Course: Educational Leadership and Management (8605)

Level: B.Ed (1.5 Years)

Semester: Autumn, 2017]
ASSIGNMENT No. 1

Q.1 Discuss the scope of administration in the educational context. How the
principles of administration can be applied in educational institutions to improve
the system of education in Pakistan.

Answer:

Educational Administration is regarded as the process of integrating the appropriate human

and material resources that are made available and made effective for achieving the purposes
of a programme of an educational institution. The term “Administration” doesn’t refer to any
single process or act. It is like a broad umbrella encompassing a number of processes such as:
planning, organizing, directing, coordinating, controlling and evaluating the performance. The
same situation occurs in the field of educational administration. The concept of educational
administration is applicable in case of an educational organisation which has certain purposes
or goals to fulfill.

In order to achieve these purposes or goals, the head of the educational organisation plans
carefully various programmes and activities. Here the educational organisation may be a
school, college or university. The head of the school/college/university organizes these
programmes and activities with co-operation from other teachers, parents and students.
He/She motivates them and co- ordinates the efforts of teachers as well as directs and
exercises control over them. He/She evaluates their performance and progress in achieving
the purposes of the programme. He provides feedback to them and brings modification, if
required in the plans and programmes of the school or college or university. So the totality of
these processes which are directed towards realizing or achieving the purposes or goals of
the school/college/university is called educational administration.

Scope of Educational Administration:

1. The educational administration encompasses all the levels of education in its jurisdiction.

These are:

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a. Pre-primary or pre-school Education.

b. Elementary or primary Education.

c. Secondary Education.

d. Higher Secondary or Post secondary Education and,

e. Higher or tertiary Education.

It is educational administration that determines what should be the nature and system of
administration for all the above levels of education.

2. It covers all forms of education such as:

a. Formal Education

b. Non-formal Education and Adult Education

c. General Education

d. Vocational Education

e. Special Education

f. Teacher Education

g. Integrated Education and

h. Technical and professional Education including Engineering, Medical, MBA, and Computer
Education.

Here the educational administration sets the systems of administration in accordance to the
objectives and nature of all the levels of education.

3. It includes all types and strategies of management that encompasses the following:

a. Democratic Administration

b. Autocratic Administration

c. Nominal Administration

d. Real Administration

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4. Educational administration covers the following aspects relating to management in
its jurisdiction:

a. Planning

b. Organizing

c. Directing

d. Coordinating

e. Supervising

f. Controlling and

g. Evaluating

5. Educational Administration takes place at various levels such as:

a. Central level

b. State level

c. District level

d. Block level and

e. Institutional level

Out of these above levels, educational administration has its ground reality and importance at
the institutional level. Because it is the practical ground to test the significance of educational
administration in practice.

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Q.2 What are the major differences between administration and management in the
context of a school? Compare the concept of Islamic administration and the
general concept of administration.

Answer:

Administration frames the objectives and policies of an organization. Management

implements these policies and objectives. Management and administration are at times used
interchangeably; however, they are two different levels of the organization. The
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administration is the top level of the organization with the decisive functions. They are
responsible for determining the policies and objectives of the organization or the firm.
Management, on the other hand is the middle level executive function. They implement the
policies and objectives as decided by the administration.

The administration includes the people who are either owners or partners of the firm. They
usually contribute to the firm’s capital and earn profits or returns on their investment. The
main administrative function is handling the business aspects of the firm, such as finance.
Other administrative functions usually include planning, organizing, staffing, directing,
controlling and budgeting. Administration must integrate leadership and vision, to organize
the people and resources, in order to achieve common goals and objectives for the
organization.

Management usually incorporates the employees of the firm who use their skills for the firm
in return for remuneration. Management is responsible for carrying out the strategies of the
administration. Motivation is the key factor of a management. Management must motivate
and handle the employees. It can be said that management is directly under the control of
administration.

Key Differences Between Management and Administration

The major differences between management and administration are given below:

1. Management is a systematic way of managing people and things within the organization.
The administration is defined as an act of administering the whole organization by a
group of people.

2. Management is an activity of business and functional level, whereas Administration is a

high-level activity.

3. While management focuses on policy implementation, policy formulation is performed by

the administration.

4. Functions of administration include legislation and determination. Conversely, functions of

management are executive and governing.

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5. Administration takes all the important decisions of the organization while management
makes decisions under the boundaries set by the administration.

6. A group of persons, who are employees of the organization is collectively known as

management. On the other hand, administration represents the owners of the
organization.

7. Management can be seen in the profit making organization like business enterprises.
Conversely, the Administration is found in government and military offices, clubs,
hospitals, religious organizations and all the non-profit making enterprises.

8. Management is all about plans and actions, but the administration is concerned with
framing policies and setting objectives.

