Steel Design Handout Chapters 1 3

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO STEEL DESIGN

1.1. STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOR, ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
STRUCTURE – is an assembly of members interconnected by joints.
STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOR – is the response of a structure to applied loads and environmental effects
(such as wind, earthquakes, temperature changes, snow, ice, rain, etc.)
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS – is the determination of the reactions, member forces, stresses and
deformations of the structure due to applied loads and environmental effects.
STRUCTURAL DESIGN – is the proportioning of various parts of a structure so that they will
satisfactorily support the loads to which they may be feasibly subjected.
Structural Design involves the following activities:
1. General layout of the structures
2. Studies of possible structural forms that may be used and/or materials of construction
3. Consideration of loading conditions
4. Analysis of stresses and deflections
5. Design of parts
6. Preparation of design drawings
1.2. OBJECTIVES OF THE STRUCTURAL DESIGNER

The structural designer must learn to arrange and apportion the parts of his structures so that
they can be practically erected and will have sufficient strength and reasonable economy.
1. Safety
Not only must the frame of the structure safely support the loads to which it is subjected,
but it must support them in such a manner that deflections and vibrations are not so great as to
frighten the occupants or cause unsightly cracks.
2. Cost
The designer needs to keep in mind the items causing lower cost without sacrifice of
strength. This involves the use of standard-size members, simple connections and details, and
the use of members and materials that will not require an unreasonable amount of
maintenance through the years.
3. Practicality
Another objective is the design of structures that can be fabricated and erected without
great problems arising. He needs to proportion the parts of the structure so that they will not
unduly interfere with the mechanical features of the structure or the architectural effects.
1.3. METHODS OF DESIGN

A. ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN (ASD) or WORKING STRESS DESIGN (WSD)
This design method is the historical approach to structural design. Allowable Stress Design
(ASD) is based on the concept that the maximum stress in a component is not to exceed a certain
permitted or allowable value under normal service conditions.
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B. PLASTIC DESIGN (PD)
In this design procedure, the limiting condition for the structure and its members is the
attainment of the load that would cause plastic collapse, usually called the ultimate strength or
the plastic collapse load.
The plastic collapse load equals the service load multiplied by a certain load factor.
C. LOAD FACTOR DESIGN (LFD)
Plastic design is actually a special case of load factor design (LFD). Essentially, this is a
method that takes into account a measure of variability of the loads that may be imposed on the
structure. It also considers the probabilities of occurrence of load combinations, so that a smaller
load factor is applied if an unusual set of loads are combined.
D. LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN (LRFD)
Also known as the limit states design, LRFD incorporates explicitly the effects of the random
variability of strength and load. Because this method covers the effects of random variations of
strength and loads and formulates the safety criteria on that basis, it is possible to arrive at a
nearly uniform level of safety for the structure and all of its components.
1.4. FACTOR OF SAFETY

In the consideration of safety, a decision must be made as to just how safe a structure should
be. The expression of safety is normally made in terms of factor of safety.
Factor of Safety of a structural member – is defined as the ratio of strength of the member to
its maximum stress allowed in the structure.
In Allowable Stress Design, the attainment of yield stress in a member is considered to be
analogous to failure. Although steel will not actually fail (or rupture) at yield, significant and
unacceptable deformations are on the verge of occurring, which may render the structure unusable.
In this regard, the factor of safety is then a factor of safety against yielding.
Recommended factors of safety are the result of cumulative pooled experience and history and
are the minimum values that have been traditionally accepted as good practice.
Some uncertainties affecting safety factors:
1. Material strengths may initially vary appreciably from their assumed values and they will vary
more with time due to creep, corrosion, and fatigue.
2. The methods of analysis are often subject to appreciable errors.
3. Nature or acts of God (hurricanes, earthquakes, etc) cause conditions difficult to predict.
4. The stresses produced during fabrication and erection are often severe.
5. There are technological changes which affect the magnitude of live loads.
6. Although dead loads of a structure can usually be estimated quite closely, the estimate of the
live loads is more inaccurate.
7. Other uncertainties are the presence of residual stresses and stress concentrations, variations
in dimensions of member cross sections.
1.5. VARIATIONS IN DESIGN

Designs of the same structures using the same specifications can be surprisingly different. The
following are the reasons why:
1. The differences are primarily caused by the uncertainties in safety factors which call for the
application of the engineer’s judgment.
2. Different engineers will probably give different weight to what happens if the structure fails.
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1.6. FAILURES OF ENGINEERING STRUCTURES
Causes of failures of engineering structures:
1. Majority of the designers, experienced or inexperienced, select members of sufficient size and
strength. The collapse of structures is usually due to insufficient attention to the details of
connections, erection problems and foundation settlements. Rarely if ever do steel structures
fail due to faults in the material, but rather to its improper use.
2. A frequent fault displayed by designers is that after carefully designing the members of a
structure they carelessly select connections which may or may not be of sufficient size. They
may even turn the job of selecting the connections over to draftsmen who may not have
sufficient backgrounds to understand the difficulties that can arise in connection design.
3. Another source of failure occurs where beams supported on walls have insufficient bearing or
anchorage.
4. Foundation settlements cause a large number of structural failures, probably more than any
factor. Most foundation settlements do not result in collapse but they probably cause unsightly
cracks and depreciation of the structure.
5. Some other sources of structural failures occur because inadequate attention is given to
deflections, fatigue of members, bracing against swaying, vibrations, and the possibility of
buckling of compression members.
1.7. LOADS
The determination of the loads to which a structure or structural element will be subjected is,
at best an estimate. Even if the loads are well known at one location in the structure, the distribution
of load from element-to-element throughout the structure requires assumptions and approximations.
Some of the most common kinds of loads are:
A. DEAD LOADS
Dead loads consists of the weight of all materials and fixed equipment incorporated into the
building or other structure, including but not limited to walls, floors, roofs, ceilings, stairways, built-
in partitions, finishes, cladding and other similarly incorporated architectural and structural items
and fixed service equipment, including the weight of the cranes.
The actual weights of materials and constructions shall be used in determining dead loads for
purposes of design. In the absence of definite information, the minimum values in Table 1-1A,
Table 1-1B, Table 1-1C and Table 1-1D shall be used.
Floors in office buildings and other buildings where partition locations are subject to change
shall be designed to support, in addition to all other loads, a uniformly distributed dead load equal
to 1.0 kPa of floor area.
Table 1-1A. Minimum Design Dead Loads (KPa) for Hollow Concrete Masonry Units
(unplastered, Add 0.24 kPa for each face plastered)
Grout Wythe Thickness (mm) Grout Wythe Thickness (mm) Grout Wythe Thickness (mm)
Spacing 100 150 200 Spacing 100 150 200 Spacing 100 150 200
16.5 kN/m3 Density of unit 19.6 kN/m3 Density of unit 21.2 kN/m3 Density of unit
No Grout 1.05 1.15 1.48 No Grout 1.24 1.34 1.72 No Grout 1.39 1.44 1.87
800 1.53 2.01 800 1.72 2.25 800 1.82 2.39
600 1.63 2.20 600 1.87 2.44 600 1.96 2.59
400 1.92 2.54 400 2.11 2.82 400 2.20 2.92
Full 2.63 3.59 Full 2.82 3.88 Full 2.97 3.97
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Table 1-1B. Minimum Densities for Design Loads from Materials (kN/m3)
Aluminum …………………….. 26.7 EARTH (not submerged) Masonry Grout ………………….. 22.0
Clay, dry …………………………… 9.9
BITUMINOUS PRODUCTS Clay, damp ……………………….. 17.3 MASONRY, RUBBLE STONE
Asphaltum …………………. 12.7 Clay & gravel, dry …….………. 15.7 Granite ………………………….. 24.0
Graphite ……………………. 21.2 Silt, moist, loose ………………. 12.3 Limestone, crystalline …… 23.1
Paraffin ……………………… 8.8 Silt, moist, packed …………… 15.1 Limestone, oolitic ………….. 21.7
Petroleum, crude ……..... 8.6 Silt, flowing ……………………… 17.0 Marble …………………………… 24.5
Petroleum, refined ……… 7.9 Sand & gravel, dry, loose … 15.7 Sandstone ……………………… 21.5
Petroleum, benzene ……. 7.2 Sand & gravel, dry, packed.. 17.3 Mortar, cement or lime …. 20.4
Petroleum, gasoline ……. 6.6 Sand and gravel, wet ……….. 18.9
Pitch ……………………………. 10.8 Particle board ……………………. 7.1
Tar ………………………………. 11.8 EARTH(submerged) Plywood ……………………………. 5.7
Clay ………………………………….. 12.6 RIPRAP (not submerged)
Brass ………………………………. 82.6 Soil …………………………………… 11.0
Bronze ……………………………. 86.7 Limestone ……………………… 13.0
River mud ………………………… 14.1 Sandstone ……………………… 14.1
Cast-stone masonry Sand or gravel …………………. 9.4
(cement, stone, sand) … 22.6 Sand or gravel and clay …… 10.2 SAND
Cement, Portland, loose.. 14.1 Clean and dry …………........ 14.1
Ceramic tile ………………….. 23.6 Glass ………………………………….. 25.1 River, dry ……………………….. 16.7
Charcoal ……………………….. 1.9 Gravel, dry …………………………. 16.3
Cinder Fill ………………………. 9.0 Gypsum, loose …………………… 11.0 SLAG
Cinders, dry, in bulk ………. 7.1 Gypsum, wallboard …………… 7.9 Bank ……………………………… 11.0
Ice …………………………………….. 9.0 Bank screenings ……………. 17.0
COAL Machine ……………………….. 15.1
Anthracite, piled …………….. 8.2 IRON Sand ……………………………… 8.2
Bituminous, piled …………… 7.4 Cast ………………………………… 70.7
Lignite, piled …………………… 7.4 Wrought …………………………. 75.4 Slate ………………………………… 27.0
Peat, dry, piled ……………….. 3.6 Steel, cold-drawn ……………. 77.3
Lead …………………………………. 111.5
CONCRETE, PLAIN STONE, QUARRIED, PILED
Cinder ……………………………. 17.0 LIME Basalt, granite, gneiss…… 15.1
Expanded-slag aggregate.. 15.7 Hydrated, loose ………………. 5.0 Limestone, marble,
Haydite (burned-clay Hydrated, compacted …….. 7.1 Quartz ………………………. 14.9
aggregate) ………………….. 4.1 MASONRY, ASHLAR STONE Sandstone ……………………. 12.9
Slag ……………………………….. 20.7 Granite …………………………… 25.9 Shale ……………………………. 14.5
Stone …………………………….. 22.6 Limestone, crystalline ……. 25.9 Greenstone, hornblende 16.8
Vermiculite and perlite Limestone, oolitic …………… 21.2
aggregate, non-load TERRA COTTA, Architectural
Marble …………………………… 27.2 Voids, filled ………………….. 18.9
bearing………………… 3.9 – 7.9 Sandstone ……………………… 22.6
Other light aggregate, Voids, unfilled …………...... 11.3
load bearing ……….. 11 – 16.5 MASONRY, BRICK Tin …………………………………… 72.1
Hard (low absorption) ……. 20.4
CONCRETE, REINFORCED Medium (medium WATER
Cinder …………………………… 17.4 absorption) ………………… 18.1 Fresh ……………………………. 9.8
Slag ………………………………. 21.7 Soft (high absorption) ……. 15.7 Sea ………………………………. 10.1
Stone (incl. gravel) ……….. 23.6
MASONRY, CONCRETE (solid portion) Wood (see Table 1-1d for relative
Copper …………………………….. 87.3 Lightweight units ……………. 16.5 Densities of Phil. wood)
Cork, compressed ……………. 2.2 Medium weight units …….. 19.6
Normal weight units ………. 21.2 Zinc, rolled sheet …………….. 70.5
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Table 1-1C. Minimum Design Dead Loads (KPa) (Use actual loads when available)
Component Load Component Load
CEILINGS FLOOR FILL

