. Movement occurs over an evolutionary time scale.The
introduction of foreign germplasm into crops has been achieved by traditional
crop breeders by overcoming species barriers. A hybrid cereal grain was created
in 1875, by crossing wheat and rye. Since then important traits including
dwarfing genes and rust resistance have been introduced. Plant tissue culture
and deliberate mutations have enabled humans to alter the makeup of plant
genomes
VII. Types of Modifications
i. Transgenic plants have genes inserted into them that are derived from
another species. The inserted genes can come from species within the
same kingdom (plant to plant) or between kingdoms (for example,
bacteria to plant). In many cases the inserted DNA has to be modified
slightly in order to correctly and efficiently express in the host organism.
ii. Cisgenic plants are made using genes found within the same species or a
closely related one, where conventional plant breeding can occur. Some
breeders and scientists argue that cisgenic modification is useful for
plants that are difficult to crossbreed by conventional means (such as
potatoes), and that plants in the cisgenic category should not require the
same regulatory scrutiny as transgenics.
iii. Subgenic: In 2014, Chinese researcher Gao Caixia filed patents on the
creation of a strain of wheat that is resistant to powdery mildew. The
strain lacks genes that encode proteins that repress defenses against the
mildew. The researchers deleted all three copies of the genes from
wheat's hexaploid genome. The strain promises to reduce or eliminate

33
 the heavy use of fungicides to control the disease. Gao used the TALENs
and CRISPR gene editing tools without adding or changing any other
genes.
VIII. Traits:
i. Lifetime: The first genetically modified crop approved for sale in the U.S.
was the FlavrSavr tomato, which had a longer shelf life.
ii. Nutrition
1. Edible oils: Some GM soybeans offer improved oil profiles for
processing or healthier eating. Camelina sativa has been modified to
produce plants that accumulate high levels of oils similar to fish oils.
2. Vitamin enrichment: Golden rice, developed by the International
Rice Research Institute (IRRI), provides greater amounts of Vitamin
A targeted at reducing Vitamin A deficiency.
3. Toxin reduction: A genetically modified cassava under development
offers lower cyanogen glucosides and enhanced protein and other
nutrients (called BioCassava). In November 2014, the USDA
approved a potato, developed by J.R. Simplot Company, that prevents
bruising and produces less acrylamide when fried.
4. Stress resistance: Plants engineered to tolerate non-biological
stressors such as drought, frost, high soil salinity, and nitrogen
starvation were in development. In 2011, Monsanto's DroughtGard
maize became the first drought-resistant GM crop to receive US
marketing approval.
iii. Herbicides
1. Glyphosate: As of 1999 the most prevalent GM trait was glyphosate-
resistance. Glyphosate, (the active ingredient in Roundup and other
herbicide products) kills plants by interfering with the shikimate
pathway in plants, which is essential for the synthesis of the aromatic
amino acids phenylalanine, tyrosine and tryptophan.
2. Bromoxynil: Tobacco plants have been engineered to be resistant to
the herbicide bromoxynil.
iv. Pest resistance
1. Insects: Tobacco, corn, rice and many other crops have been
engineered to express genes encoding for insecticidal proteins from
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). Papaya, potatoes, and squash have been
engineered to resist viral pathogens such as cucumber mosaic virus
which, despite its name, infects a wide variety of plants.
2. Viruses: Virus resistant papaya were developed In response to a
papaya ringspot virus (PRV) outbreak in Hawaii in the late 1990s. .
They incorporate PRV DNA. By 2010, 80% of Hawaiian papaya plants
were genetically modified.
v. By-products

34
 1. Drugs: In 2012, the FDA approved the first plant-produced
pharmaceutical, a treatment for Gaucher's Disease. Tobacco plants
have been modified to produce therapeutic antibodies.
2. Biofuel: Algae is under development for use in biofuels.
3. Materials: Companies and labs are working on plants that can be
used to make bioplastics. Potatoes that produce industrially useful
starches have been developed as well. Oilseed can be modified to
produce fatty acids for detergents, substitute fuels and
petrochemicals.
vi. Bioremediation
1. Scientists at the University of York developed a weed (Arabidopsis
thaliana) that contains genes from bacteria that can clean TNT and
RDX-explosive soil contaminants.
vii. Asexual reproduction
1. Crops such as maize reproduce sexually each year. This
randomizes which genes get propagated to the next generation,
meaning that desirable traits can be lost. To maintain a high-
quality crop, some farmers purchase seeds every year.
4) Seed production technology
I. Introduction
i. Seed is a mature integumented megasporangium or mature ovule
consisting of embryonic plants together whit store food material covered
by a protective coat (mega sporangium i.e. female gametophyte –the
pistils are the female reproductive organs called megasporophylly in the
flowering plants) the ovary of the carpel contains ovules
(megasprorangia)
ii. Seed technology is the science dealing with the methods of improving
physical and genetical characteristics of seed.
iii. The various aspects coming under seed technology are seed production,
seed processing, seed certification, seed testing, seed storage, seed
biology, seed entomology, seed pathology and seed marketing.
iv. Cowan (1973): Defined as “That discipline of study having to do with seed
production, maintenance, quantity and preservation.
v. Feistritzer (1975): Defined seed technology as the method through which
the genetic and physical characteristic of seeds could be improved.
vi. Prerequisite for any seed production program is to maintain genetic
purity and other characteristics of seed. Therefore seed production
should be conducted with some underlying principles.
II. Objectives or Goals or Aims of Seed Technology
i. Supply high quality seeds, means seeds of high yielding varieties,
varieties with resistance to diseases and pests.
ii. To increase agricultural production by supply of quality seed.
iii. To assure rapid seed multiplication of desirable varieties.

35
 iv. Timely supply of seeds, i.e. well before the sowing season.
v. Supply of seeds at reasonable prices.
III. Hybrid Seed Production
i. In agriculture and gardening, hybrid seed is seed produced by cross-
pollinated plants. Hybrid seed production is predominant in agriculture
and home gardening. It is one of the main contributors to the dramatic
rise in agricultural output during the last half of the 20th century. The
alternatives to hybridization are open pollination and clonal propagation.
ii. All of the hybrid seeds planted by the farmer will produce similar plants
while the seeds of the next generation from those hybrids will not
consistently have the desired characteristics. Controlled hybrids provide
very uniform characteristics because they are produced by crossing two
inbred strains. Elite inbred strains are used that express well-
documented and consistent phenotypes (such as high crop yield) that are
relatively good for inbred plants.
iii. Hybrids are chosen to improve the characteristics of the resulting plants,
such as better yield, greater uniformity, improved color, disease
resistance. An important factor is the heterosis or combining ability of the
parent plants. Crossing any particular pair of inbred strains may or may
not result in superior offspring. The parent strains used are therefore
carefully chosen so as to achieve the uniformity that comes from the
uniformity of the parents, and the superior performance that comes from
heterosis.
IV. Role of Seed Technology
i. A carrier of new technologies: The introduced of quality seed of new
verities and combined with other inputs significantly increased yield level
e.g. in cereals, yield increased up to 112%, in potato – 24% & sugar beet -
142% in U. S. A. & central Europe.
ii. A basic tool for secured food supply:The successful implementation of the
high yield verities programme in India has led to a remarkable increase
the production.As a result, food imports from other countries have been
substantially brought down in spite of the rapid population increase.
iii. The principle means to secure crop yield in less favorable area of
production: The supply of good quality seed of improved verities, suitable
to these areas is one of the crops. Immediate contribution that seed
technology can make to secure higher crop yield
V. Classes of Seeds
i. Nuclear seed : This is the hundred percent genetically pure seed with
physical purity and produced by the original breeder/Institute /State
Agriculture University (SAU) from basic nucleus seed stock. A pedigree
certificate is issued by the producing breeder.

36
 ii. Breeder seed : This is also hundred percent physical and genetic pure
seed for production of foundation seed. A golden yellow colour certificate
is issued for this category of seed by the producing breeder.
iii. Foundation seed : The progeny of breeder seed produced by recognized
seed producing agencies in public and private sector, under supervision
of seed certification agencies in such a way that its quality is maintained
according to prescribed field ad seed standards. A white colour certificate
is issued for foundation seed by seed certification agencies.
iv. Certified seed : The progeny of foundation seed produced by registered
seed growers under supervision of seed certification agencies t o
maintain the seed quality as per minimum seed certification standards. A
blue colour certificate is issued by seed certification agency for this
category of seed.
VI. Basic Seeds Vs Certified Seeds
i. The seeds which seeds companies sell in the market and our farmers
grow are commonly “certified seeds”. The certification of seeds is a legally
sanctioned system for quality control of seeds that are used to cultivate
crops. The certified seeds are grown under stringent production
requirements and they have improved traits such as better yield, pest
resistance, drought tolerance, herbicide tolerance etc.
ii. The certified seeds are outcome of few years of research and
development to get these improved traits.
iii. This R&D is done on their parent plants. On this basis, there are five
different categories viz. Nucleus Seeds, Breeder’s Seeds, Foundation
Seeds, Registered Seeds and finally certified seeds. The Offspring of
breeder seeds is foundation seeds to registered seeds to certified seeds.
Further, each of the breeders, foundation, registered and certified seeds
are certified and labelled with a different colour tag as per Section 5 of
the Seeds Act, 1966. Thus, they are also called as Labelled Seed. The
Breeder seeds have golden yellow tag, Foundation seeds have white tag,
registered seeds have opal blue tag and certified seeds have green tag.
5) Implementation in Pakistan

37
 RAINFED AND IRRIGATED AGRICULTURE

1) Introduction
2) Rainfed and Irrigated Agriculture
I. The term Rainfed agriculture is used to describe farming practises that rely on
rainfall for water. It provides much of the food consumed by poor communities
in developing countries. For example, rainfed agriculture accounts for more than
95% of farmed land in sub-Saharan Africa, 90% in Latin America, 75% in the
Near East and North Africa; 65% in East Asia and 60% in South Asia.
II. Levels of productivity, particularly in parts of sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia,
are low due to degraded soils, high levels of evaporation, droughts, floods and a
general lack of effective water management. A major study into water use by
agriculture, known as the Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in
Agriculture, coordinated by the International Water Management Institute,
noted a close correlation between hunger, poverty and water. However, it
concluded that there was much opportunity to raise productivity from rainfed
farming.
III. The authors considered that managing rainwater and soil moisture more
effectively, and using supplemental and small-scale irrigation, held the key to
helping the greatest number of poor people. It called for a new era of water
investments and policies for upgrading rainfed agriculture that would go beyond
controlling field-level soil and water to bring new freshwater sources through
better local management of rainfall and runoff.
IV. The importance of rainfed agriculture varies regionally but produces most food
for poor communities in developing countries. In subSaharan Africa more than
95% of the farmed land is rainfed, while the corresponding figure for Latin
America is almost 90%, for South Asia about 60%, for East Asia 65% and for the
Near East and North Africa 75% (FAOSTAT, 2005). Most countries in the world
depend primarily on rainfed agriculture for their grain food. Despite large
strides made in improving productivity and environmental conditions in many
developing countries, a great number of poor families in Africa and Asia still face
poverty, hunger, food insecurity and malnutrition where rainfed agriculture is
the main agricultural activity. These problems are exacerbated by adverse
biophysical growing conditions and the poor socioeconomic infrastructure in
many areas in the semi-arid tropics (SAT). The SAT is the home to 38% of the
developing countries’ poor, 75% of whom live in rural areas. Over 45% of the
world’s hungry and more than 70% of its malnourished children live in the SAT
V. There is a correlation between poverty, hunger and water stress (Falkenmark,
1986). The UN Millennium Development Project has identified the ‘hot spot’
countries in the world suffering from the largest prevalence of malnourishment.
These countries coincide closely with those located in the semi-arid and dry
subhumid hydroclimates in the world (Fig. 1.1), i.e. savannahs and steppe
ecosystems, where rainfed agriculture is the dominating source of food and
where water constitutes a key limiting factor to crop growth (SEI, 2005). Of the

38
 850 million undernourished people in the world, essentially all live in poor,
developing countries, which predominantly are located in tropical regions
(UNSTAT, 2005).

VI. Since the late 1960s, agricultural land use has expanded by 20–25%, which has
contributed to approximately 30% of the overall grain production growth during
the period (FAO, 2002; Ramankutty et al., 2002). The remaining yield outputs
originated from intensification through yield increases per unit land area.
VII. Irrigation is the artificial application of water to the land or soil. It is used to
assist in the growing of agricultural crops, maintenance of landscapes, and
revegetation of disturbed soils in dry areas and during periods of inadequate
rainfall. Additionally, irrigation also has a few other uses in crop production,
which include protecting plants against frost, suppressing weed growth in grain
fields and preventing soil consolidation. In contrast, agriculture that relies only
on direct rainfall is referred to as rain-fed or dryland farming
VIII. Irrigation systems are also used for dust suppression, disposal of sewage, and in
mining. Irrigation is often studied together with drainage, which is the natural or
artificial removal of surface and sub-surface water from a given area.
IX. In the mid-20th century, the advent of diesel and electric motors led to systems
that could pump groundwater out of major aquifers faster than drainage basins
could refill them. This can lead to permanent loss of aquifer capacity, decreased
water quality, ground subsidence, and other problems. The future of food
production in such areas as the North China Plain, the Punjab, and the Great
Plains of the US is threatened by this phenomenon.
X. At the global scale, 2,788,000 km² (689 million acres) of fertile land was
equipped with irrigation infrastructure around the year 2000. About 68% of the
area equipped for irrigation is located in Asia, 17% in the Americas, 9% in
Europe, 5% in Africa and 1% in Oceania. The largest contiguous areas of high
irrigation density are found:
i. In Northern India and Pakistan along the Ganges and Indus rivers
ii. In the Hai He, Huang He and Yangtze basins in China
iii. Along the Nile river in Egypt and Sudan
iv. In the Mississippi-Missouri river basin and in parts of California
v. Smaller irrigation areas are spread across almost all populated parts of
the world
XI. Only 8 years later in 2008, the scale of irrigated land increased to an estimated
total of 3,245,566 km², which is nearly the size of India.
XII. TYPES OF IRRIGATION SYSTEMS
i. Ditch Irrigation: Ditch Irrigation is a rather traditional method, where
ditches are dug out and seedlings are planted in rows. The plantings are
watered by placing canals or furrows in between the rows of plants.
Siphon tubes are used to move the water from the main ditch to the
canals. This system of irrigation was once very popular in the USA, but
most have been replaced with modern systems.
ii. Terraced Irrigation: This is a very labor-intensive method of irrigation
where the land is cut into steps and supported by retaining walls. The flat
areas are used for planting and the idea is that the water flows down each
step, while watering each plot. This allows steep land to be used for
planting crops.