9. Management plays an executive role in the organization. Unlike administration, whose role
is decisive in nature.

10. The manager looks after the management of the organization, whereas administrator is
responsible for the administration of the organization.

11. Management focuses on managing people and their work. On the other hand,
administration focuses on making the best possible utilization of the organization’s
resources.

Conclusion

Theoretically, it can be said that both are different terms, but practically, you will find that the
terms are more or less same. You would have noticed that a manager performs both
administrative and functional activities. Although the managers who are working on the
topmost level are said to be the part of administration whereas the managers working on the
middle or lower level represents management. So, we can say that administration is above
management.

Compare the concept of Islamic administration and the general concept of

administration:

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After fifty years of jihad whose sides have fallen prostrate in the totality of the land, and the
states gathered against the centres of the Sunni jihad in the world, God ennobled His true
soldiers whom He selected to establish the Caliphate state whose fortresses had fallen at the
hands of global Zionism in al-Astana [Istanbul] 100 years ago. [NOTE: This is a reference to
the end of the Ottoman Caliphate in 1924].

Indeed the establishment of the Islamic State, its concept does not stand on the basis of a
mujahid soldier fighting and bearing his arms, nor does it rest on da'wa [evangelising] in a
mosque or a street, but rather it is a comprehensive system requiring the leaders of the
Ummah [Muslim nation] to realize its concepts.

So on the expansion of the Islamic State, the state requires an Islamic system of life, a
Qur'anic constitution and a system to implement it, and there must not be suppression of the
role of qualifications, skills of expertise and the training of the current generation on
administering the state.

From the start of the uprising of blessed Syria against the Nusayris [derogatory for Alawites] ,
the mujahideen came in great numbers out of zeal for their religion. But some of them
harboured Arab nationalist and tribalist arrogance, and others a zeal and will
without shari'a aims.

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Q.3 Discuss the application of fundamental principles of management in the context

of Pakistani elementary school level. Identify the problems of management in
public sector schools of Pakistan.

Answer:

Principles of School Management

1. The policies of the school have been developed according to educational principles,
government policies and the goals of elementary school education.

2. Reinforce administrative organization, maintain job responsibilities and boost work

efficiency.

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3. Follow a democratic approach, make personnel, funds, opinions, rewards and
punishment public in an attempt to lead the school toward united and harmonious direction.

4. Strengthen personnel management, increase employees’ motivation. Look, listen and

understand more. Promote a focus on mobile management.

5. Emphasize delicate campus planning, improve working environment, and inspire

employees’ professional spirit.

6. Encourage in-service teacher education to improve teaching methods and counseling

skills in order to more effectively implement educational functions.

7. To respect and serve rather than manage

8. Focus on teachers’ sense of honor and responsibility

9. Focus on research, experimentation, innovation and the teaching profession. Invigorate

teachers’ spirit and stimulate educational renovation.

10. Enhance teaching equipment and make good use of social resources in order to create
modern well-developed citizens.

11. Incorporate the five main themes of education, and teach students in accordance with
their aptitudes to maximize their talents.

12. Focus on the planning and delivery of special education services.

13. Strengthen life education, moral education, and traffic safety education in order to
develop a harmonious atmosphere.

14. Develop good relationships with communities, make use of social resources, and
continue school development in order to make the school a center of community
development.

Principles of Management

What is principle? It is a generation that is widely accepted as true system. Principles always
are to be considered helpful for several reasons.

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First: They help to make more accurate decision, applying in any situation and eliminating
guesswork.

Second: it saves time. Principles provide guidelines for actions.

Third: principles enable the people to pass information from one generation to another.

There are few Principles which are to be adapted in management.

1. Planning Principles

a) Principle of the Primary Objectives

b) Principle of adequate alternative

c) Principle of contingencies

2. Organizing Principles

a) Unity of Command principle

b) Adequacy of authority principle

c) Scalar (chain-of-command) principle

3. Staffing Principles

a) Principle of developing a successor

b) Principle of manager evaluation

c) Principle of management development

4. Directing Principles

a) Principle of harmony of objective

b) Principle of manager’s example

c) Principle of motivation

5. Controlling Principles

a) Principle of standards

b) Principle of measurement of performance against standards

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c) Principle of corrective action

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Q.4 Discuss the concept of education planning. Critically compare the utility of
different approaches to educational planning.

Answer:

Educational planning strives to research, develop, implement and advance policies, programs
and reforms within educational institutions. Educational planners might work at the local,
national or international level to advance or improve education. While educational planning
might center on pre-school and K-12 education, you could also work in postsecondary
education as well. As an educational planner, you could work within educational institutions,
government agencies, and private or not-for-profit organizations.

Educational planners typically hold graduate degrees. You might also consider becoming a
licensed teacher or earning additional degrees in education. Administrators within schools or
districts are commonly involved in educational planning.