Acoustical Fiber Board ………………………………. 0.05 Cinder concrete, per mm ……………………….. 0.017
Gypsum Board (per mm thickness) …………… 0.008 Lightweight concrete, per mm ……………….. 0.015
Mechanical duct allowance ……………………….. 0.20 Sand, per mm …………………………………. 0.015
Plaster on tile or concrete ……........................ 0.24 Stone, concrete, per mm …………………….. 0.023
Plaster on wood lath …………………………………. 0.38
Suspended steel channel system …………....... 0.10 FLOOR AND FLOOR FINISHES
Suspended metal lath and cement plaster …. 0.72 Asphalt block (50mm), 13 mm mortar ………….. 1.44
Suspended metal lath and gypsum plaster.… 0.48 Cement finish (25 mm) on stone-concrete fill .. 1.53
Wood furring suspension system ……………… 0.12 Ceramic or quarry tile (20 mm) on 13 mm
COVERINGS, ROOF AND WALL mortar bed …….…………….………………………….. 0.77
Asphalt shingles ……………………..……………….. 0.10 Ceramic or quarry tile (20 mm) on 25 mm
Cement tile ………………………………………………. 0.77 mortar bed ………………………………………………. 1.10
Clay tile (for mortar add 0.48 kPa) Concrete fill finish (per mm thickness) …………. 0.023
Book tile, 50 mm ..……………………………….. 0.57 Hardwood flooring, 22 mm……………….............. 0.19
Book tile, 75 mm …………………………………. 0.96 Linoleum or asphalt tile, 6mm ………….…………. 0.05
Ludowici ………………………………………………. 0.48 Marble and mortar on stone concrete fill ........ 1.58
Roman …………………………………….…………… 0.57 Slate (per mm thickness) ……………….……………. 0.028
Spanish …………………………………….............. 0.91 Solid flat tile on 25 mm mortar base ……………. 1.10
Composition: Subflooring, 19 mm …………………………………….. 0.14
Three-ply ready roofing ……………………….. 0.05 Terrazzo (38 mm) directly on slab ……………….. 0.91
Four-ply felt and gravel ………………………… 0.26 Terrazzo (25 mm) on stone-concrete fill ……… 1.53
Five-ply felt and gravel …………………………. 0.29 Terrazzo (25 mm), 50 mm stone concrete …… 1.53
Copper or tin ……………………………………………. 0.05 Wood block (76 mm) on mastic, no fill ………… 0.48
Corrugated asbestos-cement roofing………... 0.19 Wood block (76 mm) on 13 mm mortar base.. 0.77
Deck, metal 20 gage …………………………......... 0.12
Deck, metal 18 gage …………………………......... 0.14 FRAME PARTITIONS
Fiberboard, 13 mm ………………………………….. 0.04 Movable steel partitions …………………..….……. 0.19
Gypsum sheathing, 13 mm……………………….. 0.10 Wood or steel studs, 13 mm gypsum board
Insulation, roof boards (per mm thickness) each side ………………………………………………. 0.38
Cellular glass ………………………………………. 0.0013 Wood studs, 50 x 100, unplastered …………….. 0.19
Fibrous glass ………………………………………. 0.0021 Wood studs, 50 x 100, plastered one side …... 0.57
Fiberboard …………………………………………. 0.0028 Wood studs, 50 x 100, plastered two sides …. 0.96
Perlite ………………………………………………… 0.0015
Polystyrene foam ………………………………. 0.0004 FRAME WALLS
Urethane foam with skin ……………………. 0.0009 Exterior stud walls:
Plywood (per mm thickness) …………………… 0.006 50x100 mm @ 400mm, 15mm gypsum,
Rigid Insulation, 13 mm ………………………….. 0.04 insulated, 10 mm siding ……………………… 0.53
Skylight, metal frame, 10 mm wire glass….. 0.38 50x150 mm @ 400mm, 15mm gypsum,
Slate, 5 mm ……………………………………………. 0.34 insulated, 10 mm siding ……………………… 0.57
Slate, 6 mm ……………………………………………. 0.48 Exterior stud wall with brick veneer ……………. 2.30
Waterproofing membranes: Windows, glass, frame and sash …………………. 0.38
Bituminous, gravel-covered ……………….. 0.26 Clay brick withes:
Bituminous, smooth surface ………………. 0.07 100 mm …………………………………………………. 1.87
Liquid, applied ……………………………......... 0.05 200 mm …………………………………………………. 3.80
Single-ply, sheet ………………………………… 0.03 300 mm …………………………………………………. 5.50
Wood sheathing (per mm thickness) ………. 0.0057 400 mm …………………………………………………. 7.42
Wood shingles ………………………………........... 0.14
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Table 1-1D. Relative Densities of Philippine Wood
I II III IV
Relative Relative Relative Relative
Species Species Species Species
Density Density Density Density
Malabayabas 0.90 Makaasim 0.74 Malugai 0.61 Lingo-lingo 0.48
Sasalit 0.90 Kamagong 0.72 Dangakalan 0.58 Raintree 0.48
Agoho 0.84 Guijo 0.70 Apitong 0.57 Bayok 0.44
Liusin 0.79 Binggas 0.70 Salakin 0.56 Almaciga 0.42
Yakal 0.76 Katmon 0.68 Pine 0.55 Manggasinoro 0.42
Narig 0.72 Gatasan 0.67 Lanutan-bagyo 0.53 Yemane 0.42
Manggachapui 0.71 Bok-bok 0.64 Miau
Molave 0.69 Kamatog 0.64 Palosapis 0.52
Lomarau 0.64 Malasaging 0.52
Kato 0.59 Vidal Lanutan 0.51
Pahutan 0.55 Gisau 0.50
Mahogany, 0.54 Nato 0.50
big leaf Bagtikan 0.49
Antipolo 0.52 Malaanonang 0.44
Narra 0.52 Lauan 0.41
Malakauayan 0.50 0.41
Dao 0.48
Source: Philippine Timber Design Standards (J.E. Rocafort and J.O. Siopongco)
November, 1991 (FPRDI Terminal Report); in National Structural Code of the Philippines
B. LIVE LOADS
Live loads refer to gravity loads acting when the structure is in service, but varying in magnitude
and location.
a. Floor Live Loads
Floors shall be designed for the unit live loads as set forth in Table 1-2. These loads shall
be taken as the minimum live loads in kilonewton per square meter of horizontal projection to
be used in the design of buildings for the occupancies listed, and loads at least equal shall be
assumed for uses not listed in the Table but that create or accommodate similar loadings.
Where it can be determined in designing floors that the actual live load will be greater
than the value shown in Table 1-2, the actual live load shall be used in the design of such
buildings or portions thereof. Special provisions shall be made for machine and apparatus
loads.
b. Roof Live Loads
Roofs shall be designed for the unit live loads set forth in Table 1-3. The live loads shall be
assumed to act vertically upon the area projected on a horizontal plane.
For those conditions where light-gage metal preformed structural sheets serve as the
support and finish of roofs, roof structural members shall be considered adequate if designed
for full dead loads on all spans in combination with the most critical one of the following
superimposed loads:
1. The uniform live load set forth in Table 1-3.
2. A concentrated gravity load of 9 kN placed on any span supporting a tributary area
greater than 18.5 m2 to create maximum stresses in the member whenever this loading
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creates greater stresses than those caused by the uniform live load. The concentrated
load shall be placed on the member over a length of 750 mm along the span. The
concentrated load need not be applied to more than one span simultaneously.
3. Water accumulation
Table 1-2. Minimum Uniform and Concentrated Live Loads
CONCENTRATED
USE OR OCCUPANCY UNIFORM LOAD
LOAD
CATEGORY DESCRIPTION kPa kN
Office use 2.4 9.0 1
1. Access Floor Systems
Computer use 4.8 9.0 1
2. Armories 7.2 0
Fixed seating 2.9 0
2
3. Assembly areas and auditorium Movable seating 4.8 0
and balconies therewith Lobbies & platforms 4.8 0
Stages areas 7.2 0
4. Dining rooms and restaurant 4.8 0
5. Exit Facilities 3 4.8 04
General storage and/or
4.8 -- 5
repair
6. Garages Private or pleasure-
type motor vehicle 2.4 -- 5
storage
Wards and rooms 1.9 4.5 1
7. Hospitals Laboratories and
2.9 4.5 1
operating rooms
Reading rooms 2.9 4.5 1
8. Libraries
Stack rooms 7.2 6.7 1
Light 6.0 9.0 1
9. Manufacturing
Heavy 12.0 13.41
10. Offices 2.4 9.0 1
Press rooms 7.2 11.0 1
11. Printing plants Composing and
4.8 9.0 1
linotype rooms
Basic floor area 1.9 04
Exterior balconies 2.9 0
12. Residential 6
Decks 1.9 0
Storage 1.9 0
13.Restrooms 7 -- --
14. Reviewing stands, grandstands, bleachers, and folding and
4.8 0
telescoping seating
Same as area served or
15. Roof decks
occupancy
16. School Classrooms 1.9 4.5 1
17. Sidewalks and driveways Public access 12.0 -- 5
Light 6.0 --
18.Storage
Heavy 12.0 --
Retail 4.8 4.5 1
19.Stores
Wholesale 6.0 13.4 1
20. Pedestrian bridges & walkway 4.8 --
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Notes for Table 1-2
1
The concentrated load shall be placed upon any space 760 mm square, wherever this load upon
an otherwise unloaded floor would produce stresses greater than those caused by the uniform
load required.
2
Assembly areas include such occupancies as dance halls, drill rooms, gymnasiums, playgrounds,
plazas, terraces and similar occupancies that are generally accessible to the public.
3
Exit facilities shall include such uses as corridors serving an occupant load of 10 or more persons,
exterior exit balconies, stairways, fire escapes and similar uses.
4
Individual stair treads shall be designed to support a 1.3 kN concentrated load placed in a position
that would cause maximum stress. Stair stringers may be designed for the uniform load set forth
in the Table.
5
Concentrated loads for vehicles used or stored in these areas shall consist of two or more loads
spaced 1.5 meters nominally on center without uniform live loads. Each load shall be 40% of the
gross weight of the maximum size vehicle to be accommodated. Parking garages for the storage
of private or pleasure-type motor vehicles with no repair or refueling shall have a floor system
designed for a concentrated load of not less than 8.9 kN acting on an area of 0.013 m 2 without
uniform live loads.
6
Residential occupancies include private dwellings, apartments and hotel guest rooms.
7
Restroom loads shall not be less than the load for the occupancy with which they are associated,
but need not exceed 2.4 kPa.
Table 1-3. Minimum Roof Live Loads

UNIFORM LIVE LOAD (kPa)
0 – 20 m2 20 – 60 m2 Over 60 m2
ROOF SLOPE
Tributary Tributary Tributary
Area Area Area
1. Flat 1 or rise < 33.3% slope;
1.00 0.75 0.60
Arch and domes with rise < 1/8 of span
2. Rise between 33.3% - 99% slope;
Arch and domes with rise between 1/8 to 0.75 0.70 0.60
less than 3/8 of span
3. Rise of 100% and greater;
0.60 0.60 0.60
Arch or domes with rise 3/8 and greater
4. Awnings except cloth covered 2 0.25 0.25 0.25
5. Greenhouses, lath houses and agricultural
0.50 0.50 0.50
buildings 3
Notes for Table 2-3
1
A flat roof is any roof with a slope less than ¼ unit vertical in 12 units horizontal (2% slope).
The live load for flat roofs is in addition to the ponding load.
2
Awning is a shelter supported entirely from the exterior wall of a building.
3
Greenhouse roof bars, purlins and rafters shall be designed to carry a 0.45 kN concentrated
load in addition to the uniform live load.
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C. WIND LOADS
Wind loads refer to the pressure the wind exerts on the windward side of a building, suction
on the leeward side, as well as either uplift or downward pressure on the roof on any typical
building of rectangular plan and elevation.
Height Wind Pressure on Vertical Projection
Less than 9m 0.75 kPa
9.1m to 14.9m 1.00 kPa
15m to 30m 1.25 kPa
30.1 m to 150m 1.50 kPa
For tanks, chimneys and similar structures must withstand the wind pressure as indicated
above times the following factor:
Shape of Structure Factor
Rectangular or square 1.00
Hexagonal or octagonal 0.80
Round or elliptical 0.60
Wind pressure perpendicular to vertical surface:
p = 0.00256V2 if V is in mph
p = 0.0000473V2 if V is in kph
D. EARTHQUAKE LOADS
An earthquake load consists of horizontal and vertical ground motions, with the vertical
motion usually having the much smaller magnitude. Because the horizontal motion of the ground
causes the most significant effect, it is the effect which is often referred to as the earthquake load.
The following earthquake load shall be used in the load combinations.
Em =  oEh
where:
Em = estimated maximum earthquake force that can be developed in the structure
o = seismic force amplification factor
Eh = earthquake load due to the base shear, V, or the design lateral force, FP.
E. HIGHWAY LIVE LOADS

The AASHTO had standardized highway vehicle loading into standard truck loads and lane
loads that approximate a series of trucks.
Two systems of highway vehicle loading:
1. H System – for two axles
2. HS System – for three axles
In bridge design, either of the following shall be used:
1. One truck loading applied to the entire structure
2. Lane loading – where the uniform portion is distributed over the span as to cause
maximum effect, and in addition, one concentrated load is positioned for the most
severe loading effect.
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F. IMPACT LOADS – refers to the dynamic effect of a suddenly applied load.
All elevator loads shall be increased by 100% for impact.
AASHTO Impact requirement for highway bridge design
15
I =  0.30
L  38
where: L = portion of span that is loaded
I = impact factor not more than 0.30
For buildings, impact is provided for primarily in the design of supports for cranes and heavy
machineries. The weight of machinery and moving loads shall be increased as follows to allow for
impact:
Elevators and elevator machinery 100%
Light machinery, shaft- or motor-driven 20%
Reciprocating machinery or power-driven units 50%
Hangers supporting floors and balconies 33%
Cab-operating traveling crane support girders and their connections 25%
Pendant-operated traveling crane support girders and their connections 10%
1.8. THE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS

If the framework of the structure is made of steel, the construction process involves the
fabrication, field erection, and inspection of the erected structural steel.
A. FABRICATION
This process involves interpreting design drawings and specifications, preparing shop fabrication
and field erection drawings, obtaining materials from the steel mill if the needed material is not in
the stockpile, cutting, forming, assembling the material into shippable units, and shipping the
fabricated units to the construction site.
B. FIELD ERECTION
The field erector contractor uses his ingenuity and experience to devise an erection plan which
involves lifting the fabricated units into place with a crane, Without a proper plan, lifting operations
may cause compression forces to occur in members of a truss that were designed to resist only
tension, for example. Also, improper lifting of a plate girder could cause local buckling to occur.
Temporary bracing generally must be provided by the erection contractor to avoid construction
failures due to the lack of three-dimensional or space-frame stability. Consequently, more failures
due to wind loads occur during construction due to the lack of an adequately designed temporary
bracing scheme by the erection contractor.
C. FIELD INSPECTION
Field inspection of the erected steel is an integral part of the construction process and the final
phase of the design process.
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CHAPTER 2
STEEL AND THEIR PROPERTIES
2.1. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF STEEL AS A STRUCTURAL MATERIAL