39
 iii. Drip Irrigation: This is known as the most water efficient method of
irrigation. Water drops right near the root zone of a plant in a dripping
motion. If the system is installed properly you can steadily reduce the loss
of water through evaporation and runoff.
iv. Sprinkler System: This is an irrigation system based on overhead
sprinklers, sprays or guns, installed on permanent risers. You can also
have the system buried underground and the sprinklers rise up when
water pressure rises, which is a popular irrigation system for use on golf
courses and parks.
v. Rotary System: This method of irrigation is best suited for larger areas,
for the sprinklers can reach distances of up to 100 feet. The word
“Rotary” is indicative of the mechanical driven sprinklers moving in a
circular motion, hence reaching greater distances. This system waters a
larger area with small amounts of water over a longer period of time.
vi. Center Pivot Irrigation: This is a form of overhead irrigation. Steel or
aluminum pipes are joined together, supported by trusses, mounted on
wheeled towers. The sprinklers are situated on the length of the tower
and they move in a circular motion.
3) Agriculture Mechanization
I. Mechanization is defined as the art of using machineries to hasten production,
accomplish task and reduce fatigue and human labor in order to produce better
quality goods and services. Agricultural mechanization is the process whereby
equipments, machineries and implements are utilized to boost agricultural and
food production.
II. It is the application of machineries, equipments and implements in the day to
day farm activities to increase marginal output in food production and poverty
eradication. Agricultural mechanization reduces drudgery which hitherto makes
it difficult for large scale food production.
III. Equipments, Machineries and Implements required for Land Preparation
i. Tractor: Farm Tractor is a self propelled machine or equipment that pulls
or pushes tools or implements over the land. It is equipment designed
and used for farm operations for the purpose of land preparations,
cultivation and harvesting of crops. A tractor is sub-divided into three (3)
major parts namely (a) engine system (b) transmission system and (c)
hydraulic system
1. Engine – Generally a tractor makes use of four (4) stroke cycle,
internal combustion, compression ignition (diesel), thermosyphon
cooling, heat engine of various cylinders depending on the
horsepower of the engine.
2. Transmission: The transmission system of the tractor consists of
the clutch assembly, gear train, final drive etc.
3. Hydraulic system: The hydraulic system of a tractor consists of
hydraulic fluid, Armshaft, three (3) point linkage i.e. lower links
and top link, hydraulic pump, selectmatic valves, quick coupling
point, draft control, control valve.

40
 ii. Rotary Power Tiller: Rotary power tiller also known as two wheeled
tractor is light duty agricultural equipment used for tilling operation. It is
affordable in price when compared with the four wheeled tractors, for the
small and medium scale farmers. It could be used on undulating terrain
and fragile soil. It is portable and can be used or taken to the interior
farmlands where there is no access road for big tractors.The affordability
of this equipment in terms of low price to local farmers will make food
production to increase considerably. The rotary power tiller, apart from
tilling operation could also perform the following, these are: ploughing,
wet pudding, ridging, cultivating, water pumping, cassava planting and
weeding operations making use of appropriate implement. The
equipment in conjunctions with the trailer could be used to transport the
appropriate implement to be used to the field and could also be used to
bring or conveyed farm produce from the field to the barn. The
equipment is economical, safe and efficient in use than manual operation.
It can perform tilling operation of about 1.25 hectares of land per day.
The equipment is sub-divided into (3) three major parts, these are:
1. Engine
2. Transmission
3. Implement
iii. Other equipments or machines in this category are:
1. Track laying tractor
2. Crop thresher
3. Combine harvester
iv. The implements are:
1. Disc plough and moldboard plough
2. Disc Harrow and moldboard Harrow
3. Disc Ridger and mouldboard Ridger
4. Boom Sprayer and Gun Sprayer
5. Seed Planter and Cassava Planter
6. Fertilizer Spreader
7. Mower
v. All these aforementioned machineries, equipments and implements plays
vital role in the enhancement of sustainable food production, if properly
utilized and made affordable within the reach of small and medium scale
farmers.
vi. Food production stages: The food production stages consist of the
followings:
1. Land clearing
2. Planting and weeding
3. Harvesting
4. Transportation
5. Processing

41
 6. Storage
7. Consumption
IV. Mechanised agriculture is the process of using agricultural machinery to
mechanise the work of agriculture, greatly increasing farm worker productivity.
In modern times, powered machinery has replaced many jobs formerly carried
out by manual labour or by working animals such as oxen, horses and mules.
V. The history of agriculture contains many examples of tool use, such as the
plough. Mechanization involves the use of an intermediate device between the
power source and the work. This intermediate device usually transforms motion,
such as rotary to linear, or provides some sort of mechanical advantage, such as
speed increase or decrease or leverage.
VI. Current mechanised agriculture includes the use of tractors, trucks, combine
harvesters, airplanes (crop dusters), helicopters, and other vehicles. Modern
farms even sometimes use computers in conjunction with satellite imagery and
GPS guidance to increase yields.
VII. Mechanisation was one of the factors responsible for urbanization and industrial
economies. Besides improving production efficiency, mechanisation encourages
large scale production and improves the quality of farm produce. On the other
hand, it displaces unskilled farm labor, causes environmental pollution,
deforestation and erosion.
VIII. New Technology and the Future: The basic technology of agricultural machines
has changed little in the last century. Though modern harvesters and planters
may do a better job or be slightly tweaked from their predecessors, the
US$250,000 combine of today still cuts, threshes, and separates grain in the
same way it has always been done. However, technology is changing the way
that humans operate the machines, as computer monitoring systems, GPS
locators, and self-steer programs allow the most advanced tractors and
implements to be more precise and less wasteful in the use of fuel, seed, or
fertilizer. In the foreseeable future, there may be mass production of driverless
tractors, which use GPS maps and electronic sensors.
IX. Open Source Agricultural Equipment: Many farmers are upset by their inability
to fix the new types of high-tech farm equipment. This is due mostly to
companies using intellectual property law to prevent farmers from having the
legal right to fix their equipment (or gain access to the information to allow them
to do it). This has encouraged groups such as Open Source Ecology and Farm
Hack to begin to make open source agricultural machinery. In addition on a
smaller scale Farmbot and the RepRap open source 3D printer community has
begun to make open-source farm tools available of increasing levels of
sophistication. In October 2015 an exemption was added to the DMCA to allow
inspection and modification of the software in cars and other vehicles including
agricultural machinery.
X. Notable Manufacturers
i. AGCO

42
 ii. Art's Way
iii. Kubota
iv. John Deere
v. Claas
vi. CNH Industrial
vii. Mahindra & Mahindra
viii. Minsk Tractor Works
ix. JCB
x. Mirrlees Blackstone
4) Land Tenure and Land Reforms
I. Land reforms are basically required for redistribution of land which could have
several benefits that could be social, economic and administrative. There is
always inverse relationship of large land holding and productivity therefore land
reforms are always treated as strategy for better production. However the
traditional large land holdings hardly concentrate on productivity. The
population all over the world as a whole is on rising trend; especially in
developing and under developed countries fewer efforts have been made for
birth control “Pakistan is one of the populous countries in the world with
180,808,000 populations”. The entire population requires fulfilling the need for
food, a dwelling to live and economic activity to survive. For such activities land
is very much required, this aspect of importance of land have already been
discussed at the beginning of this essay.
II. Rapid population growth, widespread poverty, persistent food insecurity, and
alarming rate of environmental degradation have fuelled an increasing debate
on land tenure systems and land reforms. More equitable access to land is
important in combating rural poverty. Under these circumstances Land Reforms
undoubtedly are regarded as an important factor to alleviate poverty and
increase economic development. Since there is always a relationship between
land reforms and growth, therefore land reforms were central to strategies to
improve the asset base of the poor in developing countries. But in Pakistan their
effectiveness has been hindered by political constraints on implementation. For
the land reforms it requires political will and determination of the governments,
not only this but appropriate laws need to be formulated with their ensured
implementation.
III. Land Reforms inviting involvement of international donor agencies, different
governments at different times, NGOs, environmentalists, and economists.
Globally, land reforms have been introduced for a mixture of political, economic
and egalitarian motives, often resulting from political upheavals, and changing
the distribution of land in favour of small farmers. Land reform is also treated
with a view of Human Rights issue as it involves survival of people and
livelihood of poor peasants. More equitable access to land is important in
combating rural poverty to overcome the menace of poverty.

43
 IV. LAND reforms in Pakistan have a long and somewhat chequered history. The
British had less of an interest in the matter as they relied on the support of
several influential landlords. Although there had been some limited reforms in
the years leading up to 1947, all major reforms date from the years after
independence. Almost immediately the various provincial legislatures passed
several statutes whereby the jagirdari systems were abolished and tenants
protected. The major reforms, however, came in three stages: the first during
Ayub Khan`s martial law in 1959; the second and third during Zulfiqar Ali
Bhutto`s rule in the 1970s.
V. Ayub Khan`s government passed the first major piece of legislation concerning
land reforms in Pakistan. This legislation was the West Pakistan Land Reforms
Regulation 1959 (Regulation 64 of 1959). The salient features of this regulation
included a ceiling on individual holdings. No one individual could own more than
500 acres of irrigated and 1,000 acres of unirrigated land or a maximum of
36,000 Produce Index Units (PIU), whichever was greater. It further allowed that
land be redistributed amongst tenants and others. In addition, the regulation
contained provisions which provided for security of tenants as well as for
preventing the subdivision of land holdings.
VI. These land reforms stayed in force until 1972 and the next great wave of land
reforms.
VII. Bhutto, despite being a major landowner himself, was determined to institute
reforms, having been a minister under Ayub Khan. Bhutto, seeing the former`s
land reforms as inadequate, was responsible for two major land reform regimes.
The first was by way of a martial law regulation, the Land Reform Regulation
1972 by which the West Pakistan Land Reforms Regulation 1959 was repealed
through paragraph 32.
VIII. As per paragraph 8(1) no individual holdings were to be in excess of 150 acres of
irrigated land or 300 of unirrigated land, or irrigated and unirrigated land the
aggregate area of which exceeded 150 acres of irrigated land (one acre of
irrigated land being reckoned as the equivalent of two acres of unirrigated land),
or an area equivalent to 15,000 PIU of land, whichever was greater. Paragraph
18(1) of the regulations also provided for excess land to be surrendered and
utilised for the benefit of tenants shown to be in the process of cultivating it.
IX. By 1977, the country had an elected parliament. It would be this body which
passed the last major piece of legislation dealing with land reforms; the Law
Reforms Act 1977 (Act II of 1977) and the only one ironically which came the
way of a democratically elected legislature as opposed to a military junta. It did
not repeal the 1972 regulations, but was designed to operate concurrently with
the same.
X. The most important and relevant change it made was that individual holdings,
including shares in shamilat , if any, in excess of 100 acres of irrigated land or
200 acres of unirrigated land, or irrigated and unirrigated land the aggregate of
which exceeded 100 acres of irrigated land (again, one acre of irrigated land

44
 being reckoned as equivalent to two acres of unirrigated land). Furthermore,
notwithstanding the above, no land holding could (per section 3) be greater than
an area equivalent to 8,000 PIU of land calculated on the basis of classification of
soil as entered in the revenue records for kharif.
XI. The end of the Bhutto era also signalled the end of the era of statutory land
reform in Pakistan.
XII. During Ziaul Haq`s reign only major new laws were passed. Only two amending
ordinances came into being. The first in 1979 declared that where the provincial
government had decided to lease out surrendered land, the person who
surrendered it would have first priority, and the second allowed the federal
government to exempt any educational institution or cooperative farming
society from the operation of the 1977 act.
XIII. Land reforms were always controversial. It was alleged by opponents that they
were un-Islamic and that they infringed on the right to own, use and enjoy
property as protected by the constitution. Matters finally came to a head before
the Supreme Court in the case of Qazalbash Waqf v Chief Land Commissioner in
which both the 1972 regulations were attacked as being against Islamic
injunctions and unconstitutional. The Supreme Court agreed.
XIV. Of the 1972 regulations, the Supreme Court declared that paragraphs 7, 8, 9, 10,
13 and 14 and thus consequently 18 were unconstitutional as being against
Islamic injunctions. The striking down of paragraphs 8 and 18 overturned the
main reforms achieved.
XV. Similarly in the same case the Supreme Court overturned the entire sections — 3,
4, 5, 6, 7(5), 8, 9, 10 — and consequently sections 11-17 of the act as being
unconstitutional and against Islamic injunctions. The striking down of sections 3
and 17 undid the main reforms promulgated in the act. The laws stated to be
unconstitutional ceased to have effect on March 23, 1990 (the day the judgement
was handed down).
XVI. The net result of the Qazalbash Waqf v Chief Land Commissioner is that land
reforms in Pakistan are now at the same level as they were in 1947, as the 1972
regulations and the 1977 act have seen their main provisions being struck down
and the 1959 regulations have been repealed.
XVII. To commence land reforms and to ensure they contain at least the same
measure of reforms as the 1972 regulations and the 1977 act did will at the very
least require a constitutional amendment which allows parliament to enact
legislation regarding land reform notwithstanding the relevant constitutional
provisions.
XVIII. Failing the above, any proposed reforms would have to be more limited in their
ambit than the previous reforms to avoid unconstitutionality or their lordships
would have to overrule the judgment in the Qazalbash Waqf v Chief Land
Commissioner in another case.
XIX. It is very difficult for people to reconcile to the fact that the dose of 'Islamic
welfare' that they have been taught largely ends at zakat and while there are

45
 promises of huge rewards on helping the needy, Islam is very much pro-
capitalistic and opposes ceilings on wealth accumulation
XX. The politics of land reform have always been tenuous in this country, the
populist rhetoric very much opposed to the reality. In the latest series of mere
rhetoric on the issue, the MQM has set up a 'think tank' that will table
parliamentary legislation for land reforms in the country. However, these
statements of ending feudalism and bringing land reforms not only ignore the
legal challenges that such reforms face — in the wake of the Qazalbash Waqf
case that declared a ceiling on landholdings as opposed to shariah — but also
serve nothing but the appetites of the urban middle class masses who are too
keen to blame feudalism for all ills. Needless to say, land reforms are very much
supported by the masses but their vocal proponents amongst the urban middle
classes fail to understand the history, politics and legal perspective associated
with such a change.
XXI. The basis of land reform has always been to abolish the stratification of society
based on the concentration of land in the hands of a select few. This
monopolisation of landholdings leads to the denial of political rights to a large
percentage of the population in an agrarian economy like ours.
XXII. Feudalism is a tribal notion that hampers social progress and is combined with
the fact that landlords have social, political and often religious and legal power in
their regions. However, urban upper middle and middle classes have crafted a
narrative that blames all national problems on feudalism. This notion is devoid
of reality since feudalism has transformed over the past 63 years and, contrary
to popular perception, landlords cannot continue to suppress their subjects and
still expect to remain politically popular. An oversimplification of the reality that
ignores changes in patterns of landholdings — and associated socio-political
power — in the country and what feudalism means in an era of urbanisation and
modernity hampers intellectual progress itself.
XXIII. The history of land reforms in this country started in 1949 with the Agrarian
Reforms Committee of the Muslim League proposing short- and long-term
measures to address the issue. The short-term measures were incorporated in
the Tenancy Acts that were promulgated in Punjab, Sindh and NWFP between
1950 and 1952. The long-term goal of imposing a ceiling on landholdings never
saw the light. Meanwhile, the East Bengal Land Acquisition and Tenancy Act of
1950 transformed the eastern wing of the country and imposed a 33-acre ceiling
on landholding. Never a strongly feudal society, by 1954 the situation was such
that none of the East Bengal Constituent Assembly representatives was a
landlord compared to the 70 percent landlord-legislators from West Pakistan.
XXIV. The martial law government of Ayub Khan brought forward the country's first
major land reforms in 1959. The ceiling on landholdings was imposed at 500
acres for irrigated and 1,000 acres for un-irrigated land. 2.5 million acres of land
was resumed, 2.3 million was distributed amongst 183,271 tenants (in reality
the distribution was skewed and only 59,906 tenants below the subsistence level