Educational planning is done by every student with the assistance of one or more faculty
mentors. It is done in context of a credit-bearing course, Educational Planning, in which you
work to explore and articulate your learning goals, both professional and general, and to
design a solid liberal arts program that is geared to the achievement of those goals.

The first step in educational planning is to define your educational goals. Some students
come to the college with goals clearly in mind. Others work hard to clarify them.

The next step is to design a concentration, a series of studies which provides focus to your
degree program and allows you to develop an area of expertise. Your concentration may be
organized around a traditional discipline, may be interdisciplinary, or may be uniquely
designed around a theme or problem. It may include learning which you have already
acquired through formal study or life experience, as well as learning which you want to gain
at Empire State College.

You will also want to think about breadth of study. What skills and knowledge outside your
area of concentration do you want to acquire? What have you already learned which you will
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want to include in your degree program? You will need to meet the General Education
Requirement of The State University of New York, which applies to all state-operated
institutions offering undergraduate degrees (link -- should this link to the SUNY page for
this? or ESC's?)

It will be important for you to evaluate your skills in writing, oral communication, quantitative
reasoning, research and computers, and design studies to strengthen these skills, if necessary
to meet your educational goals.

You will also work through assessment of prior learning (link -- what should this link to?) as
part of your educational planning.

In the end, you write an essay explaining the educational rationale for your degree program
to a faculty committee which reviews the program to make sure that it is academically sound
and appropriate to your stated goals.

Educational planning is exciting, challenging and demanding, but you find it to be well worth
the effort, for you will end up with a program custom-tailored to your talents, prior learning
and goals.

The word ‘planning’ has lost the undertones it had earlier of infringement with individual
liberties and is becoming increasingly accepted by all as part of the vocabulary of
development, each country having its own type of planning within its own political system. In
what follows, planning refers to the system a country adopts of forecasting its needs and
setting up a framework, or alternative frameworks, of national action to meet them. It deals
with matters which are subject to forecast and to substitution and can never cover the whole
policy. A sudden policy decision to devaluate the currency or to enter a common market may
have more important effects on economic development and social structure than the most
detailed ten-year plan.

The main approaches and techniques of relating educational planning to development

planning, which are in use or recommended by various authorities are set out below. Usually
combinations of methods are in operation:

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1. SOCIAL DEMAND APPROACH

The first approach, which may be called the social method is in general use, but is scarcely a
method at all, and is a starting point from which improvements must be devised. This method
takes educational needs in terms of the current demand for education at the different levels
and projects them on the basis of population increase, age distribution, long-term national or
social goals (inarticulate or defined) and on the basis of what is known about state and
consumer preferences for education. Among such goals and preferences are universal literacy,
universal compulsory primary education, and cultural objectives. The stress is upon education
as social infra-structure for development purposes, and as an end in itself. The financial
implications of these targets are then considered. The usual result is that the funds required
for the educational expansion are found to be larger than those available either to launch or
to sustain it, on the basis of projections of national income and revenue. A compromise is
struck, and what is deemed to be a feasible plan emerges, cut down to the funds expected to
be available. This is the traditional approach, and may work satisfactorily in high-income
countries, although even in these, concern over flagging rates of growth and ever-increasing
competition in export markets is leading to increased emphasis on the contribution of
education to technological progress and productive efficiency.

2. MANPOWER REQUIREMENT APPROACH

The second approach, which we may call the manpower approach, is based on the fact that,
as we saw earlier, the main link of education with economic development is through the
knowledge and skills it produces in the labor force. To the extent that the educational system
produces qualified people in the right numbers and places, the major part of the economic
and social contribution of educational planning is achieved, provided that in so doing the
educational system has not consumed so great a proportion of resources as to set back the
development plan itself. Various methods exist of estimating future manpower requirements
and the demand they will make on the education system. But various difficulties hamper this
approach as Professor Harbison recognizes. First, manpower forecasts can seldom be made
with reliability beyond short-term periods of five to eight years. The time perspective required
by educational planning as a whole is fifteen to twenty years, though it is possible to
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influence over shorter periods the supply in the ‘pipe-line’. Secondly, the educational
component of different occupations changes with technological progress and the rise of
educational standards.

3. EDUCATION-OUTPUT RATIO METHOD

The third method is based on the capital-output ratio approach and might be called the
education-output ratio method. It relates the stock of educated people and the flow of
children and students completing education at the different levels directly to the national
output of goods and services without passing through the intervening stage of making
manpower forecasts. A series of linear equations are set up relating the stock of persons who
have completed a given level of education, and the number of students at each level, to the
aggregate volume of production. These equations will show how the structure of the
educational system should change with different growth rates of the economy. This method is
developed by Professor Tinbergen. Every method has its difficulties and limitations. The
problem here is that assumptions have to be made about teacher-student ratios and about
the adequacy of the relations of the education ‘mix’ to the product ‘mix’ at the base from
which the projection is made. If these assumptions are incorrectly made they will invalidate
the conclusions. Further, the differences of rates of growth in the different economic sectors,
and increases of productivity, need to be included. The range of assumptions as to the
technical coefficients is very wide. None the less this method, used with good informed
judgment, is a useful exercise to be set alongside the other approaches.