ADVANTAGES OF STEEL AS A STRUCTURAL MATERIAL
a. High Strength
The high strength of steel per unit weight means dead loads will be small. This fact is of
great importance for long-span bridges, tall buildings, and for structures having poor foundation
conditions.
b. Uniformity
The properties of steel do not change appreciably with time as do those of a reinforced
concrete structure.
c. Elasticity
Steel behaves closer to design assumptions than most materials because it follows Hooke’s
Law up to fairly high stresses. The moment of inertia of a steel structure can be definitely
calculated while the values obtained for a reinforced concrete structure are rather indefinite.
d. Permanence
Steel frames that are properly maintained will last indefinitely.
e. Ductility
This is the property of steel by which it can withstand extensive deformation without failure
under high tensile stresses. A further advantage of ductile structures is that when overloaded
their large deflections give visible evidence of impending failure.
f. Addition to Existing Structures
Steel structures are quite well suited to having additions made to them. New bays or even
entire new wings can be added to existing steel frame buildings, and steel bridges may often be
widened.
g. Ability to be fastened together by several simple connection devices including welds, bolts and
rivets.
h. Adaptability to prefabrication
i. Speed of erection
j. Ability to be rolled into a wide variety of sizes and shapes
k. Toughness and fatigue strength
l. Possible reuse after a structure is disassembled
m. Scrap value even though not reusable in its existing form
DISADVANTAGES OF STEEL AS A STRUCTURAL MATERIAL

a. Maintenance costs
Most steels are susceptible to corrosion when freely exposed to air and water and must be
therefore periodically painted.
11
b. Fireproofing costs
Although structural members are incombustible, their strength is tremendously reduced at
temperatures commonly reached in fires when the other materials in a building burn.
Furthermore, steel is an excellent heat conductor such that fireproofed steel members may
transmit enough heat from a burning section or compartment of a building to ignite materials
with which they are in contact in adjoining sections of the building. As a result of these facts the
steel frame of a building must be fireproofed if the building is to have an appreciable fire rating.
c. Susceptibility to buckling
The longer and slenderer compression member, the greater is the danger of buckling. As
previously indicated steel has a high strength per unit weight and, when used for steel columns, is
sometimes not very economical because considerable material has to be used merely to stiffen
the columns against buckling.
d. Fatigue
Another undesirable property of steel is that its strength may be reduced if it is subjected to a
large number of stress reversals or even large number of variations of stress of the same
character (i.e., tension or compression). The present practice is to reduce the estimated
strengths of such members if it is anticipated that they will have more than a prescribed number
of cycles or stress variation.
2.2. CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURAL STEEL

Structural steel – refers to a number of steels that, because of their economy and desirable
mechanical properties, are suitable for load-carrying members in structures
The customary way to specify a structural steel is to use an ASTM (American Society for Testing
and Materials) designation.
The following are the groups of hot-rolled structural steels for use in buildings:
A. CARBON STEELS - steels that contain 1.7% carbon (chief strengthening element), 1.65%
manganese, 0.60% silicon and 0.60% copper. Minimum yield stresses range from 220 MPa to 290
MPa. An increase in carbon content raises the yield stress but reduces ductility, making welding
more difficult. These steels are suitable for welded, bolted or riveted bridges and buildings.
B. HIGH-STRENGTH LOW-ALLOY STEELS – contain, in addition to carbon and manganese, more
alloying elements to obtain their higher strength. Such elements are columbium, vanadium,
chromium, silicon, copper and nickel. These steels have yield stresses ranging from 270 MPa to
480 MPa. These steels have much greater atmospheric corrosion resistance than carbon steels.
C. QUENCHED AND TEMPERED ALLOY STEELS – steels of higher strength obtained by heat-treating
low-alloy steels. The heat treatment consists of quenching (rapid cooling) and tempering
(reheating). These steels have yield stresses of 480 MPa to 690 MPa.
12
Table 2-1. Properties of Structural Steel
MIN. YIELD TENSILE MIN.
ASTM TYPE OF STRESS STRENGTH PLATE
COMMON USAGE
DESIGNATION STEEL Fy Fu THICKNESS
(MPa) (MPa) (mm)
220 400 - 550 over 200 General structural purposes,
A36 Carbon Steel bolted and welded, mainly for
250 400 - 550 ≤ 200 buildings
Carbon steel 240 415 Welded and seamless pipe
A53 Grade B
over 40 to
High-strength 290 435
100
low-alloy Welded and bolted bridge
over 20 to
A242 steel, 315 460 construction where corrosion
40
corrosion resistance is desired
resistant 345 480 ≤ 20
Grade A 290 310 Cold-formed welded & seamless

round, square, rectangular, or
A500
Grade B Carbon steel 290 400 Round special shape structural tubing for
bolted and welded general
Grade C 317 427 structural purposes
Grade A 269 310 Cold-formed welded & seamless
round, square, rectangular, or
A514
Grade B Carbon steel 317 400 Shaped special shape structural tubing for
bolted & welded general
Grade C 345 427 structural purposes
Hot-formed welded & seamless
square, rectangular, round or
A510 Carbon steel 250 400 special shaped structural tubing
for bolted & welded general
structural purposes
Quenched & over 65 to
620 690 – 895
A514 tempered 150 Welded bridges
alloy steel 690 760 – 895 ≤ 65
Grade 42 290 415 – 585 ≤ 13 For bolted and welded metal
A529 Carbon steel building system frames and
Grade 50 345 485 – 690 > 13 trusses
Grade 40 269 310 Hot-rolled sheet and strip cut in
A570
Grade 45 Carbon steel 317 400 lengths or coils; for cold-formed
Grade 50 345 427 section (max. thickness of 6mm)
Grade 42 High- 290 415 to 150 Structural shapes, plates, sheet
Grade 50 strength 345 450 to 100 piling, and bars for bolted and
A572
Grade 60 low-alloy 415 520 to 32 welded buildings; welded bridges
Grade 65 steel 450 550 to 32 in Grade 42 and 50 only
over 125 - Structural shapes, plates and bars
290 435
High- 200 for welded buildings and bridges
A588
strength over 100 - where weight savings or added
315 460
low-alloy 125 durability are needed;
steel atmospheric corrosion resistant is
345 485 to 100
about 4 times that of A36 steel
13
MIN. YIELD TENSILE MIN.
ASTM TYPE OF STRESS STRENGTH PLATE
COMMON USAGE
DESIGNATION STEEL Fy Fu THICKNESS
(MPa) (MPa) (mm)
High-
310 450
strength Hot- and cold-rolled sheet and
A606
low-alloy strip in lengths or coils
345 480
steel
Grade 45 310 410
Grade 50 High- 340 450
Grade 55 strength 380 480 Hot- and cold-rolled sheet and
A607
Grade 60 low-alloy 410 520 strip in lengths or coils
Grade 65 steel 450 550
Grade 70 480 590
Grade C 230 330 Cold-rolled sheet in cut lengths or
A611
Grade D Carbon steel 275 360 coils for making cold-formed
Grade E 550 565 sections
High-strength 345 485 Hot-formed welded and seamless
A618 low-alloy square, rectangular, round or
steel 345 450 special shape structural tubing
Grade 36 250 400 – 550 To 100
Grade 50 Carbon steel; 345 450 To 100
Grade high-
345 485 To 100 Structural shapes, plates & bars in
50W strength
Grade 36, 50 & 50W for use in
Grade low-alloy;
A709 485 620 – 760 To 100 bridges; plates in Grade 100 &
70W and
100W; Grade 50W and 100W are
quenched &
Grade 100 Over 64 – weathering steels
tempered 620 690 – 895
& 100W 102
alloy
Grade 100
690 760 - 895 To 64
& 100W
High-strength
Plates to 100mm thick for welded
low-alloy;
and bolted construction where
A852 quenched & 485 620 - 760 To 100
atmospheric corrosion resistance
tempered
alloy
is desired.
Grade 60 High- 415 520
A913 strength Structural shapes for bolted and
Grade 65 450 550
low-alloy welded construction
Grade 70 steel 485 620
Modulus of elasticity (E) for all structural steel is 200,000 MPa.
2.3. STEEL SHAPES

Steel sections are usually designated by the shape of their cross sections.
Commonly used standard rolled-shaped steels are found in Figure 2-1. The dimensions of these
steels are found in the AISC Manual. These sections are all hot-rolled; that is, they are formed from
hot billet steel (blocks of steel) by passing through rolls numerous times to obtain the final shapes.
14
Figure 2-1. Steel Shapes
a. W Shapes
The American wide-flange steel beams are referred to as W Shapes and are designated by the
letter W followed by their nominal depth in mm, with their mass in kg/m as the last designation.
This shape consists of two rectangular-shaped flanges connected by rectangular-shaped flanges
connected by a rectangular plate and symmetrical about both x and y axes. The dimensions of a
typical W shape are:
d = depth of the beam tf = thickness of flange
bf = width of flange tw = thickness of the web
Ex. W 410 x 85 is a W shape approximately 410 mm deep and has a mass of 85 kg/m.
b. S Shapes
These shapes were formerly called I-beams and American Standard beams, and are designated
by the letter S followed by their nominal depth with their mass as the last designation. The flange
width of these shapes is narrower than the W-shape. The inner face of the flange has a slope of
about 16 2/3 %.
Ex. S 610 x 134 is an S shape approximately 610 mm deep and has a mass of 134 kg/m.
c. HP Shapes
These shapes are pile bearing sections. Bearing piles are made with the regular W rolls but
with thicker webs to provide resistance to the impact of pile driving.
Ex. HP 300 x 110 is an HP shape approximately 300 mm deep and has a mass of 110 kg/m.
d. M Shapes
These are doubly symmetrical shapes which are not classified as W or S shapes. They are
symmetrical to both x and y axes.
Ex. M 356 x 25.6 is an M shape approximately 356 mm deep and has a mass of 25.6 kg/m.
15
e. C Shapes
These are channel shapes formerly called American Standard channels. The inner face of the
flange has the same slope as S shapes.
Ex. C 380 x 74 is a C shape approximately 380 mm deep and has a mass of 74 kg/m.
f. MC Shapes
These shapes were formerly called ship building or miscellaneous channels and are not
classified as C Shapes.
Ex. MC 458 x 86 is an MC shape approximately 458 mm deep and has a mass of 86 kg/m.
g. L Shapes
These are either equal or unequal leg angles. All angles have parallel flange faces.
Ex. L 200 x 200 x 30 is an equal leg angle, each leg being 200 mm long and 30 mm thick.
h. T Shapes
These are structural tees or split tees obtained by splitting W, S or M shapes such that each
split section is one half the area of the original shape.
Ex. WT 300 x 119 is a structural tee obtained by splitting W 600 x 238. This shape is approximately
300mm deep and has a mass of 119 kg/m.
16
CHAPTER 3
TENSION MEMBERS
3.1. INTRODUCTION
A tension member is designed on the assumption that it has to provide only axial tensile
strength.
Tension members are found in bridge and roof trusses, towers, bracing systems, and in
situations where they are used as tie rods. Tension members may consist of a single structural shape
or they may be built up from a number of structural shapes.
3.2. GROSS AND NET AREAS OF TENSION MEMBERS

3.2.1. GROSS AREA, Ag
The gross area (Ag) of a member shall be determined by summing the products of the
thickness and the gross width of each element as measured normal to the axis of the member.
For angles, the gross width shall be the sum of the widths of the angles less the thickness.
3.2.2. NET AREA, An
When tension members are connected by welding, the total cross-sectional area is available
for transferring the tensile load. When the connection is done by bolting or riveting, holes must
be made in the member. These holes evidently reduce the cross-sectional area available for
transferring the tensile load.
The net area (An) of a member refers to the gross cross-sectional area minus any holes,
notches or other indentations. The net area (An) and net width (Wn) of an element are computed
as follows:
A. For Plates
Net Area, An = Net width(Wn) x Thickness (t)
Net width, Wn = Wg –  h
where:
Wg = gross width of the element
h = bolt hole diameter
= nominal hole diameter + 1.6 mm
Table 3-1. Nominal Hole Dimensions
Bolt Nominal Hole Dimensions (mm)
Diameter Standard Oversize Short Slot Long Slot
(mm) (diameter) (diameter) (width x length) (width x length)
12 14 16 14 x 17 14x 32
16 17 21 17 x 22 17 x 40
20 21 24 21 x 25 21 x 48
22 24 27 24 x 28 24 x 55
25 27 32 27 x 33 27 x 63
≥ 28 d + 1.6 d+8 (d+1.6) x (d+10) (d+1.6) x (2.5d)
17
B. For Structural Shapes
Net Area, An = Ag –  ht
Sample Problem 3 -1
Determine the net area of 200 x 10 mm plate as shown. The plate is connected at its end with
two lines of 20mm dia. bolts.
A
T T
B
200 x 10 mm plate
Solution:
The tensile members are assumed to fail transversely along A-B.
Solve for the hole dimension h .
h = 21 mm + 1.6 mm
h = 22.6 mm
Solve for the net width.
Wn = Wg –  h
Wn = 200 mm – 2 (22.6 mm)
Wn = 154.80 mm
Solve for the net area.
An = Wn t
An = 154.80 mm (10 mm)
An = 1548 mm2 (ans.)
Sample Problem 3 -2
Determine the net area of a miscellaneous channel MC 300 x 67 with three lines of 20mmø bolts
(nominal hole diameter for 20mm bolt is 21mm). There are at least 3 bolts in each line. Gross area
of the section = 8250 mm2. The thickness of the web of the channel is 17.8 mm.
Solution:
h = 21 mm + 1.6 mm
h = 22.6 mm

An = Ag –  ht
An = 8250 mm2 – 3(22.6 mm)(17.8 mm)
An = 7043.16 mm2 (ans.)
18
3.2.3. EFFECT OF STAGGERED HOLES ON NET AREA
When there are more than one row of bolt or rivet holes in a member, it is usually desirable
to stagger them in order to provide as large a net area as possible at any one section to resist the
load.
A. For Plates
g1
g2 P Gross width, Wg
s1 s2
AISC Formula for finding the net area due to staggered holes,
An = Wn t
where: Wn = net width and t = thickness of plate
s2
Wn = Wg   h  
4g
where: s = longitudinal spacing or pitch of any two holes
g = transverse spacing or gage of the same holes
There may be several paths, one of which may be critical at a particular joint. Each possibility
should be considered and the one giving the least value should be used.
Sample Problem 3-3