46
 of 12.5 acres received any benefit). Only 35 percent of the holdings that
exceeded the ceiling were taken over.
XXV. Zulfikar Ali Bhutto had promised land reforms under his Islamic socialism
agenda and, in 1972, a stricter ceiling was imposed at 150/300 acres for
irrigated/un-irrigated lands and land was resumed without any compensation.
In 1977, it was further lowered to 100/200 acres. In total, 3.1 million acres of
land was resumed and 1.8 million was distributed amongst 89,143 beneficiaries.
Due to various reasons, only 42 percent of the holdings in excess of the ceilings
were taken over in Punjab and 59 percent in Sindh. The reforms failed to bring
the expected results.
XXVI. Ziaul Haq's Islamisation and creation of shariat courts gave the opponents of
land reforms — including the religious establishment — a golden opportunity to
challenge them. In Haji Niamatullah v. NWFP government, the imposition of a
ceiling on landholdings was declared un-Islamic. In December 1980 the Federal
Shariat Court decided petitions against land reforms in Muhammad Ameen v.
Islamic Republic of Pakistan (PLD 1981 FSC 23). It declared that it did not have
the sufficient rights to declare it unconstitutional and even then it was not un-
Islamic in any way to impose a ceiling on landholdings.
XXVII. Appeals were filed and the Shariat Appellate Bench of the Supreme Court
delivered its final judgment on the issue on August 10, 1989 in Qazalbash Waqf v.
Chief Land Commissioner (PLD 1990 SC 99). The lead judgment, written by Mufti
Taqi Usmani, held that the right to land in Islam is absolute, that Islam has
imposed no quantitative ceiling on land or any other commodity that can be
owned by a person, that any such limits are prohibited by shariah, that a
temporary limit may be imposed in times of emergency, that illegitimately
acquired land is illegitimate and that forceful acquisition of land is haram. In
short, ceilings on landholdings imposed by the Land Reforms Regulation, 1972
and Land Reforms Ordinance, 1977 were un-Islamic and acquisition of land
under the said laws was ab initio illegal.
XXVIII. With this case, the classic definition of land reforms in the form of ceilings on
landholdings came falling down and the doors for reform were closed forever.
The judges who dissented with the majority opinion based their opinion on the
Islamic notion of social welfare and necessity to alleviate poverty.
XXIX. While the future of land reforms looks bleak, it is certainly not unrealisable. One
option lies in the form of analysing the shady origins of landholdings and land
grants given by the colonialists as illegitimately acquired. However, not only is
this tenuous and complex, it must therefore be extended to the vast urban and
agricultural lands acquired largely by the military, but also by other state
functionaries. The other option remains the very abolition of the Federal Shariat
Court and the associated 'Islamic' provisions from the constitution, paving way
for the old-style reforms again — also unrealisable and politically unfeasible.
XXX. With increasing religiosity part of urbanisation, and in our case strongly linked
with an urban middle class identity, it becomes laughable that the demon of

47
 'feudalism' that should be tackled through the populist argument of 'land
reforms' is not being tackled because of 'Islamic laws', which are the slogan of a
large percentage of disillusioned, apoliticised urban middle class youth today. It
is very difficult for people to reconcile the fact that the dose of 'Islamic welfare'
that they have been taught largely ends at zakat and while there are promises of
huge rewards on helping the needy — an obligation defined by Islam as social
responsibility — Islam is very much pro-capitalistic and opposes ceilings on
wealth accumulation. Reflective of the inner contradictions of our society is the
fact that secular ideals of social reform brought forward land reforms (even if
supported by Islamic rhetoric) and were thrown into the dustbin of history on
the basis of religion. Demonisation of feudalism — not necessarily wrong — but
ignoring the legal realities, especially how they were struck down by an 'Islamic'
court, is convenient and tailor-made to satisfy the conscience of a society that
seems to find it difficult to balance religion, its role in society, its role in politics
and its intrusion into governing laws.
XXXI. The future of land reforms
i. In the mode of the classical application of land reforms vis a vis ceiling on
land holdings, the door for reform is pretty much closed unless the state
wishes to undertake the thorny issue of the nature of land ownership at
the time of Independence.
ii. Given the colonial history of the region, it is a known fact that modern
property laws were introduced and recognized in this region by the
British by virtue of the capacity of the local individuals to extract revenue
for the colonial state. Some of these individuals had already been
collecting revenues for the Mughal state as jagirdars, but their rights over
the land were not recognized in manner as they were recognized by the
British (the exclusive right of enjoyment etc., for example). Many, who
acquired title through settlements, did so for the first time by virtue of
their ability to coerce the local population and collect revenue.
iii. If we are to review that situation and perhaps deem land granted by
British (for services to the crown) as illegitimately acquired owing to
their shady origins, then we are looking at a wholly different scenario.
That will also raise questions as to whether land grants post-
Independence in the form of huge agricultural and urban land grants
largely to military officers, but to bureaucrats and other state
functionaries as well are illegitimately acquired. Certainly, this is far from
realizable. However, it still remains a possibility for future legislators.
iv. Another possibility that lays at the doors of the legislators, is to review
the existence of the Federal Shariat Court (and the Shariat Appellate
Bench) itself and there-after re-introduce legislation along the lines of
the ’72 and ’77 reforms. Certainly, this too is a non-realizable one – at
least in the short term – considering the power of the religious groups
and the right wing, both street power and their vocal power. If such a

48
 radical step were to be taken, it would not be surprising that the
legislators would be declared enemies of Islam, traitors, agents and the
usual labels.
v. The door for land reforms is not closed, yet, but there are huge challenges
in pursuing such an agenda.
5) Role Of Agriculture In National Economy
I. Increase in Per Capita Income: Per capita income is the annual average income
of the individuals of a nation. We derive it by dividing national income on total
population. Agricultural sector provides more jobs to unemployed people. It
increases the individuals as well as national income. Agricultural sector is
essential to increase the PCI, which is $ 1254 at present.
II. Major Source of Employment: Agriculture sector provides employment to
major portion of our labour force. More than 45.0% of our labour force is directly
involved in agriculture sector, while 66.7% of our rural population is dependent
on agriculture. This is the major sector, which provides employment to a large
portion of our population. Agriculture sector is helpful to reduce the
unemployment and disguised unemployment.
III. Reduction in Poverty: Agriculture development has significant impact on rural
development. If productivity increases in agriculture it reduces poverty and
stimulates non-farm employment, too. They are able to get basic services of life
such as water supply, sanitation, provision of health and educational facilitates.
About 21.0% population of Pakistan is much poor.
IV. Supply of Food: Food is the first in basic necessities of the life. The agriculture
sector is the sole provider of all type of food like wheat, rice, corn, sugarcane
vegetables and fruits etc., to the population engaged in various sectors of the
economy. Agricultural sector also provides food to those animals that provide
milk, cheese, butter and meat to population to maintain the efficiency. According
to economic survey of Pakistan, exports of food group are $ 2007.3 million.
V. Source of Forex Earning: Agriculture sector is the main source of foreign
exchange (forex) earning which is used to import capital goods. Total forex
resources of Pakistan is $ 17.1 billion out of which share of agriculture is
$2007.3million. Major cash crops of Pakistan are cotton, rice, tobacco etc. that is
helpful to correct the balance of payment.
VI. Supply of Surplus Labour: About 61% population is living in more than 50,000
villages in Pakistan. This sector is the major source for supply of labor force to
industrial sector due to farm mechanization and disguised unemployment. In this
way an increase in the income of the people leads to improved living standard.
VII. Source of National Income: At the time of partition, contribution of agriculture
sector to GNP was 60%, which decreased to 29.4% in 1980-81. Now its share to
GDP is 20.9% in 2010-11. Accordingly, agricultural sector is the major
contributor to Pakistan’s national income.

49
VIII. Supply of Raw Material: Agricultural sector provides not only food but also
provides cotton, sugarcane, tobacco, rice, oil-seed, meat and milk to various agro-
based, small scale and large-scale industries as a raw material.
IX. Development of Industrial Sector: There is inter-dependence and inter-
relationship between agricultural and industrial sector, both are helpful to
develop each other. Due to use of modern techniques of production in
agricultural sector, when income of the agriculturists increases, they will demand
for industrial articles, like threshers, harvesters, tractors, tub-wells and various
other consumer goods, which results in industrial growth and development.
X. Balance of Payment Position: Promotion of agriculture sector will provide
surplus production for exports and our foreign exchange reserves will be
increased. This will be helpful in the improvement of balance of payment. At
present Pakistan is facing a deficit of $ 8.3 billion in its balance of payment.
XI. Improvement in Living Standard: There is an increase in the income of the
farmers due to development of agricultural sector. It will improve their living
standard by constructing better houses, demanding luxuries of life, television,
computer, mobile, motor-cycles and a lot of other items. So, growth of agricultural
sector will cause to improve the standard of living of the population.
XII. Extension in Market Size: There is more output in agricultural sector due to
farm mechanization. It enlarges the size of market. If there is more production,
then surplus production can be export to the other countries of the world. So,
agricultural sector expands the market at national and international level.
XIII. Capital Formation: Role of agricultural sector in capital formation cannot ignore.
It increases the incomes of the people that lead to more saving and more
investment. Here, more investment leads to rapid capital formation. Capital
formation rate in Pakistan is 5%.
XIV. Increase in Investment: Total investment is only 13.4% of GDP in Pakistan. This
low investment is mainly due to low income and low savings. Agricultural sector
increases the income of people that caused in more saving and more investment.
Accordingly, agricultural sector is helpful in increasing the investment.
XV. Economic Development: Economic development, progress and prosperity
cannot achieve without agricultural sector. It provides employment opportunities
to a lot of people. It produces exportable items, which increases the foreign
exchange resources. So, agricultural sector is helpful to make rapid economic
development. Real GDP growth rate is 2.4%.
XVI. Self Reliance Policy: Agriculture sector is helpful to achieve the self-sufficiency.
Our country will not only become self-sufficient in food but supply of raw
materials for industries will also expand our industrial sector.
XVII. Direct Foreign Investment: Now a day, use of advanced technologies in farming
is common. It boost-up the industries like tractors, harvesters, thrashers,
chemicals etc. It has increases the foreign direct investment in our country. It
provides employments to our population and also increases the national income.
Foreign investment is $ 1.8 billion in Pakistan.

50
XVIII. Controlling Inflation: Inflation refers to the increase in general price level. It
may be due to increase in demand and shortage in supply. Agricultural sector is
very helpful to control the inflation. It produces more goods and maintains the
equilibrium in demand and supply. Rate of inflation is 14.1% in Pakistan.
XIX. Reduction in Regional Disparities: Agriculture sector is the life-blood of our
economy. Development of agriculture sector will increase the living standard of
the rural population. This leads to reduce the urban and rural differences in the
country.
XX. Demand for Industrial Goods: As the agriculture productivity increases, the
income of farmers goes up. With the rise in income the demand for both
agricultural goods (tractor, fertilizer, pesticides, tube-wells etc.) and industrial
goods (television, mobile, computer etc.) will increase in rural areas.
XXI. Balanced Growth Economy: There exists close inter-dependence between
agricultural sector and industrial sector. Agricultural sector will develop the
industrial sector also. Income received by cultivator will develop the demand for
the industrial goods. Its results are in balance growth of the economy.
XXII. Increase in Govt. Revenue: There is no direct tax on the agricultural income. But
indirectly government receives a huge amount of tax form agricultural sector. It
imposed some duties on imported technologies applied in farming. It imposes tax
on chemicals etc. So agriculture sector is also a source of income for the
government.
6) Impact of Feudalism on the agriculture of Pakistan

51
 FOREST MANAGEMENT AND UTILIZATION
Forestry is the study of this complex interaction, the management of the various components
of the forest, the preservation of its' natural balance (of forests and the life forms they support)
as well as the care of it to ensure its' wellbeing. Good forestry programs also make it possible
for humans to get some economic value from it, without hurting the forests in anyway. This
way of using the forest is known as Sustainable Forestry.

Sustainable Forestry
In sustainable forestry, efforts are put into replacing almost all the resources we get from the
forests, whiles extra care is taken to ensure that there is very little damage to wildlife and the
natural environment. Example: only old trees may be cut down, allowing younger trees to
grow to ensure continuity, and trees are planted to replace the ones cut down.

Sustainable Forestry activities

Unfortunately, environmental issues cannot be separated from politics and economics
(people’s life) This is why effective sustainable forestry comes in two approaches. These are:

Forests and Forests related Industries

Here, the attention is on the natural resource itself and the timber companies that harness
resources directly from the forests. In this approach, there are usually very strict rules and
consequences with the way resources are extracted from that forest. It is usually enforced by
laws, hefty fines and effective monitoring efforts. In recent time, the use of technology is
helping authorities see more about what is going on in the forests. This means items made
from resources that come from forests will cost a lot in the shops, so consumers also need to be
prepared.

Here, campaigns are developed to educate consumers (industries and individuals including
you) on the value of forests resources and the dangers forests face. Efforts are directed to
make people become more environmentally aware and friendly. Example, people are
encouraged to recycle more, to use paper products from recycled pulp, and to encourage
everyone to join the fight to save our forests.

Importance of Forests
Forests and biodiversity is key to all life forms. The richer the diversity of life, the greater the
opportunity for medical discoveries, economic development and adaptive responses to such
new challenges as climate change.

Watershed
Forests serve as a watershed. This is because almost all water ultimately comes from rivers
and lakes and from forest-derived water tables. Some rivers running through forests are also
kept cool and from drying out. "The Amazon is by far the largest watershed and largest river
system in the world occupying over 6 million square kilometers. Over two-thirds of all the

52
fresh water found on Earth is in the Amazon Basin's rivers, streams, and tributaries." -
RainTree

Forests and biodiversity

Habitat and Ecosystems
Forests serve as a home (habitat) to millions of animals. Think of the many types of reptiles
(snakes and lizards) wild animals, butterflies and insects, birds and tree-top animals as well as
all those that live in the forest streams and rivers.
Animals form part of the food chain in the forests. All these different animals and plants are
called biodiversity, and the interaction with one another and with their physical environment
is what we call ecosystem. Healthy ecosystems can better withstand and recover from a variety
of disasters such as floods and wildfires.

Economic benefits
Forests are of immense economic importance to us. For example, plantation forests provide
humans with timber and wood, which is exported and used in all parts of the world. They also
provide tourism income to inhabitants (people living in or close to forests) when people visit
to see the best of nature. economic importance of forests

Climate Control
Climate control and atmosphere purification is key for human existence. Trees and soils help
regulate atmospheric temperatures through a process called evapotranspiration. This helps to
stabilize the climate. Additionally, they enrich the atmosphere by absorbing bad gases
(example CO2 and other greenhouse gases) and producing oxygen. Trees also helps to remove
air pollutants.

Did you know: In many developing countries more than 80% of total energy (fuel wood and
charcoal) consumed by people and industry is derived from forests. Trade in timber and other
forest products is estimated at almost 330 billion US Dollars /year. Its' value multiplies as it is
processed into a range of products used globally every day. Uses of genetic diversity within
forests enable the development of new medicines; progress in health care and science

Forest Management

Forest management is a branch of forestry concerned with the overall administrative,

economic, legal and social aspects and with the essentially scientific and technical aspects,
especially silviculture, protection, and forest regulation. This includes management for
aesthetics, fish, recreation, urban values, water, wilderness, wildlife, wood products, forest
genetic resources and other forest resource values. Management can be based on conservation,
economics, or a mixture of the two. Techniques include timber extraction, planting and
replanting of various species, cutting roads and pathways through forests, and preventing fire.
The forest is a natural system that can supply different products and services. The working of
this system is influenced by the natural environment: climate, topography, soil, etc., and also

53
by human action. The actions of man in forests constitute the forest management. In developed
societies this management tends to be elaborated and planned, in order to achieve the
objectives that are considered desirable.

Some forests have been and are managed to obtain the traditional forest products such as fire
wood, fiber for paper, building timber, with little thinking for other products and services.
Nevertheless, as a result from the development of ecology science and environmental
awareness, management of forests for multiple use is becoming more common

There has been an increased public awareness of natural resource policy, including forest
management. Public concern regarding forest management may have shifted from the
extraction of timber for earning money for the economy, to the preservation of additional
forest resources, including wildlife and old growth forest, protecting biodiversity, watershed
management, and recreation. Increased environmental awareness may contribute to an
increased public mistrust of forest management professionals. But it can also lead to greater
understanding about what professionals do re forests for nature conservation and ecological
services

The abundance and diversity of birds, mammals, amphibians and other wildlife are affected by
strategies and types of forest management.