4. AGGREGATE METHOD

The fourth is the aggregate method. This method tries to relate educational needs to the
whole demand of society for education rather than to the level of output or to manpower,
and is based on norms and patterns which emerge from an empirical study of the educational
situation in countries at different stages of development. Among them are (a) the proportion
of GNP devoted to education globally and (if possible) by sector; (b) the proportion of public
expenditure devoted to education and its different sectors; (c) the proportion of over-all
investment devoted to education; (d) the proportion of the population enrolled at the

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different educational levels; (e) the above information corrected by estimates of wastage; (f)
the proportions of the school-age and student population enrolled at different levels.

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Q.5 Explain the nature and characteristics of supervision in detail. Compare the basic
objectives of supervision with administration.

Answer:

“Supervision is a creative and dynamic process giving friendly guidance and direction to
teachers and pupils for improving themselves and the teaching-learning situation for the
accomplishment of the desired goals of education.” –R.P. Bhatnagar & I.B. Verma.

Educational Supervision means an all out effort of the school officials directed towards
providing leadership to teachers and other educational workers for the improvement of
institution. It involves both human and material elements. The human elements are the pupils,
parents, teachers and other employees, the community and other officials of the state. On the
material side money, building, equipment, playgrounds etc. are included. Besides these, the
curriculum, methods and techniques of teaching also come under the scope of supervision.

Teaching is a creative act. A teacher has to coordinate his thought with action. So the basic
psychological problems underlying supervision is to see that the teaching is improved
through supervisory techniques and supervisor is able to secure integration between teaching
practices and sound principles of education on which the practices are based.

As commonly used, the term ‘Supervision’ means to guide and to stimulate the activities of
others with a view to their improvement. It attempts to develop instructional programmes
according to the needs of the youth of modem democratic society and also to provide
materials and methods of teaching for enabling the children to learn more easily and
effectively. There are various definitions of supervision in educational literature.

Nature of Supervision:

As regards its nature, modem supervision is a cooperative enterprise, experimental in its

approach. The scope of modem supervision extends to the improvement of the whole

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teaching-learning situation. So it is concerned with the pupils, teachers, curriculum and the
socio-physical environment and their improvement.

However, from the meaning and definition, we can derive certain natures of supervision
which are as follows:

1. Supervision is a creative and dynamic expert technical service.

2. It provides leadership with expert knowledge & superior skills.

3. It promotes cooperative educational effort in a friendly atmosphere.

4. It gives coordination, direction and guidance to teachers’ activities.

5. It stimulates the continuous growth of teachers and development of pupils.

6. It improves instruction and the teaching learning process.

7. It helps achievement of appropriate educational aims and objectives.

8. It helps to decide and order execution and assists in improving instruction.

9. It represents a portion of the whole enterprise of school management.

10. It saves us from the victimization of soul killing administration.

Scope of Supervision:

The scope of educational supervision extends to all the areas of educational activity with the
larger purpose of improving the product of education through the upgrading of the quality of
instruction and other school practices. “Education is now conceived as a powerful social force
for the development of personality and the values of the democratic social order.

Democratic philosophy extends the scope of supervision to the ultimate goals and values of
education determined democratically through the participation of all the people concerned
with the educative process. Democracy requires supervision should he made more and more
participatory and cooperative. ”

In India we believe, in democratic philosophy. So our conduct, behaviour and activities should
be governed by the democratic philosophy of life. This is true of education and also

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educational supervision. One important source of the true of education and also educational
supervision is therefore the democratic philosophy of life and living.

Hence supervision should be a cooperative enterprise in which everyone has the right to
contribute. Democratic supervision provides full opportunity to discussion, free expression of
views and opinions, enlists participation of all persons and welcomes and utilizes their
contribution for the improvement of the teaching-learning situation and process.

So supervision is planned cooperatively by all educational workers. Its programmes are

flexible and related to the situation, and include analysis and improvement of the situation, of
the final product of education and of its own effectiveness.

Supervision employs various techniques such as observation, demonstration, visitation,

workshops, seminars, conferences, teacher’s guides, handbooks of suggestions, professional
journals and in-service education.

Supervision continuously makes its best effort to evaluate and improve the work environment
of the pupils and teachers with their help and community’s assistance and cooperation. It also
continuously maintains an atmosphere of mutual trust, integrity, loyalty, freedom, goodwill,
responsibility and self-direction.

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