Determine the critical net area of the 9mm thick plate shown, using the AISC specification. The
holes are punched for 12mm bolts (nominal hole diameter = 14 mm).
1
75 mm
2 250 mm
75 mm 3 P
Solution: 75 mm
h = 14 mm + 1.6 mm
h = 15.6 mm
Solve for Wn of each possible path of failure.
(75)2
Path 1-2-3: Wn = 250 – 3(15.6 mm) + = 221.95 mm
4(75)
Path 1-2: Wn = 250 – 2(15.6 mm) = 218.80 mm
Therefore, the critical path is Path1-2, Wn = 218.80 mm
An = 218.80 mm (9 mm)
An = 1969.20 mm2 (ans.)
19
B. For Angular Members
For angles, the gage for holes in opposite legs is considered to be the sum of the
gages from the back of the angle minus the thickness of the angle.
g1
g1+ g2 - t
g2
Sample Problem 3 - 4
An angle L200 x 100 x 19 has two rows of 22mm bolts in the long leg, and one row in the short leg
as shown. Determine the net area at the most critical section.
62
65
75
75 75 75
Solution:
Straighten up the angle.
2
108
1 281 mm
75
3
Solve for the hole diameter

h = 24 + 1.6 = 25.6 mm
Find the critical path.
Path 2-3: Wn = 281mm – 2(25.6 mm) = 229.80 mm
(75)2
Path 1-3: Wn = 281 – 2(25.6 mm) + = 248.55 mm
4(75)
20
(75)2
Path 2-1: Wn = 281 – 2(25.6 mm) + = 242.82 mm
4(108)
(75)2 (75)2
Path 2-1-3: Wn = 281 – 3(25.6 mm) + + = 235.97 mm
4(108) 4(75)
Use critical net width = 229.80 mm

Solve for net area.
An = Wn t
An = 229.80 mm (19 mm)
An = 4366.20 mm2 (ans.)
Table 3 - 2. Standard Gages for Angular Sections (values in mm)
Leg 200 175 150 125 100 87.5 75 62.5 50 43.75 37.50 34.38 25
g 112.5 100 87.5 75 62.5 50 43.75 34.375 28.125 25 21.875 21.875 15.625
g1 75 62.5 56.25 50
g2 75 75 62.5 43.75
g1
g2
3.3. ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN (ASD)
3.3.1. EFFECTIVE NET AREAS

The net area as computed gives the reduced section that resist tension but still does not
correctly reflect the strength especially if the tension member consists of elements not in a
common plane and where the tensile load is transmitted at the end of the member by connection
to some but not all of the elements. The tensile force in this case is not uniformly distributed
over the net area. To account for the non-uniformity, the effective net area is used.
A. Effective Net Area of Bolted or Riveted Structural Shapes
When the load is transmitted by bolts or rivets through some but not all of the cross-
sectional elements of the member, the effective net area Ae shall be computed as:
Ae = U An
where:
Ae = effective net area
U = reduction factor (shall be based on Table 3-3)
An = net area
21
Table 3-3. Values of Reduction Factor U
Min. Number Reduction
Special
Type of Member of Fasteners Factor
Requirements
per Line U
Case 1: Full length tension members having all
cross-sectional elements connected to 1 none 1.0
transmit tensile force
Case 2: W, M or S rolled shapes with connections to bf 2
flange or flanges 3  0.90
d 3
Case 3: Structural tees cut from W, M or S shapes bf 4
with connections to flange or flanges 3  0.90
d 3
Case 4: W, M or S shapes not meeting the condition
of Case 2, structural tees cut from these
3 none 0.85
shapes not meeting condition of Case 3, and
all other shapes, incl. built-up sections
Case 5: All members with bolted or riveted
2 none 0.75
connections
B. Effective Net Area of Bolted or Riveted Steel Plates

The effective net area of splice and gusset plates and other connection fittings subject to
tensile force shall be taken as the actual net area, but shall not be greater than 85% of the gross
area.
Ae = An  0.85 Ag
A steel plate is 360 mm wide and 20 mm thick with four 25 mm dia. bolts in the plate as shown.
Find the effective net area of the plate for tension.
60 mm
90 mm 1
3
90 mm 4 360 mm
P
90 mm 2
45 45
Solution:
Solve for the hole diameter.
h = 27 + 1.6 = 28.6 mm

(30)2
Path 1-2: Wn = 360 – 2(28.6) + = 303.63 mm
4(270)
(45)2
Path 1-3: Wn = 360 – 2(28.6) + = 308.43 mm
4(90)
22
(45)2 (15)2
Path 1-3-2: Wn = 360 – 3(28.6) + + = 280.14 mm
4(90) 4(180)
(45)2 (45)2
Path 1-3-4: Wn = 360 – 3(28.6) + + = 285.45 mm
4(90) 4(90)
(15)2
Path 3-2: Wn = 360 – 2(28.6) + = 303.11 mm
4(180)
(45)2 (60)2
Path 3-4-2: Wn = 360 – 3(28.6) + + = 289.83 mm
4(90) 4(90)
(45)2
Path 3-4: Wn = 360 – 2(28.6) + = 308.43 mm
4(90)
(45)2 (45)2 (60)2
Path 1-3-4-2: Wn = 360 – 4(28.6) + + + = 266.85 mm
4(90) 4(90) 4(90)
Use critical net width = 266.85 mm

Solve for the net area
An = 266.85 mm (20 mm)
An = 5337 mm2
Solve for Ae.
For plates, Ae = An  0.85 Ag
0.85 Ag = 0.85 (360) (20) = 6120 mm2
Therefore, use Ae = An
Ae = 5337 mm2 (ans.)
C. Effective Net Area for Welded Connections

C.1. When the load is transmitted by welds through some, but not all, of the cross-sectional
elements of the member, the effective net area Ae shall be computed from
Ae = U Ag
where: U = reduction coefficient from Table 3-3*
* Table 3-3 is the same for a welded connection as that for a bolted connection except
that Cases 1 and 5 are not applicable and the condition as to the number of fasteners
in Cases 2, 3, and 4 does not apply.
C.2. When the load is transmitted by transverse welds to some but not all of the cross-
sectional elements of W, M or S shapes and structural tees cut from these shapes, A e
shall be taken as the area of the directly connected elements.
\
C.3. When the load is transmitted to a plate by longitudinal welds along both edges at the
end of the plate, the length of the welds shall not be less than the width of the plate.
L
23
The effective net area Ae shall be computed as
Ae = U Ag
where: U = reduction coefficient for longitudinal welds on plates (found in Table 3-4).
Table 3-4. Reduction Factor U for Longitudinal Welds on Plate

Reduction Factor, U
When L ≥ 2W 1.0
When 2W > L ≥ 1.5W 0.87
When 1.5W > L ≥ W 0.75
3.3.2. ALLOWABLE TENSILE STRESSES AND LOADS

The allowable tensile stress on plates and tension members is based on the following
modes of failure: excessive elongation (or yielding) and fracture.
NSCP specifies the following allowable tensile stress (except on pin-connected members):
Allowable tensile stress in gross area (yielding) : Ft = 0.6 Fy
Allowable tensile stress on net area (fracture) : Ft = 0.5 Fu
where: Fy = minimum yield stress of the member in MPa
Fu = specified minimum tensile strength of the member in MPa
The allowable capacity of a tension member with bolt or rivet holes permitted by NSCP is
equal to the smaller of the following values:
T = 0.6 Fy Ag
T = 0.5 Fu Ae
where: Ag = gross area of the member
Ae = effective net area of the member
Determine the allowable tensile load a W250 x 67, with two lines of 20mmø bolts in each flange, can
support using A36 steel. There are assumed to be at least three bolts in each line and the bolts are
not staggered with respect to each support.
Properties of W 250 x 67
Ag = 8581 mm2
d = 256.50 mm
bf = 203.70 mm
tf = 15.70 mm
Solution:
Fy = 248 MPa
Fu = 400 MPa
h = 21 + 1.6 = 22.6 mm
24
In yielding of gross area
T = 0.6 Fy Ag
T = 0.6 (248 MPa) (8581 mm2)
T = 1276852.8 N or 1276.85 kN
Find U.
bf 203.7 2
Check = = 0.79 >
d 256.5 3
Therefore: use U = 0.9

In fracture of net area,
T = 0.5 Fu U An
T = 0.5 (400 MPa)(0.9)[8581 – 4(22.6)(15.7)]
T = 1289109.6 N or 1289.11 kN
Allowable tensile load = 1276.85 kN (ans.)
Sample Problem 3 – 7
Find the tensile load capacity for the double-angle tension member shown in the figure. All structural
steel is A36 steel. Assume that the welds are adequate and do not control the tensile capacity.
Gusset plate
150 mm
2L 75 x 75 x 9 mm
Ag = 2961.3 mm2
75 mm
Solution:
Fy = 248 MPa
Fu = 400 MPa
Based on gross area
T = 0.6 Fy Ag
T = 0.6 (248 MPa) (2961.3 mm2)
T = 440641.44 N or 440.64 kN
Based on effective net area
T = 0.5 Fu U Ag but U = 0.85
T = 0.5 Fu U Ag
T = 0.5 (400 MPa)(0.85)(2961.3)
T = 503421 N or 503.42 kN
Tensile load capacity = 440.64 kN (ans.)
25
Determine the allowable tensile force that can be supported by the pair of L125 x125 x 22 as shown,
if A242 steel (Fy = 315 MPa, Fu = 460 MPa). Holes are standard for 20 mm dia. bolts.
75
50
40
50 50 50
Solution:
Straighten up the angles.
1 3
78 2
228 mm
40 4
h = 21 + 1.6 = 22.6 mm

Path 1-2: Wn = 228 – 2(22.6) = 182.80 mm
(50)2
Path 1-2-4: Wn = 228 – 3(22.6) + = 175.83 mm
4(40)
(50)2
Path 3-2: Wn = 228 – 2(22.6) + = 190.81 mm
4(78)
(50)2 (50)2
Path 3-2-4: Wn = 228 – 3(22.6) + + = 183.84 mm
4(78) 4(40)
Therefore: Use critical net width = 175.83 mm

Compute the net area.
An = 175.83 mm (22 mm)(2)
An = 7736.52 mm2
In yielding of gross area,
T = 0.6 Fy Ag
T = 0.6 (315 MPa) [2(228 mm)(22mm)]
T = 1896048 N or 1896.05 kN
T = 0.5 Fu U An where: U = 1.0
T = 0.5 (460 MPa)(1.0)(7736.52 mm2 )
T = 1779399.6 N or 1779.40 kN
Allowable tensile load = 1779.40 kN (ans.)
26
3.3.3. BLOCK SHEAR
Not all the time that the allowable tensile load is always controlled by 0.6F yAg or 0.5FuAe, or
by allowable load on the bolts or welds with which the joint is connected. Sometimes, it is
controlled by its allowable block shear strength.
In the analysis of block shear strength, the failure of any block shear may occur along a path
involving shear on one plane and tension on a perpendicular plane.
The allowable block shear strength of a particular member is determined using the following
equation:
Tbs = 0.3 Fu Anv + 0.5 Fu Ant
where: Anv = net shear area

Ant = net tension area
3.3.3.1. Critical Sections for Block Shear
a. Bolted Angle shear plane
Tbs Ant = (W – 0.5 h ) t

Anv= (L – 3.5 h ) t
Ant W
Anv tension plane

L
W
b. Bolted Flange of W Shape
tension planes
Tbs
shear planes
c. Bolted Plate
Tbs
tension plane
shear planes
27
d. Bolted Connections with Staggered Hole
Tbs
tension plane
shear planes
e. Welded Plates
Tbs
tension plane
shear planes
f. Welded Connections
shear plane
tension plane
shear plane
Tbs
The 175 x 100 x 16 angle shown is connected to the gusset plate with 25 mmø bolts. The angle
consists of A36 steel. Find the block shear strength of the section.
75mm
75mm
50 100 100mm
Solution:
h = 27 + 1.6 = 28.6 mm
28
Block shear potential failure is along path a-b-c.
c
75mm
a b
250mm
Solve for the net areas in tension and shear.

Ant = [75 – 0.5(28.6)]16 = 971.20 mm2
Anv = [250 – 2.5(28.6)]16 = 2856 mm2
Solve for the block shear strength

Tbs = 0.3(400)(2856) + 0.5(400)(971.20)
Tbs = 536960 N or 536.96 kN (ans.)
A bolted connection shown consists of an L150 x 100 x 8 mm. The angle is made up of A36 steel
and the bolts are 20mm in diameter. Cross-sectional area of the angle is 1894 mm2. Compute the
allowable load that can be applied to the member. Consider block shear failure.
40 mm 1
60 mm
2
50 mm
50 50 50 50 50 50mm
Solution:
h = 21 + 1.6 = 22.6 mm
Solve for the safe load considering yielding of gross area.

T = 0.6 Fy Ag
T = 0.6 (248) (1894)
T = 281827.20 N or 281.83 kN
Solve for the critical net area.
Path 1 : An = Ag –  ht = 1894 – (22.6)(8) = 1713.20 mm2
 2 50  (8)
2
Ag –  ht +  
s t = 1894  2(22 .6)(8) 
Path 1-2 : An =  = 1615.73 mm2
 4g  4(60)
Therefore, use An = 1615.73 mm2.
Solve for the safe load considering fracture of net area.

U = 0.85
T = 0.5 Fu U An
T = 0.5 (400)(0.85)(1615.73)
T = 274674.10 N or 274.67 kN
29
Solve for the safe load considering block shear failure.
Case 1: Possible path of failure along a-b-c-d:
d
40 mm c
60 mm
a b
250mm 50mm
Net areas in tension and shear.