Forest management varies in intensity from a leave alone, natural situation to a highly
intensive regime with silvicultural interventions. Management is generally increased in
intensity to achieve either economic criteria (increased timber yields, non-timber forest
products, ecosystem services) or ecological criteria (species recovery, fostering of rare species,
carbon sequestration).

Sustainable Forest Management

Sustainable forest management (SFM) is the management of forests according to the principles
of sustainable development. Sustainable forest management uses very broad social, economic
and environmental goals. A range of forestry institutions now practice various forms of
sustainable forest management and a broad range of methods and tools are available that have
been tested over time and space.[citation needed]

The "Forest Principles" adopted at The United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 captured the general international
understanding of sustainable forest management at that time. A number of sets of criteria and
indicators have since been developed to evaluate the achievement of SFM at both the country
and management unit level. These were all attempts to codify and provide for independent
assessment of the degree to which the broader objectives of sustainable forest management
are being achieved in practice. In 2007, the United Nations General Assembly adopted the Non-
Legally Binding Instrument on All Types of Forests. The instrument was the first of its kind,

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and reflected the strong international commitment to promote implementation of sustainable
forest management through a new approach that brings all stakeholders together.

Forest Management Basics

Forests are an important part of our state’s environment and economy. When they are well
managed, forests provide clean air and water, homes for wildlife, beautiful scenery, places for
recreation and more than 5,000 products we all use every day. When they are not well
managed, forests are often unhealthy and unproductive because of overcrowding, disease,
insects, and competition for light, water and nutrients. To maintain or improve the health and
productivity of a forest and to achieve the landowner’s objectives for the property, foresters
use a number of management techniques, including harvesting, prescribed burning and
reforestation.

Harvesting Trees
In forest management, trees are harvested for a variety of reasons including improving the
health of the forest; controlling the types of trees that grow on the site; attracting certain
wildlife species; providing a source of income for the landowner; producing paper, lumber and
numerous other forest products; and improving access to the area for hikers, hunters and
other recreational users.

Just as there are many reasons for harvesting trees, there are many different harvesting
methods. Each method has its benefits, drawbacks and conditions under which it is the most
suitable way to harvest trees. No one harvesting method is ideal for all situations.

Thinning Harvest
When trees are crowded together, they are in greater competition for sunlight, nutrients and
water. As a result, they tend to be less healthy and to grow less vigorously. To improve the
health and productivity of the forest, forest managers may remove a portion of the trees in the
early stages (10-15 years) of a growing stand of trees so there is less competition for sunlight,
water and nutrients. The forest is ‘thinned’ by taking out a certain percentage of the trees. The
remaining trees will grow faster, stronger and larger. The thinning also improves the growth
of the forest’s understory such as wildflowers and native weeds by increasing the amount of
sunlight that reaches the forest floor. This growth provides more food and cover for animals
such as quail and rabbits.

This type of harvest is typically referred to as a “pre-commercial” harvest since the costs
associated with the forest management (road maintenance, harvesting, etc.) often equal or
outweigh the money earned on the harvested trees for the landowners. These type of harvests
result in pulpwood size trees, which are smaller in diameter than trees that would be made
into lumber.

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Clearcut Harvest
Clearcutting removes all the trees in a given area, much like a wildfire, hurricane or other
natural disturbance would do. It is used most frequently in pine forests, which require full
sunlight to grow, and in hardwood forests with yellow poplar, sweetgum, cherry, maple and
other species that require full sunlight.

Clearcuts are an efficient way to convert unhealthy stands to healthy, productive forests
because they allow forest managers to control the tree species that grow on the site through
natural or artificial regeneration.

While a clearcut removes all canopy cover and is unattractive for a short period of time, it is an
effective method for creating habitat for a variety of wildlife species. Animals that eat insects,
such as turkeys and quails, and those that eat annual and perennial plants, such as bears and
deer, thrive in recently clearcut areas. Many creatures also find shelter from weather and
predators in the low growing grasses, bushes and briar thickets that follow this type of harvest.
In addition, clearcutting is an important forest management tool because it can be used to
create edges – areas where two habitat types or two ages of the same habitat meet. Because
edges provide easy access to more than one habitat, they usually have more diverse wildlife
communities than large blocks of a single habitat.

A clearcut harvest will produce a mixture of pulpwood and sawtimber products for the forest
products industry based on the size of the trees and whether the trees are softwood (pine) or
hardwood (maple, oaks, etc.). Loggers sort the trees onto different trucks for their different
locations. The smaller diameter trees, typically called pulpwood, will head to a paper mill or
energy facility. The larger diameter trees, typically referred to as sawtimber, will be sent to a
sawmill. Again, different tree species (whether softwood or hardwood) are sent to specific
markets.

Shelterwood Harvest
In a shelterwood cut, mature trees are removed in two or three harvests over a period of 10 to
15 years. This method allows regeneration of medium to low shade-tolerant species because a
“shelter” is left to protect them. Many hardwoods, such as oak, hickory and cherry, can produce
and maintain seedlings or sprouts in light shade under a partially cut stand. However, the
young trees will not grow and develop fully until the remaining overstory trees are removed.

One benefit to shelterwood harvests is that they provide cover and early successional food
sources for wildlife. However, this method of harvest is not recommended for trees with
shallow root systems because the remaining trees are more susceptible to wind damage after
neighboring trees are removed. Another disadvantage to shelterwood cuts is that they require
more roads to be built through the forest, and increase the risk of soil disturbance and damage
to the remaining trees during harvesting.

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Seed Tree Harvest
In a seed tree harvest, five or more scattered trees per acre are left in the harvested area to
provide seeds for a new forest stand. These trees are selected based on their growth rate, form,
seeding ability, wind resistance and future marketability.

Wildlife benefit from seed tree harvests in much the same way as they do from a clearcut
harvest, except that they also reap the benefits of the seed trees themselves. If left on site
indefinitely, seed trees eventually may become snags or downed logs, which are important
habitat components for woodpeckers and many other species. Seed trees are also excellent
food sources and nesting sites for hawks and other birds.

One disadvantage to seed tree harvests is that the remaining trees are at increased risk of
damage from wind, lightening, insect attack and logging of nearby trees. This type harvest may
also require the landowner to make future investments in thinning and competition control
because of uncontrolled reseeding.

Group Selection Harvest

Group selection is essentially a small-scale clearcut where groups of trees in a given area are
harvested over many years so that the entire stand has been cut within 40 to 50 years. This
method is used primarily on bottomland hardwood stands to harvest high-quality, top dollar
logs. The size of the group cut determines the tree species that are likely to return after the
harvest. Openings that are less than one-fourth acre favor shade-tolerant species, and larger
openings favor sun-loving species.

Group selection provides ideal pockets of young vegetation for grouse, deer and songbirds. But
because it requires intensive management and frequent access to all areas of the property, it
can be an expensive forest regeneration method.

Single-Tree Selection Harvest

Single-tree selection removes individual trees that are ready for harvest, of low value or in
competition with other trees. With single-tree selection, the forest continuously produces
timber and constantly has new seedlings emerging to take the place of harvested trees. Single-
tree selection maintains a late succession forest that benefits many wildlife species such as
squirrels and turkey.

Single-tree selection harvesting is best in small or confined areas for a variety of reasons. One
is that this harvesting method requires more roads. In addition, surrounding trees can be
damaged during harvests, and frequent use of logging equipment in a given area may compact
the soil. Sun-loving trees, which are an important source of food for wildlife, do not regenerate
well with single-tree selection, so forest managers must use mechanical or chemical controls to
prevent shade-tolerant species from taking over the site.

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Prescribed Burning
Prescribed burning is a forest management practice that benefits certain forests by reducing
the amount of leaves, branches and dead trees accumulated on the forest floor that could fuel a
wildfire. In addition to helping control the spread of wildfire, removal of this “litter layer” also
promotes the growth of new forage and succulent plants, which are important sources of food
for many wildlife species including rabbits and deer. And the increase in available insects and
seeds following a prescribed fire is good for turkeys and a variety of nongame species.

While improving wildlife habitat, prescribed fire also promotes the health of the forest by
controlling the spread of disease and insect infestations, and reducing plant competition for
nutrients, water and sunlight.

This management technique is commonly used in Longleaf, Shortleaf and Loblolly pine forests
because these trees are naturally resistant to fire. In fact, the Longleaf Pine requires fire for its
seeds to germinate.

Reforestation
Trees are a renewable resource. This means that they can be grown, harvested, replanted and
harvested again and again in a never-ending cycle to provide clean air and water, habitat for
wildlife, beautiful views and thousands of products both today and in the future. The process
of growing trees on an area that previously has been harvested or cleared is called
reforestation.

The two basic methods of reforestation are natural regeneration and artificial regeneration.

Natural regeneration relies on nature to return an area to forestland after trees are harvested.
Through natural regeneration, new trees grow from seeds that are carried by the wind,
transported or buried by animals, or that are simply dropped on site by mature trees. In
addition to producing seedlings from seeds, hardwood trees regenerate naturally by sprouting
new growth from the stumps of cut trees.

Artificial regeneration involves human intervention in sowing seeds or planting seedlings. This
method of forest renewal has several advantages over natural regeneration. It provides better
control over tree spacing, more control over the species present in the new forest, the
opportunity to plant genetically improved seeds or seedlings, and a higher rate of tree survival.
Although artificial regeneration is more expensive than natural regeneration, the result is
usually a more productive stand in a shorter period of time.

Forest Succession
Each stage of succession provides different benefits to a variety of wildlife species. In fact,
many species need more than one forest type to meet their needs. Rodents and rabbits prefer
early successional forest where there are plenty of grasses and shrubs for food and shelter.
Deer also need food found in early succession, but require the denser cover of middle and late

58
succession for shelter and escape from danger. Birds of prey nest in mature forests, but feed
on rodents and snakes found in early succession. Other wildlife, such as squirrels, find both
their food and shelter in mature trees.

Forestry in Pakistan
The forestry sector of Pakistan is a main source of lumber, paper, fuelwood, latex, medicine as
well as food and provide ecotourism and wildlife conservation purposes. Less than 4% of land
in Pakistan is covered with forests.

Statistics
Total forest area coverage (source)
Parameter Pakistan Asia World
Total forest area in 2000 (000 ha) 2,361 504,180 3,869,455
Natural forest area in 2000 (000 ha) 1,381 375,824 3,682,722
Plantations area in 2000 (000 ha) 980 110,953 186,733
Total dryland area in 1981 (000 ha) 72,5241,078,121 5,059,984
Percentage of forests~3% ~20% ~29%

Types

1) The coniferous forests occur from 1,000 to 4,000 m altitudes. Chitral, Swat, Upper Dir,
Lower Dir, Malakand, Mansehra and Abbottabad districts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Azad
Kashmir and Rawalpindi district of the Punjab are the main areas covered with
coniferous forests. Pindrow Fir(Abies pindrow), Morinda spruce (Picea smithiana),
deodar (Cedrus deodara), blue pine (Pinus wallichiana), chir pine (Pinus roxburghii)
are the most common varieties. The Coniferous forests also occur in Balochistan hills.
Chilghoza pine (Pinus gerardiana) and juniper (Juniperous macropoda) are the two
most common species of Balochistan.
2) The sub-tropical dry forests are found in the Attock, Rawalpindi, Islamabad, Jhelum and
Gujrat districts of the Punjab, and in the Mansehra, Abbottabad, Mardan, Peshawar and
Kohat districts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa up to a height of 1,000 m. In Balochistan, they
are confined to the Sulaiman Mountains and other hilly areas. Dominant tree species
are phulai (Acacia modesta), kau (Olea cuspidata) and hopbush (Dodonaea viscosa).
3) The tropical thorn forests are dominated by xerophytic scrubs. They are most
widespread in the Punjab plains but also occupy small areas in southern Sindh and
western Balochistan. They are mainly used for grazing purposes, watershed protection
and fuelwood. Common species are vann (Salvadora oleoides), khejri (Prosopis
cineraria), kair (Capparis aphylla), etc.
4) The irrigated plantations were first developed in 1866 at Changa Manga in Lahore.
Today they occupy about 226,000 ha. Sheesham (Dalbergia sissoo), mulberry/Shahtoot
(Morus alba), babul (Acacia nilotica) and species of Eucalyptus and Populus are the
common tree species grown in the irrigated plantations.

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 5) The riparian forests grow in narrow belts along the banks of River Indus and its
tributaries. They are more commonly found in Sindh and to some extent in the Punjab.
Babul (Acacia nilotica), Shisham (Dalbergia sissoo) and Tamarax dioica are the most
common species. Khejri (Prosopis cineraria) and Populus euphratica are some other
species. They are mainly used for lumber.
6) The mangrove wetlands are located in the Indus River Delta. Other saltwater wetlands
are located on the coast of Balochistan such as at Sonmiani and Jiwani. These support
mangrove forestry, mainly of species Avicennia marina as well as bamboo species and
marsh grasses of Apluda and Cenchrus.

Ecosystems area by type in 1993 (source)

Ecosystem type Pakistan Asia World
Shrublands, woodlands and grasslands 36% 37% 37%
Sparse or barren vegetation; snow and ice34% 10% 16%
Cropland and natural vegetation mosaic 28% 34% 20%
Wetlands and water bodies 1% 2% 3%

Uses
The forests of Pakistan are a main source of lumber, paper, fuelwood, latex, medicine as well as
human and animal food. Other minor products include resin (a fluid in tissue of Chir pine plant
that becomes solid on exposure to the air) and 'mazri' (used for making baskets). The forests
also provide for ecotourism and wildlife conservation purposes. Forests have also been
planted in some areas like Thal Desert to avoid soil erosion and further desertification.
Riparian zone along the river Indus have been managed to avoid excess flooding.

Annual production, 1996-1998 (source)

Parameter Pakistan Asia World
Total production (000m³) 31,5281,111,958 3,261,621
Fuelwood production (000m³) 29,312863,316 1,739,504
Industrial roundwood production (000m³) 2,217 268,470 1,522,116
Paper (thousand metric tons) 619 88,859313,206

Deforestation

The Federal Bureau of Statistics provisionally valued this sector at Rs.25,637 million in 2005
thus registering over 3% decline of forests in Pakistan since 2000. The main reasons of
deforestation are urbanization, farming, overgrazing, global warming, and tourism
development. This has led to severe consequences desertification, flooding and endangering of
wildlife.

As a consequence to deforestation and changing land use patterns, the most critically affected
ecosystems of Pakistan are:

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Juniper forests of northern Balochistan, have been heavily harvested for timber and fuelwood.
Indus River riparian zone is the other such area where ecological changes have drastically
affected the 'Riverain Forests'. Large tracts have been cleared for agriculture.
The Himalayan temperate forests are also under severe pressure from logging for timber and
firewood and making clearings for agriculture and the increasing population pressure.

Conservation
The protected areas serve the purpose of conserving the forests and wildlife of Pakistan.
National Conservation Strategy of 1993 was a major landmark of start of conservation of
natural resources and wildlife in Pakistan. Resource-managed man-made forests like Changa
Manga, Kamalia plantation and Chichawatni plantation have also been planted to serve
purpose and conserve forests. Through conservation, a large region of Thal desert has been
afforested.