Ant = 100  1.5(22.6) 
50 2  (8) = 612.13 mm2

 4(60 ) 
Anv = [300 – 2.5(22.6)](8) = 1948 mm2

Tbs = 0.3(400)(1948) + 0.5(400)(612.13)
Tbs = 356186 N or 356.19 kN
Case 2: Possible path of failure along a-b-c-e:

e
c
60 mm
a b
250mm 50
Net areas in tension and shear,

Ant = 60  1(22.6) 
50 2  (8) = 382.53 mm2

 4(60 ) 
Anv = [300 + 250 – 5(22.6)](8) = 3496 mm2

Tbs = 0.3(400)(3496) + 0.5(400)(382.53)
Tbs = 496026 N or 496.03 kN
The block shear strength of the section = 356.19 kN
The allowable load that can be applied to the section is 274.67 kN. (ans.)
30
SEATWORK NO. 1
A W250 x 60 is a tension member that must have two lines of bolts in each flange for the 20mm dia.
bolts with three bolts in a line. Use A36 steel. Calculate the maximum tensile load that can be
safely applied to the section. Bolts are spaced at 100 mm on centers with an edge distance of 50
mm. Properties of W250 x 60: A = 7613 mm2, bf = 203.20 mm, d = 298.50 mm, tf = 13.10 mm.
3.3.4. DESIGN OF TENSION MEMBERS

Design Criteria:
1. Strength Requirement – provide adequate area to resist given load without exceeding
allowable stresses.
2. Economy – choose the lightest section available.
3. Stiffness Requirement – slenderness ratio (L/rmin) should not exceed the specified value based
on NSCP.
L
 300
rmin
Even though stability is not a criterion in the design of tension members, it is still necessary to
limit their length to prevent a member from becoming too flexible during erection and final use of
the structure. To reduce the problems associated with deflections and vibrations, the stiffness
criterion was established.
Flowchart for the design of tension members are found at the next page.
Flowchart for the Design of Tension Members Using Allowable Stress Design (ASD)
START 31
Determine Tu, L, Fu, Fy,
and the shape to be used.
Determine the required

L
rmin 
300
Determine the required area based on the

yielding of the gross area of the section
T
Ag  u
0.6Fy
(Use this in finding the initial trial section.)
Select a trial section.
Assume a reduction coefficient U based

on the shape and connection details.
Determine the net area.

An  A g  Aholes
Determine T based on fracture of net area.

T  0.5FuUA n
Reselect trial section.

Ensure that minimum NO
Is T  Tu
r and Ag are met.
YES
Determine T based on block shear.
T  0.3FuAnv  0.5FuAnt

YES NO
Specify section to use. Is T  Tu Ensure that minimum
r and Ag are met.
END
32
Select a W300 section (SI unit) to resist a 3800 kN tensile load using A36 steel. The member is to be
9 meters long and is to be connected through its flanges only with three 22mmø in each line.
Assume that there can be as many as four bolts at any one cross-section (two in each flange). The
bolts are spaced at 100 mm on centers with an edge distance of 75mm.
Given:
Tu = 3800 kN
L=9m
Fy = 248 MPa
Fu = 400 MPa
b = 22 mm
Solution:
Determine the required rmin.
L 9000
rmin   = 30 mm
300 300
Determine the required area based on the yielding of the gross area of the section
3
T 3800 x10
Ag  u  = 25,537.63 mm2
0.6Fy 0.6(248 )
Possible Sections:
Ag d bf tf tw ry
W12x136 25,742 340.60 315 31.80 20.10 80.22
W12x152 28,839 348.20 317 35.60 22.10 80.96
W12x170 32,258 356.40 319.30 39.60 24.40 81.68
Try W12x136.
Check in fracture.
bf 315
  0.92 > 2/3
d 340 .60
U = 0.90
An = 25,742mm2 – 4(25.6mm)(31.80mm) = 22,485.68 mm2
T = 0.50FuUAn
T = 0.50(400MPa)(0.9)(22,485.68mm2) = 4047422.40 N or 4047.42 kN > Tu
Check in block shear.
T = 0.3FuAnv + 0.5FuAnt
Anv = 4[275 – 2.5(25.6)](31.80) = 26,839.20 mm2
Ant = 4[75 – 0.5(25.6)](31.80) = 7,911.84 mm2
T = 0.3(400)(26,839.20) + 0.5(400)(7911.84)
T = 4803072 N or 4803.07 kN > Tu
USE W12X136. (ans.)
33
Select a standard channel that will safely support a tensile load of 780 kN. The member is 4.5 meters
long and is assumed to have one line of 25mm dia. bolts in each flange, three holes in each line. The
bolts are spaced 100mm apart with an edge distance of 62.50mm. Use A36 steel.
DESIGN PLATE NO. 1

Select the lightest equal-leg single angle section for a diagonal tension member of a roof truss
supporting an axial tension of 320 kN. The member is 3 meters long. The connection is to be made
using 3-20mm dia. bolts on a single gage line in standard holes to be located on one leg of the angle
section. The holes are to be spaced 125mm apart with an edge distance of 37.5mm. Use ______
steel.
Steel Designation Fy (MPa) Fu (MPa) Student No.
A36 220 400 1
A36 248 400 2
A53 Grade B 240 415 3
A242 290 435 4
A242 315 460 5
A500 Grade A 290 310 6
A500 Grade B 290 400 7
A510 250 400 8
A514 Grade A 269 310 9
A514 Grade B 317 400 10
A529 290 415 11
A588 315 460 12
A606 310 450 13
A607 Grade 45 310 410 14
A611 Grade D 275 360 15
A611 Grade C 230 330 16
3.4. TENSION RODS

A. Common Uses of Tension Rods
a. Sag rods to help support purlins in industrial building
b. Vertical ties to help support girts in industrial building walls
c. Diagonal bracing in walls, roofs, and towers.
B. Allowable Stress and Load for Tension Rods
a. The allowable stress for tension rods is 0.33 Fu.
ft = 0.33 Fu
b. The allowable load for tension rods is
T = 0.33 FuAD where: AD = gross area of the rod
C. Design of Tension Rods
T
Req’d AD =
0.33Fu
According to AISC Specification, tension rods should not be less than 16 mm (5/8”). Smaller rods
are often injured during construction.
34
Sample Problem 3-12
A C375 x 50.5 section is used as purlins of a roof truss having a pitch of ¼. There are 9 purlins on
each side of the top chord spaced at 2.15 meters on centers. The spacing between trusses is 6.75
meters. Use A36 steel. The trusses are subjected to the following loads:
Tile roof = 860 Pa of roof surface
Wind load = 1.20 kPa normal to the roof surface
a. Determine the diameter of the sagrods for the purlins of the truss if they are placed at
midspan.
b. Determine the diameter of the sagrods for the purlins of the truss if they are placed at the
third points.
c. Determine the diameter of the tie rod at the ridge if the sagrods are placed at the third
points.
Solution:
Calculate the load on each purlin.

Wroof = 860 Pa (2.15 m)
Wroof = 1849 N/m
Wroof
Wpurlin = 50.5 kg/m(9.81 N/kg) Wpurlin
Wpurlin = 495.41 N/m WT
tan  = ½

   = 26.57°
WT = (1849 + 495.41) sin 26.57°

WT = 1048.63 N/m
a. When sagrods are placed at midspan,
Using three-moment equation: 1048.63 N/m

A C
WL2 B
MB = 
32 3.375 m 3.375 m
1048 .63(6.75)2
MB = 
32
MB = –1493.07 N.m
 3.375 
MB = RA (3.375) – 1048.63 (3.375)  
 2 
 3.375 
–1493.07 = RA (3.375) – 1048.63 (3.375)  
 2 
RA = 1327.17 N
35
RC = 1327.17 N
F v  0,
RB + RA + RC = 1048.63(6.75)
RB + 1327.17 +1327.17 = 1048.63(6.75)
RB = 4423.91 N (reaction at sag rods at midpoint)
Critical sag rod is at the ridge. It will support the lower 8 purlins.
T = 8(4423.91)
T = 35,391.28 N
Determine the required AD,
T
AD =
0.33Fu
35391 .28
AD =
0.33(400 )
AD = 268.12 mm2
Determine the required diameter.

AD = D 2
4

268.12 = D2
4
D = 18.48 mm say 20 mm
Use 20mm dia. sag rods. (ans.)
b. When sagrods are placed at third points,
Using three-moment equation: 1048.63 N/m

A D
WL2 B C
MB = MC = 
90 2.25 m 2.25 m 2.25 m
1048 .63(6.75)2
MB = 
90
MB = –530.87 N.m
 2.25 
MB = RA (2.25) – 1048.63 (2.25)  
 2 
 2.25 
–530.87 = RA (2.25) – 1048.63 (2.25)  
 2 
RA = 943.77 N
RD = 943.77 N
RB = RC
F v  0,
RA + RB + RC + RD = 1048.63(6.75) but RB = RC
943.77 + 2RB + 943.77 = 1048.63(6.75)
36
RB = 2595.36 N (reaction at sag rods at third points)
Critical sag rod is at the ridge. It will support the lower 8 purlins.
T = 8(2595.36)
T = 20,762.85 N
Determine the required AD,
T
AD =
0.33Fu
20 ,762 .85
AD =
0.33(400 )
AD = 157.29 mm2

AD = D 2
4

157.29 = D2
4
D = 14.15 mm < 16 mm
Use 16mm dia. sag rods. (ans.)
b. Tie rod at the ridge if sag rods are placed at third points,
The tension in the most critical sag rod T is a component of TR.
T
cos 26.57° =
TR TR
20 ,762 .85
TR =
cos 26.57
TR
TR = 23,214.57 N 
Determine the required AD. T
TR
AD 
0.33Fu
23 ,214 .57
AD 
0.33(400 )
A D  175 .87 mm2


A D  D2
4

175 .87  D2
4
D = 14.96 mm < 16 mm
Use 16 mm dia. tie rods. (ans.)
3.5. TIE PLATES OF BUILT-UP TENSION MEMBERS

37
Tie plates are used to connect built-up tension members across their open sides. Its purpose is
to hold the various parts parallel and maintain the correct distance apart.
NSCP Specifications for Tie Plates of Built-Up Tension Members (Section 504.3)
1. Either perforated cover plates or tie plates without lacing are permitted on the open sides of built-
up tension members.
2. Tie plates shall have a length not less than ⅔ the distance between lines of welds or fasteners
connecting them to the components of the member.
2
L d
3
3. The thickness of tie plates shall not be less than 1/50 of the distance between the lines of welds or
fasteners.
1
t d
50
4. The longitudinal spacing of intermittent welds or fasteners at tie plates shall not exceed 150 mm.
5. The spacing of tie plates shall be such that the slenderness ratio of any component in the length
between tie plates should preferably not exceed 300.
S
 300
r
where:
L = length of the tie plate
d = distance between the lines of welds or fasteners connecting the tie plates to the
components of tension members
t = thickness of tie plate
S = spacing of tie plates
Two C 300 x 45, placed 300 mm back-to-back as shown, have been selected to support a 1250-kN
tensile load. The member is 9 meters long and has one line of 3-22 mmø bolt through each channel
flange. If U = 0.85, determine whether the member is satisfactory or not. Also design the necessary
tie plates. Assume centers of bolt holes are 45 mm from the back of the channels. Use Allowable
Stress Design and A36 steel.
210 mm
Properties of C 300 x 45
Ag= 5690 mm2
d = 304.80 mm
bf = 80.50 mm
tf = 12.70 mm
tw = 9.80 mm
ry = 19.4 mm 300 mm
rx = 109.0 mm
Ix = 67.4 x 106 mm4
Iy = 2.14 x 106 mm4
x = 17.12 mm
38
Solution:
Check the adequacy of the member.
In yielding,
T = 0.6FyAg
T = 0.6(248)[2(5690)]
T = 1,693,344 N or 1693.34 kN > 1250 kN
In fracture, h = 25.6 mm
T = 0.5FuUAn
T = 0.5(400)(0.85)[2(5690) – 4(25.6)(12.7)]
T = 1,713,518.4 N or 1713.52 kN > 1250 kN
Therefore, the built-up section is adequate to carry the tensile load of 1250 kN. (ans.)
Design the tie plates.

d = 210 mm
Length of tie plate,
2
L= d
3
2
L = (210 )
3
L = 140 mm
Thickness of tie plate,

1
t= d
50
1
t= (210 )
50
t = 4.2 mm say 5 mm
Solve for min. radius of gyration,

I
rmin = min
A
Ix = 2(67.4 x 106) = 134.8 x 106 mm4
Iy = 2(2.14 x 106) + 2(5690)(150 – 17.12)2 = 205.22 x 106 mm4
Use Imin = 134.8 x 106 mm4
134 .8x10 6
rmin = = 108.84 mm
2(5690 )
S = 300 rmin
S = 300 (108.84)
S = 32,650.89 mm or 32.65 m > 9m (Use tie plates at the ends of the members only.)
Use 300 x 140 x 5 mm tie plates placed at the ends of the member. (ans.)
39
3.6. SPLICES FOR TENSION MEMBERS
A tension member splice has the purpose of replacing the member at the point where it is cut.
NSCP requires that the splices should be designed for the maximum calculated force or 50% of
the member strength, whichever is larger.
Eccentricity of the loads is a common problem with splices. The usual practice in splice design is
to neglect the effect of eccentricities, but designers need to be on the lookout for extreme cases.
Note that it is desirable to splice all parts of tension members.
3.6.1. Possible types of Splices
A. Splices for Angles
a. Splicing Single Angle with Plate
This is a poor method of splicing. In this type of splice, it may be possible to get the
centers of gravities lined up in one direction, as shown in (a) below, but not in the other
direction as shown in (b).
c.g. coincide
c.g. of splice plate
Angle to be spliced
Splice plate
c.g. of angle
(a) (b)
b. Splicing Single Angles with Another Angle

In this method, splice is made with another angle. The splice angle has shorter legs and
must therefore have a greater thickness than the angle being spliced to provide the same
area.
Splice angle
c. Lug Angle Splice

In this method, the lug angle will reduce the eccentric bending stress in the member
and stiffen up the whole connection slightly.
Lug angle Angle to be spliced
B. Splices for Other Shapes and Built-Up Sections

40
a. Butt Splice
In the butt splice, the shape or built-up member is cut entirely at one section and splice
material must be added to make the splice.
b. Shingle Splice
This is a little better method of splicing in that it causes a reduction of stress
concentrations by staggering the splices and also keeps the entire member from being cut
at one point.
C. Splices for Steel Rods

Rarely is it necessary to splice steel rods. Should splicing be necessary, however,
turnbuckles may be used. These devices are also of advantage in putting initial tension in
the rods and in getting them to fit properly.
Design the splice angle of L 125 x 125 x 10 tension member supporting a tensile load of 350 kN. The
angle member is to be connected to the splice angle by means of one line of 3-20 mmø bolts in each
leg, spaced at 100 mm o.c. and with min. edge distance of 50 mm. Use Allowable Stress Design and
A36 steel. Gross area of L 125 x 125 x 10 is 2418 mm2.
Solution:
Determine Tu.
Solve for the capacity of the section,
T = 0.6FyAg
T = 0.6(248)(2418)
T = 359798.4 N or 359.80 kN
T = 0.5FuUAn
T = 0.5(400)(1.0)[2418 – 2(22.6)(10)]
T = 393200 N or 393.20 kN
Capacity of section = 359.80 kN
0.5 T = 0.5 (359.80) = 179.90 kN < 350 kN
Use Tu = 350 kN
Solve for required Ag.
T
Ag  u
0.6Fy
41
350 x10 3
Ag  = 2553.76 mm2
0.6(248 )
Try L 100 x 100 x 14, Ag = 2619 mm2

Check capacity in fracture,
T = 0.5FuUAn
T = 0.5(400)(1)[2619 – 2(22.6)(14)]
T = 397240 N or 397.24 kN > 350 kN (safe)
Check in block shear,
T = 0.3FuAnv + 0.5FuAnt
where:
Ant = 0
Anv = 2[300 – 3(22.6)]14 = 6501.6 mm2
T = 0.3(400)(6501.6)
T = 780,192 N or 780.19 kN > 350 kN
Therefore, use L 100 x 100 x 14 splice angle. (ans.)
Design the plates to be used in splicing W250 x 45 using butt splice. The maximum tensile load carried
by the W shape is 750 kN. The splice is to be made with 2 lines of 3-22 mm dia. bolts connected to the
web. Properties of W 250 x 45: A = 5703 mm2, d = 265.90 mm, bf = 147.60 mm, tf = 13.0 mm,
tw = 7.60 mm. Use A242 steel with Fy = 315 MPa, Fu = 460 MPa.
Solution:
h = 25.6 mm
Solve for the strength of the section in yielding.
T = 0.6FyAg
T = 0.6(315)(5703)
T = 1,077,867 N or 1077.87 kN
Solve for the strength of the section in fracture.
b f 147 .60
  0.56  0.67
d 265 .90
Use U = 0.85
T = 0.5FuUAn
T = 0.5(460)(0.85)[5703 – 2(25.6)(7.60)]
T = 1,038,863.54 N or 1038.86 kN
Therefore, the capacity of the section = 1038.86 kN
50% of capacity = 0.50(1038.86) = 519.43 kN < 750 kN
Use Tu = 750 kN
Solve for Ag of splice plates.
42
Tu
Ag 
0.6Fy
750 x10 3
Ag  = 3968.25 mm2 (This is the total gross area of 2 splice plates.)
0.6(315)
13
239.90 265.90 mm
13
Try width of splice plate = 220 mm

Ag = 2Wt
3968.25 = 2(220)t
t = 9.02 mm say 10 mm
Check for fracture.
T = 0.5FuAe
An = 2[220 – 2(25.6)] 10 = 3376 mm2
0.85 Ag = 0.85 [2(220)10] = 3740 mm2 > 3376 mm2
Use Ae = An = 3376 mm2
T = 0.5(460)(3376) = 776,480 N or 776.48 kN > 750 kN (safe)
Therefore, use 2 – 220 x 10 mm splice plate.
3.7. LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN (LRFD)

3.7.1. EFFECTIVE NET AREAS
LRFD and ASD provide that the effective net area can be computed as
Ae = U An
A. For bolted and riveted connections, the reduction factor U relates to the eccentricity x of
loading in the connection. Whenever tension is transmitted through some but not all of the
cross-sectional elements, the reduction factor U is computed using the following equation:
x
U1  0.90
L
where:
x = distance from the centroid of element being connected eccentrically to the plane
of loading transfer (see Fig. below)
L = length of the connection in the direction of loading
43
Figure 3-1. Eccentricity in joints; determination of x for computing U.
Note: The approximate values of U in Table 3-3 for bolted and riveted connections are still
considered acceptable according to LRFD Commentary B-3. However, the LRFD
Specification approach is the more correct one and seems mandatory.
B. For short tension members (connecting elements), such as splice and gusset plates, where
the elements of the cross section lie essentially in a common plane, the effective net area is
Ae = An  0.85 Ag
C. For welded tension connections, there are 3 categories:

C.1. For load transmitted to a member other than a plate by longitudinal welds, or by
longitudinal welds in combination with transverse welds.
Ae = U Ag
* Two separate reduction factors apply when there are transverse and longitudinal welds
present. It is recommended that the weighted average U value should be used for
such cases.
C.2. For load transmitted only by transverse welds
Ae = Acon where Acon = area of directly connected elements.
C.3. For loads transmitted to a plate by longitudinal welds along both sides of the plate
spaced apart such that L ≥ W,
Ae = U Ag where U is to be taken from Table 3-4.
44
Determine the reduction factor to be applied in computing the effective net area for a W360 x 122
section connected by plates at its two flanges, as shown. There are three bolts along each
connection line.
75 75
Properties of W360 x 122

x
d = 363.5 mm 160.05
tw = 13 mm
bf = 257.3 mm
tf = 21.7 mm
Solution:
The W shape may be treated as two structural tees. Solve for the centroidal distance x of the
half W shape (or WT section).
[257.3(21.7) + 160.05(13)] x = 257.3(21.7)(10.85) + 160.05(13)(101.725)

x = 35.52 mm
Solve for U.
x
U1 where L = 150 mm
L
35.52
U1
150
U = 0.763 (ans.)
A WT 125 x 16.5 in A36 steel is connected to a gusset plate with the ends completely welded and
each side welded along 150 mm, as shown. Determine the effective net area of the member. The
properties of WT 125 x 16.5 are: Ag = 2094 mm2, x = 27.20 mm, and tf = 9.14 mm.
27.2
150mm
145mm
Solution:
Solve for the two values of U.
For the 150-mm longitudinal welds,
x
U1
L
45
27.2
U1 = 0.819
150
For the 145-mm transverse weld,
A
U = con
Ag
145 (9.14 )
U= = 0.633
2094
Solve for the effective reduction coefficient, Ueff
0.819 (300 )  0.633(145)
Ueff  = 0.758
300  145
The effective net area is then

Ae = UeffAg
Ae = 0.758 (2094)
Ae = 1588.08 mm2 (ans.)
3.7.2. TEARING FAILURE AT BOLT HOLES (BLOCK SHEAR)

When thin plates are attached by bolts, a tearing limit state, known as block shear, may
control the strength of a tension member, or the tension region at the end of the connection of
a beam.
The four holes in the plate of Figure 3-2 b and c will contribute to a tear-out failure if the
sum of the shear strengths along a – b and c – d plus the tensile strength along b – c is less than
either of the strengths in general yielding of the member or fracture along e – b – c – f.
Combination of shear and tension tearing failures are uncommon in tension members;
however, this combination mode frequently controls the design of bolted end connections to
thin webs of beams.
Figure 3-2. Tearing Failure Limit State

LRFD provides for considering two block shear failure modes:
(a) Tension fracture – shear yielding (FuAnt  0.6FuAnv)
In this mode of failure, there is fracture first along the tensile plane (b – c in Fig.
3-2) followed by yielding along the shear planes (a – b and c – d in Fig. 3-2).
46
The nominal strength Tn in tension for this mode of failure is
Tn  0.6Fy A gv  Fu Ant
(b) Shear fracture – tension yielding (FuAnt < 0.6FuAnv)

In this mode of failure, there is fracture first along the shear planes (a – b and c –
d in Fig. 3-2) followed by yielding along the tensile plane (b – c in Fig. 3-2).
The nominal strength Tn in tension for this mode of failure is
Tn  0.6Fu Anv  Fy A gt
where: Agv = gross area acted upon by shear

Agt = gross area acted upon by tension
Anv = net area acted upon by shear
Ant = net area acted upon by tension
Compute the nominal block shear strength of a single 200 mm x 10 mm plate connected to a 12-mm
thick plate by means of four 16-mm dia. bolts, as shown. Use A36 steel.
35 100 mm
100 mm P
Solution:
Solve for Ant and Anv.
Ant = [100 – (1)18.6)]10 = 814 mm2
Anv = 2[135 – 1.5(18.6)]10 = 2142 mm2
Solve for FuAnt and 0.6FuAnv, then compare.
FuAnt = 400(814) = 325,600 N
0.6FuAnv = 0.6(400)(2142) = 514,080 N
Since 0.6FuAnv > FuAnt , shear fracture – tension yielding failure.
Solve for nominal block shear strength.

Tn = 0.6FuAnv + FyAgt
Tn = 514,080 + 248(100)(10)
Tn = 762,080 N or 762.08 kN (ans.)
47
3.7.3. DESIGN STRENGTH OF TENSION MEMBERS (LRFD)
The design strength for tension members Tn must equal or exceed the summation of
factored loads in tension Tu . Thus,
Tn  Tu
The design strength Tn according to LRFD is the smaller of that based on:
A. Yielding in the gross section

Tn  Fy A g
B. Fracture in the net area

Tn  Fu A e
where:  = resistance factor
= 0.90 for yielding limit state
= 0.75 for fracture limit state
In addition, the designer must take into account rupture strength along a potential tear-
out path or the block shear strength.
C. Shear –tension combination design strength (Block Shear)
a. When FuAnt  0.6FuAnv

Tn   0.6Fy A gv  Fu A nt 
b. When FuAnt < 0.6FuAnv

Tn   0.6Fu A nv  Fy A gt 
where:  = 0.75 for fracture limit state
Determine the service load capacity in tension for an L150x90x12 of A572 Grade 50 steel (Fy = 345 MPa,
Fu = 450 MPa) connected with 22mmø bolts in standard holes as shown. Use LRFD and assume the live
load to dead load ratio of 2.
x
Properties of L150x90x12
Ag = 2751 mm2
x = 21.16 mm
y = 50.82 mm
75 mm
75 100 100mm
Solution:
Compute the strength of the member based on yielding.
Tn  Fy A g
48
Tn  0.90(345)(2751 )
Tn  854,185.50 N or 854.19 kN
Compute the strength of the member based on fracture.

Tn  FuUA n
Determine x.
x1 = 21.16 mm
x2 = 75 – 50.82 = 24.18 mm
So, x = 24.18 mm
Compute U and An.
x 24.18
U1 1 = 0.879
L 200
An = 2751 – 25.6(12) = 2443.80 mm2
Therefore,
Tn  0.75(450 )(0.879 )(2443 .8)
Tn  724,983.82 N or 724.98 kN
Compute the block shear strength.

Ant = [75 – 0.5(25.6)]12 = 746.40 mm2
Anv = [275 – 2.5(25.6)]12 = 2532 mm2
FuAnt = 450 (746.40) = 335,880 N
0.6FuAnv = 0.6(450)(2532) = 683,640 N
Since FuAnt < 0.6FuAnv,

Tn   0.6Fu Anv  Fy A gt 
Tn  0.75[683640  315(75)12]
Tn  725355 N or 725 .36 kN
Capacity of the section in LRFD = 724.98 kN

Tu = 1.2D + 1.6L but L = 2D
Tu = 1.2D + 1.6(2D)
Tu = 4.4D
724.98 = 4.4D
D = 164.77 kN
L = 2(164.77) = 329.54 kN
Service load capacity = 164.77 + 329.54
= 494.31 kN (ans.)
49
3.7.4. DESIGN LOAD COMBINATIONS
In the analysis and design of structure, the governing load effects controls the sizes of
members and connections. The governing load effect, in turn, is a function of the load or loads
that can be expected to act on the members throughout its lifetime. In all likelihood, the stress
resultant that controls the member size will represent the fact that several load types together
produce the governing effects.
Under normal operating conditions, two or more load types will act on a structure at any
given time. In other words, the load types combine to produce more severe conditions that if
only single loads were to act. When this is considered, together with the different
characteristics of the various loads, it is not reasonable to expect that all loads will exert their
maximum lifetime values simultaneously on the structure.
For example, the probability of having the full dead, live and wind loads acting together is
very small. In general, the more load types that act together, the less is the likelihood that they
will all reach their lifetime maxima at the same time.
In theory, with the relatively large number of load types that may act on a structure, the
number of potential load combinations will be very large. For realistic design situations,
however, a great many of these combinations have been ruled out, resulting to a manageable
number, as follows:
Combination 1: Dead load (alone)
Combination 2: Dead and live load
Combination 3: Dead, snow, and live or wind load
Combination 4: Dead, live, and wind load
Combination 5: Dead, seismic, and live or snow load
Combination 6: Dead and seismic or wind load
Combination 1 considers the bare structure before occupancy.
Combination 2 gives the loading case that will govern most floor systems and interior
columns.
Combination 3 is actually two combinations, but both describe loads that pertain to roof
structures.
Combination 4 is the most common loading system for structures where lateral load is
taken into account; it may govern the loads in certain connections and exterior columns in high-
rise frames. It plays the primary role when P-delta effects are considered.
Load combination 5 deals with the behavior of the frame under seismic action.
Combination 6 reflects the particular criteria that must be considered to prevent an overturning
failure.
In combination 6, the seismic or wind loads are subtracted from the dead load to deal with
the most critical case. Live (gravity) loads are assumed to be entirely absent.
50
3.7.5. DESIGN LOAD FACTORS
The values of the load factors in this section are those of ASCE. They are independent of
the structural material and should be used only for the specific load combinations. The load
factors should be applied to the loads only, and not to the load effects.
Load Case 1: Dead load only.
Factored load = 1.4D
Load Case 2: Dead + Live load
Factored load = 1.2D + 1.6L
Load Case 3: Dead + Snow + (Live or Wind) load
a. Dead + Snow + Live load
Factored load = 1.2D + 1.6S + 0.5Lr
b. Dead + Snow + Wind load
Factored load = 1.2D + 1.6S + 0.8W
Load Case 4: Dead + Live + Wind
Factored load = 1.2D + 0.5L + 1.3W
Load Case 5: Dead + Seismic + (Live or Snow) load
a. Dead + Seismic + Live load
Factored load = 1.2D + 1.5E + 0.5L
b. Dead + Seismic + Snow load
Factored load = 1.2D + 1.5E + 0.2S
Load Case 6: Dead – (Wind or Seismic) load

a. Dead – Wind load
Factored load = 0.9D – 1.3W
b. Dead – Seismic load
Factored load = 0.9D – 1.5E
where: D = dead load L= live load Lr = roof live load