Natural protected forests

Birir Valley Coniferous Forest in Chitral District (also called 'Deodar Chilghoza Oak Forest')
Jhangar Scrub Forest in Chakwal District
Sulaiman Coniferous Forest in Khyber Pukhtunkhwa (also called 'Sulaiman Chilgoza Pine
Forest')
Ziarat Juniper Forest in Ziarat District

Artificial resource managed forests

Changa Manga Forest in Lahore District
Chichawatni Plantation in Sahiwal District
Khipro Reserve Forest in Sanghar District

Research institutions
Shaheed Benazir Bhutto University Sheringal, Dir Upper, KPK, DIR
Agricultural Research Institute, Quetta
Punjab Forest School (profile), Bahawalpur
Pakistan Forest Institute (profile), Peshawar
The university of agriculture, Peshawar (http://www.aup.edu.pk/
Sindh Agriculture University, Hyderabad
University of Agriculture (profile), Faisalabad
University of Haripur, Haripur Hazara (khyber pakhtunkhwa) (Pakistan)

Silviculture
Introduction:
Silviculture pertains to the raising, development, care, reproduction and overall management
of forest crops.
Definition: If has been defined variously as follows:

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By Toumey and Korstain:
Silviculture is that branch of forestry which deals with the establishment, development, care
and reproduction of stands of timber.

By Champion and Seth:

The terms silviculture, in English refers only to certain aspects of the theory and practices of
raising of forests crops.

By Iffprt (IFR Dehradun)

The art and science of cultivated forests crops. On the other hands, silvics is the study of trees
and forests and biological entities, the laws of their growth and development, and impact of
environment on them. Thus, silviculture can be described to include all practical and
theoretical aspects of silvics.

Objects of Silviculture:

Study of silviculture helps to attain the following object:

1) To derive environmental benefits: Soil and water conservation, control of air and noise
pollution, wild life conservation, regulation of climatic condition, regulation of water
cycle.
2) Raising species of more economic value: Industrial and economic growth through.
3) Production of high-quality timer: Silviculture techniques help of avoid the problem of
crooked, malformed, disease or defective timber and thus help to produce goods quality
timber.
4) Production of more volume per unit area: Unmanaged forests may be too dense or too
open, less production, premature death of trees silviculture helps to solve these
problems.
5) Reduction of rotation period: In Unmanaged forests the rotation tends to be longer.
6) Afforestation of blank areas: Waste lands can be used for forests
7) Creation of plantation: Man made forests or plantations may be created in placed of
natural forests.
8) Introduction of exotics: Successful introduction of exotic species is possible.
9) Employment potential: In any plantation operation, the labour component account for
60 to 70% of the total financial input.
10)Increase in the production of fuel and fodder: In development countries like India it is
important aspect.
11)Forest Industries: Resin for resin and turpentine industry, pulp wood for paper
industry, industrial wood for match and timber industry, railway, etc, minor forests
product based industries.

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Silviculture

Silviculture is an important subject of forestry. It is tie forestry as Agronomy in to agriculture,

in that it is concerned with the technology of crop production. It has been defined in a number
of ways. Following are the accepted definitions of silviculture.

1. Silviculture is that branch of forestry which deals with the establishment, development, care
and reproduction of stands of timber. By Tourney and Karstien

2. Silviculture is the art and science of cultivating forest crops. By Indian Forest and forest
products Teminology (1957)

3. Generally, The science and art of cultivating (e.g. growing and tending) of forest crops, based
on a knowledge of silvios. More particularly, the theory and practice of establishment,
composition, constitution and growth of forests. By Society of American Foresters (1983)

4. Silviculture refers to certain aspects of theory and practice of raising forest crops, methods
of raising tree crops, their growth and after care up to the time of final harvesting. By Rao
(1987)

In simple words, Silviculture is the growing and tending stands of trees. Silva is the Latin word
for forest and culture for cultivation. Therefore, without exaggeration, Silviculture is the Real
art of forest.

Silviculture is very important and essential when human beings wish to manage the forests.

a. To accelerate the wildlife, timber and forage production.

b. To increase the Recreation values and Watershed values.
Silvicultural Systems

Silvicultural system is defined as (Prakash and Khanna 1979) method of silvicultural

procedures workout in accordance with accepted sets and silvicultural principles by which
crops constituting forests are tende, harvested and replaced by new crops of distinctive forms
or a planned Silvicultural treatment which is applied to a forest crop, through-out its life, so
that it assumes a distinctive form.

As silvicultural systems deals with the removal of a forest crop, its replacement by a new crop
and distinctive form and it’s tending, it has following essential characteristics

1) The pattern of felling to be adopted in harvesting a mature crop to be regenerated.

2) The method of regeneration to be adopted.
3) The tending of new crops.
Silvicultural System is special tool or technique for achieving the objects of Forest Management

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Object of Silviculture
Silviculture is improved limitation of nature. In nature, we find a large number of species
coming up at one place. Some individuals die out of competition, some attain top canopy while
others remain at lower levels. Silvicultural factors are usually controlled by economic
considerations. If there are a large number of species, perhaps a forester would select some of
them which are economically more important. Also the forester may remove the trees which
are likely to die out of suppression. Since our knowledge of economic and natural factor is not
perfect, it is not always possible to determine how far to divert from purely natural course. In
nature, succession is a process in which one species or group of species is replaced by another
species or group of species and a stage comes when more stable species appears. The study of
silviculture enables the foresters to know the whole course of natural succession on a given
site and also the manner and the speed of existing crop being replaced or altered. This
knowledge helps the foresters to determine where and how to control the succession.

The important objectives of silviculture can be summarised as under:

1. Control of Crop Composition and Production of Species of More Economic Value:
Under natural conditions, a large number of species form the crop inferior or less valuable
species may flourish at the expense of the desirable species. The control is exercised by two
ways:
i. By removing or cutting inferior species
ii. By creating more favourable conditions for the regeneration and growth of desirable species.

2. Control of Stand Density, for Production of Maximum Volume:

In the natural forests, trees are likely to grow either too dense or too open. If the trees are too
dense-the wood production is distributed over large number individuals and none of them
grow to the optimum size. If the trees are too less, the production would be less, though
individual trees may grow sufficiently with higher dimensions. If the trees are too less, they
will not be able to utilise the site, effectively and may be even inadequate to regenerate the
area. Both these conditions are not good for maximum wood production. Silviculture helps to
maintain or retain sufficient number of trees per unit area so that by optimum use of soil,
maximum wood production is ensured. Substantial increase in production can be ensured by
thinning dense prop through salvaging the trees otherwise these trees would have died.

3. Afforestation of Blank and Under Stocked Areas:

There is a large area of forests which is blank or under stocked due to fire, encroachments,
illicit fillings, or some natural causes. These areas are however, suitable to bear tree growth.
Silviculture helps us to afforest these areas with suitable trees by planting or by seedling.
Silviculture guides to know the best period of seed collection, nursery technique, plantation
details, etc. to complete afforestation.

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4. Production of Quality Timber:
In unmanaged forests, because of intense competition or little competition, quality timber is
not produced. A large number of trees are malformed, defective and sometimes diseased.
Proper control of damaging agencies can increase the production. Insects,fungi,fire,wind,
grazing,lopping, etc. which affect the quality of the timber are controlled by suitable
Silvicultural techniques and methods.

5. Control on Rotation Period:

Rotation is counted period in years from regeneration to harvesting. In unmanaged forests, if
there are more number of trees, the growth of individual tree is slow consequently, they take
longer period to reach to harvestable size. The knowledge of silviculture helps to regulate the
density of the crop at various sizes / ages which helps to reach exploitable size much faster.
Thus, rotation of a crop can be reduced by regulating the density of the crop. It also helps in
identifying short rotation crops.

6. Facilitate Management and Use of Forests:

In unmanaged forests, good forests exist in difficult areas, where it is difficult to manage and
harvest the timber. In managed forests, it is easy to plant the growth and distribution of forests
so that the produce is used efficiency and economically. It is possible to arrange the forest in
different localities in such age classes and species composition that management becomes easy.

7. Creation of Man Made Forests and Introduction of Exotics:

Silvicultural techniques help us to replace wholly or partly, natural forests by man mad forests
of the same species or by other species. If the existing, forest does not contain valuable and the
desirable species. It can be planted with such important species. If the forest consists of
desirable species but it is not regenerating properly, it can be harvested and regenerated
artificially. Identification of suitable exotics depending upon geographical location, raising trail,
plantations, selection of suitable exotics species, perfecting the nursery and plantation
techniques of the exotics are some of the silvicultural techniques which help in introduction of
exotic species on a large scale.

8. Protection of Site and Intangible Returns:

The main object of silviculture is to provide maximum protection to the site so that intangible
returns from the forests are ensured. Important intangible returns include, moderating climate,
increasing precipitation, reducing soil erosion and floods conserving soil and water increasing
water yields providing shelter to a large number of wild animals, etc. Silviculture helps to
understand the requirement of a tree and its effect on the site. The species, which are likely to
deteriorate the site, are discarded. Only such species which afford complete protection to the
site and ensure continuous flow of intangible benefits are preferred.

Problems and Constrains in Forest Development

i. Loss of forest areas for different purposes.
ii. Encroachment of people on forest land.

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iii. Cutting due to heavy demand for wood, industry, home fuel
iv. Excessive grazing of animals
v. Fires - incidences / attacks / problems
vi. Shifting cultivation - Tonguya etc.
vii. Inadequate finance
viii. Non - involvement of people
ix. Different projects - irrigation / power / thermal / canals
x. Ecological balance
xi. Man hindrance
Wood-based Industries of Pakistan

Wooden furniture industry in Pakistan: Bright scope for further expansion By Dr. Noor Ahmed
Memon

The wooden furniture market is generally divided into the home-use and contract markets.
The contract market represents a significant part of it. And when built-in furniture, which is
sold in a package with new homes and condominiums, is included, the contract market is
thought to be huge. Hotels, restaurants, and public facilities represent the backbone of the
contract market for wooden furniture. The office furniture market consists largely of metal
furniture and some wooden, thus office furniture cannot be included in the contact furniture
market.

Wooden furniture is manufactured in Pakistan by a large number of cottage industries spread

over rural areas, small towns and cities. Pakistan's tradition of wood carving has been
considerably enriched by the continuing addition of new furniture designs in vogue overseas.
Furniture markets keep themselves well acquainted with the latest design kits. The fast
growing furniture industry is aiming at developing a system designed to incorporate its
tradition with modern functional demands, coupled with a feeling for the quality of the
material and of aesthetic values.

The export of furniture which was worth US $3.46 million in 1995-96 decreased to US $3.33
million in 1997-98. Today a large quantity of wooden furniture is manufactured in Pakistan at
the cottage level. The environment and conditions being favourable, the wooden furniture
industry holds out a bright scope for further expansion.

Furniture items produced in Sindh comprise ordinary chairs, tables, musical instruments and
other items like doors and windows. Since most of the furniture product in this province is
simple and heavy in weight, it is crude from the export point of view, and therefore sold locally
especially in areas close to the production centers. Tastefully designed furniture items, made of
superior quality wood, which are light in weight and in knocked-down conditions, are more
suitable for export purposes and for supply to distant markets within the country. But,
production of such furniture requires installation of modern machinery and plants.

The wood furniture industry in Pakistan can be divided into two main types: cottages and
small-scale industry. These units which are not mechanised, use out-dated tools and employ

66
manual labour for production of furniture. There are about 700 registered units in the country.
These units are operating on a single shift/300 day's per annum basis.

A number of families in Hala, Kashmore, Khanewal and Dera Ghazi Khan have stuck to the
traditional workmanship, despite sharp fluctuations in the taste of customers. The wood
carvers skill is predominantly visible in furniture making apart from carving wooden ceilings,
wooden panels, doors and windows. The oldest single style evolved in NWFP, where craftsmen
design massive pieces, beds, desks chairs, stands, lamps etc. Swati furniture has basically
broad seats, heavy legs (chairs) and geometric floral designs carved in various patterns. A
similar but equally vigorous style of wood work has been developed in the Peshawar Valley.
Traditional Peshawari furniture is still liked for its sturdy look and bold ornamentation.

Unlike the Swati and Peshawari furniture, which is made from oak, deodar and partial wood,
the wood-carvers of Azad Kashmir and some parts of the Frontier province use walnut wood.
Kashmiri craftsmen are famous all over the world for producing a number of elegant furniture
items.

Carved shisham tables come in numerous shapes; the tops may be rectangular, square, circular,
polygonal or palm shaped; which rest on four straight legs or on a single pillar. These are the
specialties of the craftsmen of Chiniot (Punjab).

Jacquard work is a popular traditional craft of Sindh. The articles such as table lamps, chairs,
and sofa sets, produced by the lacquer industries of Hala in Hyderabad district and Kashmore
in the Jacobabad district, are very popular. There was a time when lacquer work furniture was
used by villagers only - bed legs, low chairs, into the modern homes of the rich in cities.

Export of furniture decreased to US $3.33 million in 1997-98 from US $3.46 million in 1995-96,
thus showing decline of 4 per cent. Country-wise export of furniture is given in table.
Pakistan's wooden furniture industry has a great export potential and in quality is inferior to
none. The domestic markets is very vast and varied. However, export to Japan's markets has
great potential. No tariffs are levied on furniture or furniture components. The largest obstacle
to imports of furniture into Japan is size. Western furniture is often rejected because it is too
large for Japanese consumers.

Traditionally, Japan's furniture market has been heavily dependent on the so-called box
furniture. This type of market, however, is gradually fading away. Instead, the focus of home-
use furniture demands shifting to furniture sets for reception rooms. The increasing adopting
of western housing and interior designs will further accelerate this trend. Many single family
dwellings and condominiums come with built-in furniture such as walk-in closets. On the other
hand, Japanese consumers have a traditional attachment to wood. They dislike the presence of
knots in the furniture surface, and expect from manufacturers to perform careful finishing of
all parts, even those that cannot be seen. Hence, products that emphasises the beauty of the
woodgrain will be an important key to success.

Although the wooden furniture industry is cottage based, a few units have recently established
modern automatic plants for furniture making. Success in the contract market requires the

67
ability to propose interior design concepts and design furniture that matches these concepts.
The ability to manufacture products with extremely short lead times is also a necessity.
Moreover, since unit prices are much lower in the contract market than in the home-use
market, only the larger manufacturers are able to tender bids for large projects. These
manufacturers, with their accumulated expertise, advanced design skills, ability to propose
total interior concepts, and mass production facilities, have an overwhelming competitive
advantage over small businesses in the field.

The demand for furniture has been rising constantly for domestic as well as export purposes,
and it has been estimated that it is likely to maintain a growth rate of approximately 10 per
cent annum by the end of 2003. To meet the growing demand, improved designs and by suing
seasoned wood has good prospects in the domestic as well as foreign markets.

Forestry's Importance in National Economy

Forests are valuable assests to the nation. They provide timber, fire-wood, forage and
medicinal plants. These help in conservation of soil fertility and thus enhance its productivity.
They also provide the vital coverage to the country's water sheds and regulate supply of water.
They also sustain the country's wild life and provide recreational facilities. These materials
support and sustain such important industries as paper, news prints, match, plywood,
hardboard, pulp rayon, sports goods and a host of cottage industries. Forests also induce better
rainfall in arid regions.