W = wind load S = snow load E = seismic load
51
Using LRFD, determine the design load of a tension member of a roof truss subjected to the following
loads:
Dead load = 180 kN
Live load = 150 kN
Snow load = 100 kN
Wind load = 80 kN
Solution:
Solve for the factored load for each load combinations:
Combination 1:
Tu = 1.4D
Tu = 1.4(180) = 252 kN
Combination 2:
Tu = 1.2D + 1.6L
Tu = 1.2(180) + 1.6(150) = 456 kN
Combination 3:
a. Tu = 1.2D + 1.6S + 0.5Lr
Tu = 1.2(180) + 1.6(100) + 0.5(150) = 451 kN
b. Tu = 1.2D + 1.6S + 0.8W
Tu = 1.2(180) + 1.6(100) + 0.8(80) = 440 kN
Combination 4:
Tu = 1.2D + 0.5L + 1.3W
Tu = 1.2(180) + 0.5(150) + 1.3(80) = 372.3 kN
Combination 6:
Tu = 0.9D – 1.3W
Tu = 0.9(180) – 1.3(80) = 58 kN
Therefore, the design load = 456 kN (ans.)
3.7.6. DESIGN OF TENSION MEMBERS (USING LRFD)
The flowchart for the design of tension member using Load and Resistance Factor Design
(LRFD) is found in the next page.
52
Flowchart for the Design of Tension Members Using Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)
START
Determine Tu, L, Fu, Fy,

and the shape to be used.
Determine the required

L
rmin 
300
Determine the required area based on the

yielding of the gross area of the section
Tu
Ag 
0.9Fy
(Use this in finding the initial trial section.)
Select a trial section.
Assume a reduction coefficient U based

on the shape and connection details.
Determine the net area.

An  A g  Aholes
Determine T based on fracture of net area.

T  0.75FuUA n

NO
Ensure that minimum Is T  Tu
r and Ag are met.
YES
Determine T based on block shear.
T  0.75(0.6Fu Anv  Fy A gt )
or
T  0.75(Fu Ant  0.6Fy A gv )

YES NO
Specify section to use. Is T  Tu Ensure that min. r and
Ag are met.
END
53
SEATWORK NO. 2
A tension member of a roof truss has a length of 7.6 meters and is stressed in tension by a dead load
of 178 kN and a live load of 268 kN. Assume that A36 steel is used and there are two lines of 20mm
dia. bolts in each flange (three in a line). If an additional axial tension of 200 kN is produced by wind
load, design a W250 (W10 in US Customary Unit) section. The bolts are spaced 100 mm on centers,
with edge distance of 75 mm.
54
CHAPTER 4
BOLTED CONNECTIONS
Every structure is an assembly of individual parts or members that must be fastened together, usually
at the member ends. Welding is one method and is treated in Chapter 5. The other method is to use
fasteners, such as rivets or bolts. This chapter is concerned with bolting with high-strength bolts. High-
strength bolts have replaced rivets as a means of making non-welded structural connections.
4.1. TYPES OF BOLTS
There are several types of bolts which can be used for connecting structural steel members. Table
4-1 gives the allowable stresses of fasteners.
A. COMMON BOLTS (ASTM A307)

Common bolts are also referred to as machine, unfinished, ordinary or rough bolts. They are
made of low carbon steel. They are usually used in simple connections for girts, purlins, light floor
beams, bracing, and other applications where the loads are relatively small.
Common bolts may be identified by their square heads and nuts with no marking on the heads.
They are available in diameters from ¼ to 4 inches (6 mm to 100 mm). These bolts are usually
installed using spud wrench. No specified pretension or torque is required. It is necessary only to
tighten the nut sufficiently to prevent it from backing off since no clamping force is assumed.
B. HIGH-STRENGTH BOLTS
These bolts are heavy hexagon head bolts, used with heavy semi-finished hexagon nuts. The
threaded portion is shorter than for bolts in nonstructural applications.
High-strength bolts are usually tightened to develop a specified tensile stress in them, which
results in a predictable clamping force on the joints.
Two Basic Types of High-Strength Bolts
a. ASTM A325 Bolts - are heat-treated medium-carbon steel having approximate yield strength of
560 to 630 MPa, depending on diameter.
Three types of ASTM A325 bolts:
Type I – are the most common medium-carbon steel, and is available in sizes from ½ through
1½ in. diameter. They are identified by the mark “A325” or by three radial lines
120° apart on the bolt head.
Type 2 – is made from low-carbon martensite steel, is less expensive, but is available only
from ½ through 1 in. diameter. They are identified with three radial lines 60° apart.
55
Type 3 – is a weathering steel bolt, and are available from ½ through 1½ in. diameter. They
have the designation “A325” underlined.
b. ASTM A490 Bolts – are heat-treated but are of alloy steel having approximate yield strength of
790 to 900 MPa depending on diameter. These bolts carry the symbol
“A490” and radial lines, as shown in Figure 4-1.
Figure 4-1. Bolt Markings

Table 4-1. Allowable Stress on Fasteners, MPa
Allowable Shear g (Fv)
Allowable Slip-Critical Connections e, i
Bearing-type
Description of Fasteners Tension g Standard- Oversized & Long-Slotted Holes
Connections
(Ft) Sized Short-Slotted Transverse i Parallel j i
Holes Holes Load Load
A502, Gr. 1, hot-driven rivets 158a 120f
A502, Gr. 2, hot-driven rivets 200a 152f
A307 bolts 138a 68.9b,f
Threaded parts meeting the
requirements of Sec. A3.1 and
A3.4 and A449 bolts meeting
0.33Fua, c, h 0.17Fu h
the requirements of A3.4, when
threads are not excluded from
shear planes
Threaded parts meeting the
requirements of Sec. A3.1 and
A3.4 and A449 bolts meeting
0.33Fua, h 0.22Fu h
the requirements of A3.4.,
when threads are excluded
from shear planes
A325 bolts, when threads are
303 d 117 103 82.7 68.9 145 f
not excluded from shear planes
303 d 117 103 82.7 68.9 207 f
excluded from shear planes
372 d 145 124 103 89.6 193 f
not excluded from shear planes
372 d 145 124 103 89.6 276 f
excluded from shear planes
56
Notes to Table 4-1
a
Static Loading only
b
Threads permitted in shear planes
c
Tensile capacity of the threaded portion of an upset rode, based upon the cross-sectional area at its major thread
diameter Ab shall be larger than the nominal diameter of the rod before upsetting times 0.60 Fy.
d
For A325 and A490 bolts subject to tensile fatigue loading, see Section 511.5.1.5.
e
Class A (slip coefficient 0.33). Clean mill scale and blast-cleaned surfaces with Class A coatings. When specified by the
designer, the allowable shear stress, Fv, for slip-critical connections having special faying surface conditions may be
increased to the applicable value given in the RCSC Specifications.
f
When bearing-type connections used to splice tension members have a fastener pattern whose length, measured
parallel to the line of force, exceed 1250 mm, tabulated values shall be reduced by 20%.
g
See Section 501.5.2
h
See Table 2. Numerical Values Section for values for specific ASTM steel specifications
i
For limitations on use of oversized and slotted holes, see Section 510.4.2.
j
For Direction of load application relative to long axis of slot.
4.2. TYPES OF JOINT DESIGN FOR HIGH STRENGTH BOLTS

A. SLIP-CRITICAL CONNECTION (or Friction-Type Connection)
This type of connection is used where high slip-resistance is desired. It is to be used for
structures where there is a great deal of impact and vibration with resulting stress variations or
reversals, or where any slippage is undesirable.
When high-strength bolts are fully tensioned, they clamp parts being connected tightly
together. This results to a considerable resistance to slipping on the surface equal to clamping force
P times the coefficient of friction  . So if the shearing load is less than the permissible frictional
resistance, the connection is referred to slip-critical.
In this type of connection, the specification assumes that the bolts are in shearing and no
bearing.
B. BEARING-TYPE CONNECTION
This is a type of connection where bolts are not tightened sufficiently so as to significantly
squeeze the plates together. There is assumed to be little friction between the plates so that the
they will slip a little due to the applied loads. As a result the loads in the plates will tend to shear the
connectors off on the plane between the plates and press or bear against the sides of the bolts.
These connectors are subjected to shearing and bearing. They must have sufficient strength to
satisfactorily resist these forces and the members forming the joint must be sufficiently strong to
prevent the connectors from tearing through.
4.3. TYPES OF BOLT HOLES

A. STANDARD HOLES
B. OVERSIZED HOLES
These are used in all plies of connections as long as the applied load does not exceed the
allowable slip resistance. They should not be used in bearing-type connection.
C. SHORT-SLOTTED HOLES
57
They are used regardless of the direction of the applied load if the permissible slip resistance is
larger than the applied force. If the load is applied in a direction normal to the slot, these holes
maybe used in any bearing-type connections.
D. LONG-SLOTTED HOLES
They are used in only one of the connected parts of friction-type or bearing-type connections.
For friction-type, these holes maybe used in any direction, but for bearing-type the load must be
normal to the axis of the slotted holes. If long-slotted holes are used in an outer ply, they will need
to be covered by plate washers.
4.4. TYPES OF BOLTED CONNECTIONS

4.4.1. SHEAR CONNECTIONS
A. LAP JOINT
This type of joint has a disadvantage in that the center of gravity of the force in one
member is not in line with the center of gravity of the force in the other member. A couple is
present which causes an undesirable bending in the connection. For this reason the lap joint,
which is desirably used only for minor connections, should be designed with at least two
fasteners in each line parallel to the length of the member to minimize the possibility of a
bending failure.
Figure 4-2. Lap Joint
B. BUTT JOINT
A butt joint is formed when three members are connected as shown in Fig. 4-3. If the
friction between the members is negligible the members will slip a little and tend to shear off
the bolts simultaneously on the two planes of contact between the members. Again the
members are bearing against the bolts and the bolts are said to be in double shear and bearing.
The butt joint is more desirable than the lap joint for two main reasons. These are:
a. The members are arranged so that the total shearing force P is split into two parts, causing
the force on each plate to be only about one-half of what it would be on a single plane if a
lap joint were used. From a shear standpoint, therefore, the load-carrying ability of a group
of bolts in double shear is theoretically twice as great as the same number of bolts in single
shear.
b. A more symmetrical loading condition is provided. (The butt joint provides a symmetrical
situation if the outside members are of the same thickness and have the same stress
values.) The result is a reduction or elimination of the bending described for a lap joint.
58
Figure 4-3. Butt Joint
C. DOUBLE-PLANE CONNECTION
The double-plane connection is one in which the bolts are subjected to single shear and
bearing but in which bending moment is prevented. This type of connection, which is shown in
Fig. 4-4, subjects the bolts in single shear on two different planes.
Figure 4-4. Double-Plane Connection
D. BOLTS IN MULTIPLE SHEAR

This is a joint in which more than three members are being connected and the bolts are in
multiple shear as shown in Fig. 4-5.
Figure 4-5. Bolts in Multiple Shear
4.4.2. ECCENTRIC SHEAR CONNECTIONS

When the load P is applied on a line of action that does not pass through the center of gravity
of a bolt group, there will be an eccentric loading effect, as shown in Fig. 4-6.
Fig. 4-6. Eccentric Shear Connections
4.5. FAILURE OF BOLTED CONNECTIONS
59
There are several ways in which failure of bolted joints can occur. To be able to satisfactorily
design bolted joints, it is necessary to understand these possibilities. These types of failures are:
A. Shear failure of bolt
B. Tension failure of plate
C. Bearing failure of bolts and/or plates
D. Shear failure of plate behind the bolt
E. Double-shear failure of a butt joint
Shear Failure of bolts
Tension failure of plate Shear failure of plate
Bearing failure of plate Double shear failure of butt joint
Fig. 4-7. Failure of Bolted Connections
4.6. NSCP SPECIFICATIONS FOR HIGH-STRENGTH BOLTS

4.6.1. ALLOWABLE STRESSES
4.6.1.1. Allowable Bearing Stress
The allowable bearing stress on plates and tension members shall be based on the
following:
A. On the projected area of bolts and rivet in shear connections with the end distance in the
line of force not less than 1.5d and the distance center to center of bolts not less than 3d.
a. In standard or short slotted holes with two or more bolts in the line of force, when
deformation is of concern,
Fp = 1.20 Fu
T T
1.5d 3d 1.5d 3d
Standard Holes Short Slotted Holes
60
b. In long slotted holes with the axis of slot perpendicular to the direction of load and
with two or more holes in the line of force
Fp = 1.0 Fu
1.5d 3d
Long Slotted Holes
B. On the projected area of the bolt or rivet closest to the edge in standard or short slotted
holes with the edge distance less than 1.5d and in all connections with a single bolt in the
line of force
LF
Fp = e u  1.20Fu
2d
where:
Le = edge distance Le < 1.5d
d = bolt diameter
C. If deformation around the hole is not a design consideration and adequate spacing and edge
distance is as required by the Code, the following equation is permitted:
Fp = 1.50 Fu
4.6.1.2. Allowable Shear Stress

The allowable shear stress on plates and tension members is:
Fv = 0.3 Fu
4.6.2. MINIMUM SPACING