Man's dependence on trees for the essential of his existence has been of paramount
importance in his life since the human race began. To-day almost all the necessities of life are
in one way or the other connected with the forest wealth. Besides glorifying the beauty of
nature, the trees prove to be helpful to the economy. The economic growth of an agricultural
country like ours is dependent on heavy plant production and its wide distribution. The trees
help the industrial revolution in a big way and provide excellent raw materials for industry.
The wooded area in our country is 4.5 percent of the total which is very insufficient. The
universally desirable standard is 20 percent. Our annual requirement of wood is about 22
million cubic feet of timber and we hardly produce 11 million cubic feet and the balance has to
be imported in foreign exchange. The total area of the country is 197 million acres, of which
forest area constitutes only about 72 lakh acres. Moreover, only 47 lakh acres or 2.4 percent of
the total has been classified as productive forests. It is estimated that with an increase of
50,000 acres per year in future afforestation programme, it will required about 100 years to
raise the present meagre forest area by about another 2.5 percent. Trees are beneficial to
mankind in many ways. They help to improve the environment. Trees can help to control
water and wind erosion, serve to regulate temperatures in the cropping zone, supply wood,
influence the cycling of nutrients significantly, fix atmospheric nitrogen, compete with crops
for light, water and nutrients, influence biological equlibria involving pests and their natural
enemies. Some woody plants such as Acacia arabica, Azadirachta indica, Dalbergia sisso and
Zizyphus mauritiana are grown in or on borders of the cultivated fields, which have come
economic values. As regards fruit bearing trees, we have the example of our neighbouring
country India. A large number of these trees live at public roads and highways. Perhaps the

68
tradition emanates from the earliest grand trunk road, where shaddy trees, laden with fruit,
were planted along the road for the benefit of mankind. To plant trees is to ensure for the
community unending social, economic and environmental advantages. It is bequeath what our
Holy Prophet (peace be upon him) described as Sadqa-i-Jariya.

Unfortunately, ours is wood deficit country. Although, our efforts over the past four decades
have enabled us to increase the forest area from 2 to 5 percent, our wood resources still lag far
behind our requirements. We have to spend Rs.1.75 billion every year on imports. Trees are
like jewels strung around the earth. They add to the beauty and glitter of our planet on the one
hand and fulfil our innumerable needs on the other. They add fragrance and colour to enliven
the environment which motivates man towards creativity. Like all other living beings, trees,
too bow to Allah Almighty in prayer and praise. It will, therefore, be sinful to pluck even one
leaf unnecessarily. That would affect the enviornmental balance of our planet.

No serious effort was made in the past to increase the number of trees. A larger number were
cut down, while fewer were planted. To-day, only five percent of our land is dotted with trees.
It is not enough to merely plant trees in fields and gardens and on farms and orchards and
along roods and canals. They have to watered, nursed and protected till they are full grown
trees. Many species are planted as ornamentals or shade trees such as cordia obliqua, Acacia
nilotica, Albizia lebbeck, Morus alba, Tamarix ophylla and Dalberyia sissoo, mangifera indica,
Tamarix aphylla, Zizyphus nummularia. Some of the important trees species grown in Pakistan
are poplar, mulbery, Eucalyptus, Pinus radita, hard and soft wood tree species. Other trees are
deodar, Fir, Chir Spuree, Keo, Phulai, pine, Babool, Shisham, Lignum etc.

The average annual per hectare yield for the wooded forest are in Pakistan is 0.21 cum. as
compared to 1.65 cum. in case of UK and 1.19 cum. in USA. For increasing potential yield and
area the plants based on realistic strategy evolved are: Management of forests on scientific
basis, introduction of social forestry, Planning of waste and denuded lands in high rainfall
areas, raising industrial wood species on suitable soil.

Raising and extension of nurseries to provide adequate plants to planting agencies and farmers
have been considered as essential attributes which need to be implemented under strong and
vigilant insight. Forests make an enormous contribution to the environmental stability on the
one hand and play a very significant role in food security for millions of people on the other. A
very important link between food production and forest is the role of trees in keeping intact
the fragile eco-system in the watersheds as well as the low rainfall zones of a country.
Excessive deforestation not only causes soil erosion and disappearance of rich agriculture land
but also because of its effect on the water regime, is a major drought threat to the agriculture
in the areas situated downstream. Keeping in view so much significance it would be
appropriate to say that forest play an important role in the economy of the country. However,
Pakistan is extremely deficient in forest resources. The forest area for the last four decades has
remained almost static. Pakistan has nearly 4.5 percent of the area under forest. This
percentage is too low as compared with an optimum desired level of 20 to 25 percent.

69
A tree cover breaks the velocity of the raindrops before falling on the ground, this substantially
reducing the kinetic energy which is otherwise so great that soil many times the volume of
raindrop would be disrupted and eroded. Of all the natural resources gifted to the mankind,
sunlight, soil and water are the most important ones. These resources have sustained the
existence of man from the very beginning but in recent years with increasing population, the
demand of food has increased enormously. Out of the total earth are of 510 million square
kilometers, water is spread over 360 million square kilometers making 150 million square
kilometers of land available for man's use. The earth receives about 10 million kilocalories of
solar energy per square meter per year. Out of this only 1 to 2 percent is absorbed by the
plants and in turn, the net plant production is about 0.3 percent of the light reaching the land
surface. The optimum utilization of natural resources in general and effect of forests in
particular are of vital importance to mankind.

In earlier times, when the rate of growth of population was very low, man was free to utilize
the natural resources wastefully. With the increase in population and society becoming more
industrialized and urbanized, man has no other alternative but to put greater demands on
natural resources, including water, land, vegetation, animals, etc. causing cutting and
encroaching of forests, increasing pollution and this disturbing the ecological system. Although,
Pakistan's forested areas are relatively small compared to the land under cultivation and
desert, the forests are of vital importance. Pakistan's forests are of basic natural resource
which provides food, fodder for cattle, fuel wood, wood for building and other materials; they
provide shelter and protection, and are source of income and employment, providing oxygen
to the air we breath and influencing the climate. They protect the soil against erosion and help
to prevent flood and desertification.

Wood is an important source of energy and in Pakistan the shortage of fuel wood alone
presents an energy crisis for rural population which may be as profound and intractable than
that connected with oil. To day, Pakistan has only 4.75 percent of the area under forests as
compared to a desired level of 20-25 percent. There is a great need for increasing forests for
the betterment of the country. Wood is at present, mainly used for construction, timber and
fuel wood purposes. Only a small quantity is used for manufacturing industrial carriages, boat
building, pencils, coal mine timbering products e.g matches, sport goods, plywood, particle
board, bus and truck body buildings, railways etc. However forestry as it exists today in
Pakistan is generally characterized lack of adequate area under forests, very low per capita
consumption of wood and use of outdated forest technology in planting and harvesting
operations. There are a number of factors responsible for this state of affairs. Firstly, Pakistan
inherited a very small forest area at the time of independence. Secondly, most of the land area
in Pakistan is arid and received low precipitation on which natural tree growth is not possible
without artificial irrigation. Further, in view of importance of agriculture, forestry
development was given low priority despite the fact that population has increased three-fold
with the concomitant rise in living standard of the people during this period. Research is
essential for the development of technology in any field which is suitable for local conditions.

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 TYPES OF FORESTRY

Forestry - Definition and Types of Forestry

Forestry is defined as the theory and practice of all that constitutes the creation, conservation
and scientific management of forests and the utilization of their resources (Anon, 1966). It
includes all thinking and all actions pertaining to creation and management of forests,
including harvesting, marketing and utilization of all forest products and services. It includes
not only management of existing forests but also the creation of new forests. National Forest
Policy of 1952, recommended that on the basis of Functions, all forest lands may be classified
into:
A. Protection Forests
B. National Forests
C. Village Forests
C. Tree Lands
National Commission of Agriculture (1976) proposed that forests can be classified into:

A. Protection Forests:
The practices of managing the forests for their protection function are called Protection
forestry. In protection forestry, the object is to protect the site due to instability of terrain,
nature of soil, geological formations, etc. Such areas where manipulation of the forest cover is
not desirable may be classed as protection forests. The forests located on higher hill slopes,
national parks and sanctuaries, preservation plots, biosphere or nature reserves and
wilderness areas may be included under protection forests. The practice of forestry with a
view to conserving flora, fauna, soil and water, increasing water yields, reducing floods and
droughts, amelioration of climatic conditions, etc. is called Protection Forestry.

B. Production Forests:
The practice of forestry with object of producing maximum quantity of timber, fuel wood and
other forest produce is called Production Forestry. The production forestry can be further
classified into:
(i) Commercial Forestry: Commercial forestry aims to get maximum production of timber, fuel
wood and other forest products as a business enterprise.
(ii) Industrial Forestry: Industrial forestry aims at producing raw material required for
industry. In Production forestry, there is a greater concern for the production and economic
returns.
(iii) Mixed Quality Forests
(iv) Valuable Forests
(v) Inaccessible Forests

C. Social Forests: Social Forestry is the practice of forestry which aims at meeting the
requirement of rural and urban population. The object of social forestry is to meet the basic
needs of community aiming at bettering the conditions of living through:
(i) Meeting the fuel wood, fodder and small timber requirements

71
(ii) Protection of agricultural fields against wind
(iii) Meeting recreational needs and
(iv) Maximizing production and increasing farm returns

Various forms of Social forestry are:

a) Community Forestry: The practice of forestry on lands outside the conventional forest area
for the benefit of local population has been called Community forestry. Community forestry
seeks the involvement of community in the creation and management of such forests.
b) Farm Forestry: Farm Forestry is defined as the practice of forestry in all its aspect on farms
of village lands generally integrated with other farm operations.
c)Extension Forestry: Extension forestry which includes the activity of raising trees on farm
lands, villages wastelands and community forest areas and on lands along the sides of roads,
canal banks and railway lines (Anon., 1976). More recently, there has been emphasis on
dynamic land use planning and efforts are made to maximise production on farmlands under
agroforestry.
d) Agro-Forestry: Agro-forestry has been defined as a sustainable land management system
which increases the yield of the land, combines the production of crops and forest plants
and/or animals simultaneously or sequentially on the same unit of land and applies
management practices that are compatible with the cultural practices of the local population.
e) Recreational Forestry: More recently, there has been considerable demand for Recreational
forestry, which is defined as the practice of forestry with the object of developing and
maintaining forests of high scenic value. Recreational forests are being developed near towns
and cities. The areas are being planted with flowering trees, shrubs and creepers to provide
forest atmosphere near towns and cities.

Branches of Forestry
Mainly, the forestry has been grouped as follows:

1. Basic Forestry
2. Applied Forestry

1. Basic Forestry: Basic Forestry deals with the theory and practice of constitution and
management of forests and utilization of their products. Agriculture is the study of science and
art of production of plants and animals used by man In India, the geographical, areas is about
32,80,500 km2. The forests occupy about 7,50,000 km2. (22.9% approximately) whereas
agricultural (cultivated) area is about 46% However, agriculture is the largest enterprise in
India. Nearly, 70% of the population is employed in this profession. But unfortunately, in spite
of this, it is not able to meet the requirements of ever-increasing population. Forestry, just like
agriculture, is a good professional with the difference of long life-span.

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Basic Forestry has the following Branches:

A) Silviculture: This refers to certain aspects to theory and practise of raising forest, crops,
methods of raising tree, their growth and after-cares up to the time of final harvesting.
However, in simple words, it is the cultivation of forest trees.

B) Forest Mensuration: In simple language, it is the measurement of forest produce. However,

it is defined as the determination of dimensions (e.g. height, diameter, volume, etc.) from,
volume, age and increment of single trees, stands or whole woods, either standing or after
felling. It concerns with linear area, volume and weight measurements.

C) Silvicultural Systems: A Silvicultural system can be defined as a method of Silvicultural

procedure worked out in accordance with accepted sets of Silvicultural principles by which
crops constituting forests are tended, harvested and replaced by new crops of distinctive
forms.

D) Forest Management: It is the practical application of science, technique, and the economics
to a forest estate for the production of some wanted results. In actual sense, it is the
application of business methods to the operation of a forest estate. The Society of American
Foresters (SAF) has described it as an application of business methods and technical forestry
principles to the operation of a forest property.

E) Forest Utilization: It is a branch of forestry concerned with the harvesting, conversion,

disposal and use of forest produce (British Common Wealth Forest Terminology,
1953.).According to SAF (1983) it is a branch of forestry concerned with the harvesting, any
necessary processing, and delivery to the consumer of forest produce.

F) Forest Law: Law includes any rule of action. The rules and law imposed by the state up on
the actions of its citizens for the breach of which they are punishable. Forest law is classified as:
a) Constitutional laws
b) Public laws
c) Private laws; Very essential for protection of forest; Some terms - Forest offence / Forest
right / Forest settlement
d) Forest wild life Act WL (protection ) Act 1972 Animals / bird.

G) Forest Policy: Branch of forestry concerned essentially, with social and economic aims
underlying forest management and forestry development (SAF - 1983)

2. Applied Forestry: This includes those subjects which how the references to other subject
but make the essence of, forestry
Dendrology, Forest Ecology, Forest Economy, Forest Entomology, Forest Fire, Forest Genetics,
Forest Pathology, Forest Seed technology, Forest soils, Forest statistics, Forests surveying,
Remote sensing

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Social Forestry-Social Resent
i. Agroforestry
ii. Forestry Extension
iii. Afforestation
iv. Recreation Forestry etc.

Some Other Forestry Branches:

1. Aesthetic forestry
2. Commercial Forestry
3. Community Forestry
4. Extensive Forestry
5. Farm Forestry
6. Extensive Forestry
7. Multiple use Forestry.

Introduction to Agroforestry

Social forestry pertains to those areas and forest which are manmade. Agroforestry is
conspicuously and important part of Social forestry and is it a dual system of production i.e.
production of forest crops and food crops, fodders or medicinal plant becomes possible. It
meets simultaneously at least two requirements of the participating persons. Agroforestry is
defined as a sustainable land management system which increase the overall yield of land,
combined with the production of crops (including tree crops) and forest plants and animal
simultaneously or sequentially on the same unit of applies management practices that are
compatible with the cultural practice of the local population. Thus in Agroforestry co-existence
of farm and forestry is adopted on a scientific basis and consequently, the total yield of land is
raised significantly.

Agro-forestry is an old concept. Trees, crops and animals have traditionally been raised
together on small farms throughout the World. This concept first derived in the temperate
zone due to the small family farms, as a result trees, crops and animals become separately
managed on a large scale in modern agriculture and forestry.

In our country the functional allocation on land is 46.4% for Agriculture and 22.7% area for
forestry is not sufficient for meeting the multi ferrous requirement of growing population for
food, fodder and fuel and other raw materials. The only answer appears to be to integrate the
land used for agriculture and forestry in such a way as to maximize production of foods and
services for diverse requirements rural communities.

Modern Agro-forestry establishes a symbiosis among agricultural crops tree species and
livestock rising. In other words, these are complementary and beneficial to each other.

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In short conventionally there had been separation between Agriculture and Silviculture. From
immemorial on a limited scale a combination of food crops and forest crops had been adopted
in land management by the farmers throughout the world, however due to steep rise in the
demand for fuel wood and food, due to increase of population, present and early and urgent
necessity to adopt the scientific approach on a large scale to the dual system of production or
co-existence of forestry and farm council of research for FAO set Agroforestry in 1878 and it is
a landmark in history in Agro-forestry. Growing of forest crops along with food grains in dual
system has been extensively being adopted world over by the farmer.

Agro-forestry is defined as an efficient, integrated and sustainable land use system that
combines Agricultural crops, Forest corps and / or Livestock together on the unit of farmland
at the same time or in sequential manner. In an Agroforestry there are both ecological and
economical interactions between the various components.

Agro-forestry is collective name for land used systems involving trees combined with crops
and / or animals on the same unit of land.
It combines production of multiple outputs with protection of resources.
It places emphasis on the use of multiple indigenous trees and shrubs.
It is particularly suitable for low input conditions and fragile environment.
It is structurally and functionally more complex than mono culture (single crop culture) the
cycle of Agroforestry system is always more than one year.

Objectives of Agro-forestry
1) To manage land efficiently so that its productivity is increased and restored.
2) To use available resources efficiently and economically
3) To generate employment opportunities for rural peoples.
4) To provide raw material for small cottage industries in rural areas.
5) To raise the supply of fuel in the rural areas at convenient distance for consumer. In India
70 million tons of dried cow dung is used every year, which can be diverted for natural organic
fertilizer moreover undue pressure is on traditional forest for obtaining fuel wood.
6) Agro-forestry aims to raise the supply for small timber used by villages for agricultural
implements, house construction and other domestic purposes. In this way Agroforestry can
meet this requirement of the rural population and reduce pressure on forest.
7) One of the main objectives of Agroforestry is to raise the production of food crops, legumes
and tuber to meet the rapidly growing food requirements of the Indian population.
8) Agroforestry aims at promoting production of, vegetables, pulses, milk and meat. Thus it can
raise the Nutritional value of food, which is urgently, require for mankind in our country.
Average Indian gets 2000 calories when 3000 calories require per day.
9) Agro-forestry program helps in obtaining an ecological balance in rural areas and thus it
may be consider a matter of great significance for a country like India.
10) Preservation of humidity in cultivable lands and check soil erosion. Increase productivity
of land. In drought prone areas Agroforestry reduces insecurity of the agriculture; in such

75
areas the dual system of production of tree and grasses ensures stability with productivity of
land.
11) Supply of fodder for vast population of livestock. For proper feeding to livestock increase
supply of fodder is urgently required. Large supply of milk and meat is achieved from livestock
and poultry when fodder and feeding is proper.

Benefits from Agro-forestry

Combining trees with food crops on cropped farms yield certain environmental benefits such
as,
1. Reduction of pressure on Forrest.
2. More efficient recycling of nutrients by deep rooted trees on the site.
3. Better protection of ecological systems.
4. Reduction of surface run-off, nutrient leaching and soil erosion.
5. Improvement of microclimate, such as lowering of soils surface temperature and reduction
of evaporation of soil moisture due to mulching and shading.
6. Increment in soil fertility through addition and decomposition of litter fall.

Economical Benefits:
Agro-forestry brings significant economic benefits to the farmers, the community, the region
and the nation such as:
1. Increment in outputs of food, fodder, fuel wood, timber and organic matter.
2. Reduction in incidence of total crop failure.
3. Increase in levels of farm incomes due to improved and sustained productivity.

Social Benefits:
1. Improvement in rural living standards from sustained employment and higher income.
2. Improvement in nutrition and health due to increased quality and diversity of food.
3. Provides stability to rural peoples.
4. Ecological balance.
5. Pollution reduction.
Limitations of Agro-forestry

Agro-forestry does have Certain Negative Aspects:

1. Possible competition of trees with food crops for space, sunlight, moisture and nutrient
which may reduce crop yield.
2. Damage to food crops during harvesting of trees.
3. Potential of trees is serving as hosts to insects and birds.
4. Rapid regeneration of profile trees may displace food crops and take over entire fields.

Through skilled management practices any or all these aspects can be controlled. For example,
once it is known that trees complete with food crops and may reduce food yields, it is easy to
adopt some of the following strategies.

76
1. Select legume trees that have small or light crowns so that sunlight will reach the food crops.
2. Select trees that are deep-rooted so that they will also absorb moisture and nutrients from
the deeper subsoil.
3. Space the trees further apart to reduce their competitive effect on the food crop.
Other Agroforestry System

In which following systems are included,

a) Horti-pastoral System: Cultivation of Horticultural crops plus pastures.
b) Agri-Horti-Pastoral System: In this system, in the marginal lands the fruit crops like
Mango, Ber, Anona, Jamun, Tamrind, Wood apple etc. are taken along with forest trees and the
food grains like, Peas, Gram, Wheat, Rice, Vegetables are taken.
c) Apiculture with Trees: In this system, the flowering trees like Kanchan Jacaranda
Spathodia, Erythrina, Krate sawar, Palas are planted for producing the honey in addition to
Jamun, Mahuha, Ecualyptus like trees are also planted for honey collection.
d) Aqua Forestry: Plants grown on the boundary around fish ponds like Casuriana, Coconut,
Arecanut, Kokum, Babhul, Bamboo, etc.
e) Multipurpose Wood Lots: The specific multipurpose trees are grown mixed or separately
on the farm like Australin babhul, Euclayputs, Subabhul, Bakan, Bamboo etc.
Kinds of Land and Site for Agro and Farm Forestry
The following type of land and sites can be assigned for Agroforestry
1. Field boundaries
2. Along with farm roads
3. Along with nala sites
4. Land on which cultivation is difficult
5. Old fallow lands
6. Cultivable wasteland
7. Site of cattle shade, kitchen farm, farms of house etc.
Introduction to Social Forestry
Social forestry may be defined as the science and art of growing trees in and outside traditional
forest areas and managing like existing forest with intimate involvement of the people and
more or less integrated with other operation resulting in balanced and complementary land
used with view to provide wide range of goods and services to the individual as well as to the
society. It is also called as Community forestry. The term social forestry was first used by a
forest scientist named Westoby in 1976. Social forestry is the greatest instrument of land
transformation. Consider the number of trees, which we have if each farmer raises even 10
trees on his farmland. The figure and yield will be colossal and its effect on economy will be
very impressive. If each tree is harvested say at the 10th year, the farmer having 10 trees will
earn nearly Rs.400 at Rs.40 a tree. This is with an initial expenditure of about Rs. 10 only. This
increases the area under trees for the benefit of community as a whole and rural community in
particular.
Development of trees on agricultural and other waste lands has tremendous effect. The trees
control sheet, rill and gully erosion, they retain moisture in soil, provide the farmer with fuel

77
and timber for agricultural implements, improve the climate, provide recreation to people,
save cow dung for manure and wood required for cremation which is scarce sometime. Fuel
alone to the extent of 90 million tones is consumed annually and it is estimated that more than
180 million tons of fuel will be needed. Again, it is said that about 400 million tons of cow dung
equivalent to about 60 million tons of fuel wood are burnt annually in or country. That means
the total fuel wood requirement will be to the order of 240 million tones. With forest yield
being diverted for industrial purposes and their extent dwindling year by year, the only
possible recourse for us will be make the farmer to grow trees on his farms.
Social Forestry Practices
The Social Forestry Practices Include:
1) Raising wind breaks on the dry farm lands
2) Planting shelter belts
3) Planting along road sides intensively
4) Planting up the village common lands and wastelands
5) Planting along railway lines and canal banks
6) Planting small wood lots on the farm if it is large
7) Planting of grooves near villages and along highways for recreation and rest
8) Planting foreshore areas of irrigation tanks
9) Planting of saline and calcareous soils unsuitable for agriculture
10) Reclamation of waterlogged areas or areas susceptible to inundation by planting trees
11) Planting of river and stream banks and training the rivers
12) Reclamation of highly eroded lands and controlling erosion
13) Raising of trees on soil conservation bunds
14) Planting of trees in urban areas - environmental planting
15) Raising of irrigated plantation of teak and mulberry
16) Afforestation of command areas of irrigation projects.
Methods of Practice of Social Forestry:
Social forestry may sub divided into farm forestry, extension forestry and urban forestry.
Practice of forestry on farm lands is farm forestry. Practice of forestry outside the farm lands
and outside the reserve forests is extension forestry.
Farm Forestry: Includes, rising of wind breaks, shelter, belts, and farm wood kots, raising
trees in village common land etc
Extension Forestry: Includes raising tree crops on canal banks, railway lines- and road sides,
under high tension electric lines, afforestation of foreshore areas of tanks and reservoirs,
reclaiming lands unsuitable for agriculture under tree crops.
Urban Forestry: Rising of tree crops in urban, areas L as a forest or for amenity planting, to
prevent and minimize pollution.
By now it is well appreciated that there is essential need for social forestry programme and
farm forestry development.
Benefits of Social Forestry
1) Betterment of environment
2) Reduction of pollution

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3) Providing the basic needs of rural and urban people for fuel, small timber, manure leaf and
other economic products nearer to home
4) Providing raw materials for industries such as wood, wool, packing cases, slate frames, fibre,
tamarind extract, oil seeds, pulping and husking material
5) Provide shelter for insectivorous birds on the farms
6) Protection from wind
7) Conservation of moisture
8) Prevention of soil erosion
9) Fullest utilization of land unsuitable for cultivation
10) Employment opportunities in rural and urban area
11) Reduction of noise
12) Recreation
13) Reduction of pressure on national forests
14) Achievement of self-sufficiency by the villages
15) Improvement of rainfall by induction precipitation
Types of Forests
Tropical rainforests
Hugely dense, lush forest with canopies preventing sunlight from getting to the floor of the
forest
All year high temperatures and abundant rainfall
Located near the equator
A vital storehouse of biodiversity, sustaining millions of different animals, birds, algae and fish
species
Sub-tropical forests
Located at the south and north of the tropical forests
Trees here are adapted to resist the summer drought
Mediterranean forests
Located at the south of the temperate regions around the coasts of the Mediterranean,
California, Chile and Western Australia
The growing season is short and almost all trees are evergreen, but mixed with hardwood and
softwood
Temperate forests
Located at Eastern North America, Northeastern Asia, and western and eastern Europe
Mix of deciduous and coniferous evergreen trees
Usually, the broad-leaved hardwood trees shed leaves annually
There are well-defined seasons with a distinct winter and sufficient rainfall
Coniferous forests
Located in the cold, windy regions around the poles
They come in both hardwoods and conifers
The hardwoods are deciduous

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The conifers are evergreen and structurally adapted to withstand the long drought-like
conditions of the long winters
Montane forests
Known as cloud forests because they receive most of their precipitation from the mist or fog
that comes up from the lowlands
Usually found in high-elevation tropical, subtropical and temperate zones
Plants and animals in these forests are adapted to withstanding the cold, wet conditions and
intense sunlight
Trees are mainly conifers
Plantation forests
Has around 7% of global forest cover (140 million hectares)
Produces more sustainable timber and fibre than natural forests
Plantations produce around 40% of industrial wood
Plantation forests are on the increase
Regeneration of Forest
The renewal of a forest by some means (e.g. natural or artificial) is known as regenerations.
The regeneration has been defined in a number of ways by several workers.
1) "The renewal of a forest crops by natural or artificial means; also the new crop so obtained".
2) Regeneration as, "The renewal by self-sown seed or by vegetative means." It is of two types
viz., Natural regeneration and Artificial regeneration.

Methods of Regeneration:
There are following methods of regeneration of forest:
A) Natural Regeneration,
B) Artificial regeneration and
C) Natural regeneration supplemented by Planting.

However, first two methods are most important in regeneration of forests.

A) Natural Regeneration: The renewal of a forest crop, by self-sown seed, or by coppice or
root-suckers, also the crop so obtained or also it can be defined as Reforestation of a stand by
natural seeding.
B) Artificial Regeneration: It is defined as the renewal of a forest crop by sowing, planting, or
other artificial methods; also the crop so obtained or the renewal of a tree crop by direct
seeding, or planting.

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 NATIONAL FOREST POLICY

I. Preamble
National Forest Policy (NFP) provides a framework for the sustainable management of forests
and allied natural resources, namely watersheds, rangelands, wildlife and associated
biodiversity. The policy seeks to launch a process of addressing fundamental causes of forest
depletion through active participation of all stakeholders, particularly local communities, to
maintain and improve ecosystem functions and services of forests and allied natural resources.
It is an umbrella policy providing guidelines to the Federal and Provincial Governments,
Government of Azad Jammu and Kashmir (AJK) and administrations of Federally
Administered Tribal Areas (FATA) and Gilgit Baltistan territories for protection, conservation,
and sustainable management of Renewable Natural Resources (RNR) for devising policies,
strategies and action plans specific to their priorities, needs, socio-economic and ecological
conditions.

II. Goal
The policy aims at restoration, development, conservation and sustainable management of
forests and allied natural resources to ensure sustainability of ecosystem functions, services
and benefits for present and future generations of Pakistan.

III. Objectives
The following basic objectives shall govern achieving goal of the National Forest Policy:
1. Restoration and maintenance of natural forests to preserve ecological cycles, functions
and services.
2. Increasing productivity of forests to meet requirements of timber, fuel wood, fodder
and non-wood forest products and to promote sustainable natural resource based
livelihoods.
3. Encouraging efficient utilization of wood and non-wood forest products, maximizing
wood substitution and development of alternative renewable energy resources.
4. Development of forest resource base to enhance carbon sequestration capacity and
mitigation of climate change effects, through massive afforestation programmes,
especially on all denuded, degraded and unproductive lands.
5. Mainstreaming sustainable forest management into sectoral policies, plans and
programmes, ensuring effective inter-provincial and inter-ministerial coordination at
Federal and provincial levels.
6. Conservation of biological diversity, protection and sustainable use of indigenous flora
and fauna.
7. Fostering public-private partnerships to enhance forest cover and promote commercial
forestry in private sector and encouraging role of civil society organizations.
8. Strengthening forestry education and research institutions to cope with the emerging
challenges of deforestation and climate change.
9. Creating mass awareness and involving local communities in sustainable natural
resource management.
10. Meeting national obligations under Multilateral Environmental Agreements especially
CBD, UNCCD, UNFCCC and UNFF.

IV POLICY MEASURES
The objectives of this policy shall be achieved through following measures:

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1. Reducing Adverse Impacts of Socio-Economic Causes

1.1 Protection of Forest Lands from Encroachments

A GIS/Remote Sensing based system shall be developed to establish and monitor
boundaries of forest lands and changes in tree cover in the country, in order to address issues
of deforestation and changes in land use. The Provincial Governments shall ensure mutation of
state forestlands, maintenance of proper revenue record, demarcation and establishment of
permanent boundary pillars.

1.2 Transfer of Forest Land to Non-Forestry Uses: Federal, Provincial and territorial
governments will ensure that no forest land shall be converted to any non-forestry uses.
In case such conversion is inevitable, permission for transfer shall be granted by the
Federal Government on the recommendation of the respective provincial/ territorial
government, subject to the condition that proper arrangements are made for provision
of alternate land and funds for compensatory afforestation. Any diversion of forest land
for non-forest purposes should be subject to most careful scrutiny by specialists from
the stand point of social and environmental costs and benefits. Necessary legislation to
curb the practice of forest conversions to non-forestry uses shall be promulgated.

1.2.1 Control of Encroachments : Forest encroachments are on the increase and this trend
has to be curbed through effective legislation and law enforcement. There should be no
regularization of existing encroachments.

1.2.2 Forest Fire Management: The incidence of fires in mountain forests is high leading to
enormous damage to the growing stock and natural regeneration. Special precautions and
improved management practices should be adopted to deal with forest fires.

1.2.3 Regulating Mining and Quarrying: Mining and quarrying in designated forest lands
and lands covered by trees should be allowed only after ensuring that the beneficiaries shall
repair and re-vegetate the area in accordance with established forestry practices. No mining
lease should be granted, private or public, without proper EIA and management plan,
appraised from the environmental angle and enforced by adequate set-up.

1.3 Bringing Additional Land under Tree Cover: The concept of social forestry, farm
forestry, agro-forestry will be promoted by providing appropriate incentives to the
farmers. Tree planting, soil stabilization and watershed management will be an integral
component of all Federally funded projects for construction of new dams, water
reservoirs, roads, railways, canals, industrial estates, housing schemes, etc. The
corporate sector shall be motivated to participate in afforestation campaigns under
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) and under obligation to sequester green house
gases emitted from the industrial processes.

1.4 Firewood Substitution: In order to reduce pressure on natural forests, alternate

energy resources including energy plantations, micro-hydro power generation, bio-gas,
solar and wind energy, Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG) and natural gas shall be promoted
in critical mountain ecosystems. Fuel efficient cooking stoves and energy efficient
houses shall be promoted throughout the country.

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1.5 Sustainable livelihoods through Integrated NRM
Government of Pakistan shall assign high priority to development programmes aiming at
sustainable livelihood for local communities through integration of forestry component with
projects and programmes of other economic sectors including agriculture, water, tourism,
housing, communication.

1.6 Transparency and Good Governance: National, provincial and local governments
shall ensure adequate institutional mechanisms for ensuring career protection and
safety of Forestry professionals in the discharge of their official duties, keeping in view
transparency and accountability at different levels.

1.7 Wood Substitution and import liberalization: In order to reduce pressure on natural
forests, use of solid timber of precious tree species like deodar and shisham for construction
and furniture should be discouraged in government buildings. A programme for promotion of
composite wood, non-wood and synthetic wood products in construction of government
buildings may be launched. As a major step towards wood substitution and import
liberalization, the Government will exempt timber imports from all types of taxes, including
sales tax.

1.8 Grazing Regulation

Heavy, indiscriminate and ubiquitous grazing being one of major cause of degradation of
forests and allied natural resources, programmes to promote regulated (controlled) grazing,
stall feeding and breed improvement shall be launched in collaboration with Livestock
Division, Government of Pakistan and Provincial Livestock Departments.

1.9 Forest Development Fund

A Forest Development Fund will be established at Federal level for conservation and
development of critical watersheds in uplands, on which sustained supply of the nation’s water
depends. Part of such fund shall also be used for promotion of forestry research, education and
extension in the country.

2. Institutional Strengthening
Improvement and strengthening of Federal and provincial institutions responsible for
education, research, management and extension of forestry and allied disciplines in the
country will receive high priority. The institutions will be restructured to enable them to
handle present day challenges and responsibilities. Pakistan Forest Institute will also be
gradually transformed into a University of Forests and Natural Resource Sciences. National
Forestry Council will be established as a think tank on forest policy, maintain and monitor
academic and professional standards in forestry and allied disciplines. Office of Inspector
General Forests will be strengthened to discharge the mandated functions including planning
and policy making, inter-provincial and inter-ministerial coordination, finacing and
international cooperation. Special resources will be allocated to effectively deal with the new
challenges like climate change through capturing emerging opportunities under Clean
Development Mechanism (CDM) and Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and forest
Degradation ( REDD).

3. Role of Local Governments in Sustainable Management of Natural Resources: The

local governments shall be provided with adequate financial and institutional support
for promotion of forests and allied natural resources in their rural development
programmes.

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4. Measures for Specific Forest Ecosystems: A number of important ecosystems in the
country have been depleted due to variety of factors. Adequate arrangements will be
made for conservation and restoration of the following fragile ecosystems:

4.1 Mountain Forests: Mountain forest ecosystems are critically important to Pakistan.
They provide a carbon sink to mitigate global warming, act as repositories of invaluable
biodiversity, safeguard water supplies, retard loss of soil and water from watersheds,
thereby reducing siltation of water storage reservoirs, and afford sustenance to large
number of human communities and their livestock. The conservation and sustainable
management of mountain forest ecosystems shall be ensured through following
interventions;

4.1.1 Sustainable Management in Reserved, Protected, Guzara and Private Forests : Ban
on commercial harvesting, imposed in 1993 by the Federal Cabinet has disrupted forest
management cycle depriving forest owners of their legitimate rights. Consequently the Forest
Management Plans have become non-operational and the forest owners have lost interest in
protection and management of their forests. Out of shear frustration many of them have
resorted to large scale illicit cutting of forests. Therefore, in order to restore the process of
forest management, to promote natural forest regeneration and to regain confidence of the
forest owners, it is imperative to lift ban on timber harvesting. However, Government of AJK
may continue the ban to implement Green Kashmir Vision.

Provincial governments may resume sustainable commercial timber harvesting in the

Reserved, Protected, Guzara and Private Forests. However, Reserve Forests shall only be
subjected to hygienic felling and left alone for preserving gene pool and maintaining ecosystem
integrity, structure and functions. Timber harvesting in Protected, Guzara and Private Forests
shall be allowed on the basis of the following conditions:
a. Timber harvesting shall only be resumed in well stocked forests that are covered
under updated and revised management plans approved by the respective
government. All operations such as marking, felling, logging, transportation and
regeneration of forests shall be monitored by an independent committee having
representation of the Forest Department, District Administration, reputable
environmental NGO, concerned community and the Federal Government. Such
committees shall be notified by the provincial governments.
b. Timber harvesting shall only be resumed in those areas whose owners and right-
holders undertake to fully participate in the management and regeneration of their
forests in association with the Forest Department, with due regard to meeting the
minimum sustainable needs of the non-right-holders to the extent of the productive
capacity of each forest.
c. Essential criteria for classifying forests into commercial and non-commercial
categories shall not only be stocking but terrain, need for regeneration and a
creditable guarantee from the owners, right-holders and users that they will ensure
the regeneration of the forests by affording them protection from grazing, fires and
other sources of injuries.
d. The principal objective of timber harvesting in the above forests shall be poverty
alleviation through providing income to the owners and right holders and to
promote economic activity through generating local employment. Provincial
Governments will make arrangements for training the local people in all timber-

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 harvesting operations and enable them to take on small timber harvesting contracts
on the pattern successfully demonstrated in the Kalam and Kaghan projects.
e. In order to ensure regeneration of the forests, timber harvesting should be
undertaken only after a regeneration plan has been approved and funds ensured for
its implementation.
f. Provincial Governments and forest owners shall provide necessary resources to
rehabilitate the degraded forests. In this regard the initiative of establishing Forest
Development Fund taken by NWFP Forest Department may be adopted in other
provinces as well including AJK and Gilgit- Baltistan.
g. Local communities will be actively involved in management of forest resources. In
doing so the Forest Department should assume the role of providing advisory
services.
h. Existing pressure on national forests will be reduced through promotion of
commercial plantations by private sector.

4.1.2 Establishing Protected Areas

The role of Protected Areas in conserving ecological characters of representative samples of
important ecosystems is well recognized. Therefore, the Provincial Governments will be
encouraged to create and effectively manage Protected Areas networks falling in their
geographical boundaries.

Federal Government will provide grants out of poverty alleviation programmes to rural
communities, dependent on such forests for firewood and fodder; for growing these
commodities on their village lands through participatory approaches.

Appropriate institutional mechanisms will be devised for collaborative management of such

protected forests with the local communities in order to give them an economic and
environmental stake in the endeavor.

4.2 Mangrove Forests: Mangrove forests are vital for protecting coastal belt and as habitat
for fish nurseries and shrimp, which are a source of food and export earnings. These
forests are threatened by marine pollution, scarcity of fresh water flowing down the
Indus delta, and over-use by the local communities for fuel wood and fodder. In order to
ensure protection of these forests, proper arrangements shall be made for containing
marine pollution, allowing sufficient water to flow down the Indus River and evolving
an incentive-based system for sustainable management of these forests.

4.3 Riverain Forests

Riverain forests are pitiable remnants of the extensive woodlands that once fringed rivers of
Pakistan. These forests shall be managed primarily for maintenance of their environmental
and biodiversity functions, and secondarily for meeting the needs of the public and wood-
based industries.
As the existence of these forests is primarily dependent on availability of inundation water
from the Indus River System, this fact will have to be kept in view while planning Indus water
storage and distribution system.

4.4 Preservation of Relict and Unique Forests

Relict forests and their associated biodiversity are an invaluable cultural heritage of Pakistan,
which once covered the mountains of Balochistan, Gilgit-Baltistanand plains of Punjab and
Sindh. Native tree species, having strong cultural and social values, shall be preserved and

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promoted. It shall, therefore, be the policy of Government to preserve these forests and
associated biodiversity primarily for research, education, maintenance of local environment,
and controlled eco-tourism; in partnership with rural communities by providing them their
minimum subsistence needs from the forests, along with appropriate incentives in return for
their active participation in the regeneration and protection of the forests. Such forests include
juniper forests of Ziarat, Chalghoza forests in Sulaiman Range, spruce forests of Naltar in Gilgit-
Baltistan.

4.4.1 Juniper Forests

The juniper forests of Balochistan are unique in having survived as remnants of once extensive
forests covering its high mountains against overwhelming odds, such as heavy uncontrolled
grazing and removal of wood by the local communities for use as fuel and timber. Besides their
scientific significance they also harbor a unique biodiversity, protect watersheds of the apple
growing tracts, and have great scenic beauty for promoting eco-tourism.

The Provincial Government shall take appropriate measures for conservation and sustainable
management of these forests with the involvement of local communities. This shall be achieved
by providing them incentives for enhancing their livelihoods and thus reduce their
dependence on the forests for consumptive uses.

4.4.2 Chalghoza Forests

The chalghoza forests of Balochistan and South Waziristan comprise the largest pure stands of
chalghoza pine in the country. Their survival is being threatened by the unsustainable
demands of the residents of about a hundred remote villages for timber, fuel wood, grazing,
and edible pine nuts. To save these forests from extinction, the Provincial Government shall
launch appropriate development schemes, on the same lines as for the juniper forests.
Cultivation of chalghoza pine orchards will also be promoted, in order to relieve pressure on
limited natural forests.

4.4.3 Spruce Forests

Spruce forests in Naltar, District Gilgit in Gilgit-Baltistan being famous for their biodiversity
shall be protected with the involvement of local communities. This would require provision of
appropriate incentives by the Gilgit-Baltistan Administration for integrated resource
management with all stakeholders so that adverse impact of human and livestock pressure on
these forests is reduced.

5. Wildlife Management: Rapid depletion of forest, range and wetland resources have
adversely affected wildlife habitats bringing many endemic animal and plant species on
the verge of extinction. Pakistan’s Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP 2000) provides a
strategic framework for biodiversity conservation in the country. In order to effectively
manage existing protected areas and encourage new conservation initiatives on
privately owned lands, provincial wildlife departments shall be strengthened and
Forest-Wildlife coordination be improved. Federal Government shall assist provinces
for implementation of international treaties/conventions i.e. CITES, CBD, CMS and
Ramsar Convention in provincial territories for the protection and conservation of the
threatened species of wildlife and their habitats. National Council for Conservation of
Wildlife (NCCW) shall be strengthened for providing more effective advisory and
coordination services. The capacity of Zoological Survey Department shall be enhanced
for biodiversity assessment and to conduct regular surveys and research on wildlife
species and habitats.

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6. Rangelands and Desert Ecosystems
6.1 Sub-Alpine and Alpine Rangelands and Meadows
Sub alpine and alpine rangelands and meadows constitute one of the most productive but
fragile ecosystems of the country. Over-grazing is not only depleting the productivity of these
ecosystems but is also setting soil erosion causing their permanent degradation. Wildlife in
these areas is in direct competition with livestock and many species particularly snow leopard,
musk deer, Markhor and Ladakh Urial have become endangered
The Federal Government shall assist Provincial Governments in conservation and
rehabilitation of these ecosystems by carrying out inventories on range condition, habitat
restoration and preparation of conservation plans.
6.2 Semi-Arid and Arid Rangelands.
Semi-arid and arid rangelands in Pakistan cover about 30 percent of its total land area. Un-
controlled over-grazing and uprooting the shrubs for fuel wood is converting these areas into
deserts. Government of Pakistan shall provide financial assistance to Provincial Governments
for undertaking rehabilitation and management of such lands. It shall also provide facilities for
education in Range Management and Wildlife Management.

6.3 Land Degradation and Desertification : Pakistan is mainly a dryland country, where
80 percent of its land is arid and semi-arid. Two-third of its human population depends
on arid lands to support their livelihood. The menace of land degradation and
desertification is not only affecting rain-fed agriculture and pastoral systems, but also
reducing productive potential of irrigated agro-ecosystems due to water logging and
salinity. Sustainable Land Management (SLM) is now considered as a viable option to
combat land degradation and desertification. Federal and Provincial Governments shall
integrate SLM principles into sectoral policies, strategies and plans, as land degradation
adversely affects natural resource based livelihood of the rural poor. Federal
Government shall support provincial governments to combat desertification as
recommended under Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP), National Action
Programme (NAP) and aligning Pakistan’s NAP with 10-Year Strategic Plan of the
United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD). A National
Desertification Control Fund as envisaged under NAP and UNCCD shall be established to
ensure continued financial sustainability for SLM interventions at grassroots level.
Appropriate incentives shall be designed to enlist the participation of local communities
in sustainable management of land resources.

7. Planting Trees on Farmlands: Farmers will be motivated to adopt farm forestry as a

commercial enterprise for production of industrial wood, fuel wood and fodder.
Provincial and local governments shall be encouraged to devise mechanisms of
incentives for farmers for growing trees on farm lands, including exemption from water
tax and provision of agricultural loans. Pakistan Forest Institute, Agricultural Colleges
and Universities will be encouraged to develop specialized courses in agro-forestry.

8. Management of irrigated and linear plantations

Irrigated Plantations (IPs) are badly suffering from shortage of irrigation water. New improved
irrigation and planting techniques shall be encouraged to rejuvenate IPs with fast growing
local species propagated under state of the art silvicultural system. Production of non-wood
products of IPs such as silk, honey and medicinal plants shall be enhanced to generate sources
of livelihood for surrounding communities.

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Existing linear plantations along canals, roads and railway tracks shall be protected and
developed using new irrigation and protection technologies. At least 10 % of command area of
new canals shall be allocated for raising plantations. Road side plantations shall become an
integral component of all the projects of new highways and motorways.

9. Improving urban environment: Urban and amenity forestry shall be given due focus
by city and district administrations in their development programmes. Maximum
available blank lands in jurisdiction of city and district governments shall be brought
under tree cover. New housing schemes shall allocate maximum areas for amenity
planting and building by-laws shall essentially include open space for trees.
10. Promotion of Indigenous Tree Species: Tree species of native origins, adapted to
specific forest ecosystems, will be promoted. Special measures are, however, needed by
the provincial governments to improve germplasm availability of species like Fraxinus,
Juniper, Betula, Taxus, Abies, native Acacia, Ziziphus, Prosopis cineraria, Tamarix,
Tecomella, Calligonum, and Dalbergia etc. This would be needed to enhance growth rate
of native species and induce resilience to pests, diseases, pollution and climate change
affects. Provincial governments will ensure that alien invasive species are not
introduced and propagated
11. Monitoring and Evaluation Systems: In order to monitor the changes in forest cover,
both on public and private lands, an effective monitoring and evaluation system is
urgently needed for future policy, planning and implementation purposes. Government
of Pakistan will provide necessary financial and technical assistance to provincial forest
departments and R&D institutions for establishing regular monitoring system based on
GIS and Remote Sensing.
V. ACTION PLAN: A mechanism shall be devised to implement and review the National
Forest Policy, including passing of any legislation that may be required, issuance of the
requisite notifications and the provisions of fund etc. A synoptic action plan for
implementation of National Forest Policy is given as under:

1. Responsibilities
1.1 Federal Level
At the Federal level, Ministry of Environment shall be responsible for initiating following
actions;
 Establishing a cell under IGF for monitoring implementation of the policy.
 Reporting annual progress of policy implementation to the Federal Forestry Board (FFB)
1.2 Provincial Level: In line with the provisions of this umbrella policy, respective
Provincial Forest and Wildlife Departments including FATA, AJK and Gilgit-Baltistan shall
initiate actions to achieve the goal and objectives envisaged in this policy.
2. Priming the Action
Government shall implement this policy through the following stages:

1. Preparation and implementation of a 10-Year Plan of Action (2010-2020).

2. Integration of Plan of Action with PSDP and international grant assistance.
Provincial/territorial governments shall devise their own policies, legislation, programmes
and plans of actions.

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