A. The distance between centers of standard, oversized or slotted fastener holes shall not be
less than 2-⅔ times the nominal diameter of the fastener nor less than that required by the
following paragraph, if applicable.
8
S ≥ d
3
B. Along a line of transmitted forces, the distance between centers of holes shall not be less
than 3d when the allowable bearing stress Fp is determined by the equations in Section
4.6.1.1.A. Otherwise the distance between centers of holes shall not be less than the
following:
a. For standard holes
2P d
S≥ 
Fu t 2
where:
P = force transmitted by one fastener to the critical connected part, kN
Fu = specified minimum tensile strength of the critical connected part, MPa
t = thickness of the critical connected part, mm
d = bolt diameter
b. For oversized and slotted holes,
61
The distance between centers of holes for oversized and slotted holes shall not be less
than the required distance by standard holes in a (above), plus the applicable increment
C1 from Table 4-2, but the clear distance between holes shall not be less than the bolt
diameter.
S ≥ S for standard hole + C1
Table 4-2. Values of Spacing Increment C1, mm
Nominal Slotted Holes
Oversized
Diameter of Perpendicular Parallel to Line of Force
Holes
Fastener to Line of Force Short Slots Long Slotsa
≤ 22 3.0 0 5.0 1.5d -1.6
25 5.0 0 6.0 36
≥ 28 6.0 0 8.0 1.5d – 1.6
a
When length of slot is less than maximum allowed in Table 3-1, C1 may be reduced by
the difference between the maximum and actual slot lengths.
Table 3-1. Nominal Hole Dimensions

Bolt Nominal Hole Dimensions (mm)
Diameter Standard Oversize Short Slot Long Slot
(mm) (diameter) (diameter) (width x length) (width x length)
12 14 16 14 x 17 14x 32
16 17 21 17 x 22 17 x 40
20 21 24 21 x 25 21 x 48
22 24 27 24 x 28 24 x 55
25 27 32 27 x 33 27 x 63
≥ 28 d + 1.6 d+8 (d+1.6) x (d+10) (d+1.6) x (2.5d)
A 200 x 12 mm plate is attached to another plate by means of 20-mm bolts in 2 gage lines with three
bolts in a line. The connection is slip-critical and supports a 360 kN tensile load. Assume that the
distance between centers of bolt holes is less than 60 mm. Using A36 steel, compute the minimum
center-to-center spacing of the bolts if the holes are:
a. standard.
b. oversized.
c. short-slotted with slots parallel to the line of force.
d. long-slotted, 21mm wide x 45 mm long, with slots parallel to the line of force.
Given:
d = 20 mm
T = 360 kN
S < 60 mm
N=6
t = 12 mm
Solution:
62
a. If the holes are standard,
8
S= d
3
8
S = (20 ) = 53.33 mm
3
or
2P d
S≥ 
Fu t 2
but P = T/6 = 360/6 = 60 kN and Fu = 400 MPa
2(60 ,000 ) 20
S=  = 35 mm
400 (12) 2
Therefore, the minimum spacing = 53.33 mm (ans.)
b. If the holes are oversized,

8
S= d
3
8
S = (20 ) = 53.33 mm
3
or
2P d
S≥   C1
Fu t 2
C1 = 3 mm (from Table 4-2)
2(60 ,000 ) 20
S=   3 = 38 mm
400 (12) 2
Therefore, the minimum spacing = 53.33 mm (ans.)
c. If the holes are short-slotted with slots parallel to the line of force,
8
S= d
3
8
S = (20 ) = 53.33 mm
3
or
2P d
S≥   C1
Fu t 2
C1 = 5 mm (from Table 4-2)
2(60 ,000 ) 20
S=   5 = 40 mm
400 (12) 2
Minimum spacing = 53.33 mm
Check clear spacing between holes.

63
Clear spacing = 53.33 – 25 = 28.33 mm > 20 mm (okay)
Therefore minimum spacing = 53.33 mm (ans.)
d. If the holes are long-slotted, 21mm x 45mm, with slots parallel to the line of force,
8
S= d
3
8
S = (20 ) = 53.33 mm
3
or
2P d
S≥   C1
Fu t 2
C1 = 1.5(20) – 1.6 – (48 – 45) = 25.4 mm
2(60 ,000 ) 20
S=   25.4 = 60.4 mm
400 (12) 2
Minimum spacing = 60.40 mm
Check clear spacing between holes.
Clear spacing = 60.40 – 45 = 15.40 mm < 20 mm
Therefore minimum spacing = 45 + 20 = 65 mm (ans.)
4.6.3. MINIMUM EDGE DISTANCE
A. Minimum Edge Distance for Standard Holes

a. The distance from the center of a standard hole to an edge of a connected part shall not
be less than the applicable value from Table 4-3 nor the value from the succeeding
equation, as applicable.
Table 4-3. Minimum Edge Distance, mm
(Center of Standard Holea to Edge of Connected Part)
Nominal Bolt or Rivet At Rolled Edges of Plates, Shapes or
Diameter (mm) Bars, Gas Cut or Saw-cut Edgesa
12 20
16 22
20 25
22 28
25 32
28 38
32 42
Over 32 1.25 x d
a All edge distances in this column may be reduced by 3mm when
the hole is at a point where stress does not exceed 25% of the
maximum design strength in the element.
64
b. Along a line of transmitted force, in the direction of the force, the distance from center
of a standard hole to the edge of the connected part shall not be less than 1.5d when Fp
is determined by the equations in Section 4.6.1.1.A. Otherwise the edge distance shall
not be less than
2P
Le ≥
Fu t
B. Minimum Edge Distance for Oversized or Slotted Holes

The distance from the center of an oversized or slotted hole to an edge of a connected
part shall not be less than the required for a standard hole plus the applicable increment C 2
from Table 4-4.
Table 4-4. Values of Spacing Increment C2, mm

Nominal Slotted Holes
Oversized
Diameter of Perpendicular to Edge
Holes Parallel to Edge
Fastener Short Slots Long Slots a
≤ 22 1.5 3.0
25 3.0 3.0 0.75d 0
≥ 28 3.0 3.0
a
When length of slot is less than maximum allowed in Table 3-1, C2 may be reduced by
one-half the difference between the maximum and actual slot lengths.
A 175 x 10 mm plate is attached to another plate by means of 22-mm bolts in 2 gage lines with two
bolts in a line. The connection is slip-critical and supports a 245 kN tensile load. Assume that the edge
distance must be less than 33 mm. Using A36 steel, compute the minimum edge distance parallel and
perpendicular to the line of force if the holes are:
a. standard.
b. oversized.
c. short-slotted with slots parallel to the line of force.
d. long-slotted, 24mm wide x 50 mm long, with slots parallel to the line of force.
Given:
d = 22 mm
T = 245 kN
Le < 33 mm
N=4
t = 10 mm
Solution:
a. If the holes are standard,
a.1. Le parallel to the line of force,
Le = 28 mm (as per Table 4-3)
or
65
2P
Le ≥ since Le must be < 33 mm (1.5d)
Fu t
but P = 245/4 = 61.25 kN

Le = = 30.63 mm
Minimum Le parallel to the line of force = 30.63 mm (ans.)
a.2. Le perpendicular to the line of force,
Min Le = 28 mm (ans.)
b. If the holes are oversized,

Le = Le required for standard hole + C2 for oversized hole
where C2 for oversized hole = 1.5 mm (From Table 4-4)
Le perpendicular to the line of force
Le = 28 + 1.5
Le = 29.5 mm (ans.)
Le parallel to the line of force

Le = 30.63 + 1.5
Le = 32.13 mm (ans.)
c. If the holes are short-slotted,

Le = Le required for standard hole + C2 for short-slotted hole
where C2 = 3.0 mm (From Table 4-4)
Le = 28 + 3.0
Le = 31 mm (ans.)
Le = 30.63 + 3.0
Le = 33.63 mm (ans.)
d. If the holes are long-slotted, 24 mm wide x 50 mm long, with slots along the line of force
Le = Le required for standard hole + C2 for long-slotted hole
where: C2 = 0.75d – 0.5(max. length of slot – actual length of slot)
max. Lslot = 55 mm
actual Lslot = 50 mm
C2 = 0.75(22) – 0.5(55 – 50)

C2 = 14 mm
Le = 28 + 14
Le = 42mm (ans.)
66
Le = 30.63 + 14
Le = 44.63 mm (ans.)
4.7.4. MAXIMUM EDGE DISTANCE AND SPACING

A. The maximum distance from the center of any rivet or bolt to the nearest edge of parts in
contact shall be 12 times the thickness of the connected part under consideration, but shall
not exceed 150 mm.
Max. Le = 12 t ≤ 150 mm
where: t = thickness of the connected part under consideration
B. For unpainted built-up members made of weathering steel which will be exposed to
atmospheric corrosion, the spacing of fasteners connecting a plate and a shape or two-plate
components in contact shall not exceed 14 times the thickness of the thinnest part nor 175
mm, and the maximum edge distance shall not exceed 8 times the thickness of the thinnest
part, or 125 mm.
Max. Le = 8 t ≤ 125 mm
Max. S = 14 t ≤ 175 mm
where: t = thickness of the thinnest part
A long continuous A36 channel section shown carries an axial tensile load of 550 kN. To provide
continuity of the beam, a splicing is used near the location of zero shear in the span. Use 22mmø
A325 bolts (with threads excluded from the shear planes) in standard holes to connect the splice to
the web of the channel. Each splice plate is 5 mm thick. For the channel section: d = 425 mm and
tw = 18.2 mm. The connection is bearing-type. Assume 2 gage lines of bolts only. Use Fp = 1.2 Fu.
splice
plates
a. Compute the number of bolts required.

b. Compute the minimum width of the splice plate.
c. Compute the minimum spacing between bolts in the direction normal to the line of force.
d. Compute the minimum edge distance in the direction normal to the line of force.
e. Compute the minimum spacing between bolts along the line of force.
f. Compute the minimum edge distance along the line of force.
g. Compute the minimum length of the splice plate.
h. Sketch the splice detail with dimensions.
Given:
T = 550 kN
dbolt = 22 mm
connection type = bearing-type
hole type = standard
67
tplate = 5 mm
tw = 18.2 mm
Solution:
a. Compute the number of bolts required.
The connection is bearing-type, therefore the bolts are subjected to shearing and bearing.
In shearing where threads are excluded from the shear plane,
Fv = 207 MPa (From Table 4-1)
T = Fv A v
  2 
550 x 103 = 207 2 22  N
 4 
N = 3.49 say 4 bolts
In bearing, use the thinnest part to be connected.

T = FP AP
550 x 103 = 1.2(400) 222 (5)N
Use 6 bolts on each side of the splice plate.
b. Compute the minimum width of the splice plate.

In yielding of gross area,
T = 0.6FyAg
550 x 103 = 0.6(248)[2(5)W]
W = 369.62 mm
T = 0.5FuAe
550 x 103 = 0.5(400)Ae
Ae = 2750 mm2
but
Ae = 2[W – 2(25.6)]5 = 2750 mm2
W = 326.20 mm
Therefore, minimum width of the splice plate = 369.62 mm (ans.)
c. Compute the minimum spacing of bolts in the direction normal to the line of force.
8
S= d
3
8
S = (22)
3
S = 58.67 mm (ans.)
d. Compute the minimum edge distance in the direction normal to the line of force.
From Table 4-3,
68
Le = 28 mm (ans.)
e. Compute the minimum spacing of bolts along the line of force.

8
S= d
3
8
S = (22) = 58.67 mm
3
or
S = 3d
S = 3(22) = 66 mm
Minimum spacing along the line of force = 66 mm (ans.)
f. Compute the minimum edge distance along the line of force.

From Table 4-3,
Le = 28 mm
or
Le = 1.5d
Le = 1.5(22) = 33 mm
Minimum edge distance along the line of force = 33 mm.
g. Compute the minimum length of the splice plate.
33 66 66 33
L = 2 [33+66+66+33]
L = 396 mm say 400 mm
h. Compute for the maximum edge distance of the bolts,

max. Le = 12t
max. Le = 12(10) = 120 mm < 150 mm (ok)
Using 2 - 370 mm x 400 mm x 5 mm splice plate, and in the direction parallel to the edge,
use Le = 100 mm. Adjust the spacing of bolts.
Sketch:
100
170
100
33 67 67 33
69
A butt joint shown is made up of 2 – 6 mm x 150 mm and 10 mm x 150 mm plates. Assume a double row
of 20 mmø A325 bolts in standard holes for bearing-type connection with threads not excluded from the
shear planes. For the plates, use Fu = 553 MPa, and Fy = 449 MPa. Assume FP = 1.2 Fu.
10mm plate
6mm plate
a. Compute the tensile capacity of the connection.
b. Compute the number of bolts to develop the full strength of the plates.
c. Compute the theoretical spacing and edge distance required.
Given:
d = 20 mm
connection type = bearing-type
Fu = 553 MPa
Fy = 449 MPa
bolt type = A325 with threads not excluded from the shear planes
Solution:
a. Compute the tensile capacity of the connection.
Based on yielding of the gross area of the 10mm plate,
T = 0.6FyAg
T = 0.6(449)(150)(10)
T = 404,100 N or 404.10 kN
Based on fracture of the net area of the 10mm plate,
T = 0.5FuAe
but An = [150 – 2(22.6)]10 = 1048 mm2
0.85 Ag = 0.85(150)(10) = 1275 mm2
Use Ae = 1048 mm2
so,
T = 0.5(553)(1048)
T = 289,772 N or 289.77 kN
Therefore, tensile capacity of the connection = 289.77 kN (ans.)
b. Compute the number of bolts required.

Based on shearing of bolts,
T = FvAv where: Fv = 145 MPa
  2 
289.77 x 103 = 145 2 20  N
 4 
Based on bearing of bolts on the plate,
T = FPAP where: FP = 1.2(553) = 663.60 MPa
70
289.77 x 103 = 663.60 [20(10)N]
Use 4 – 20mm bolts. (ans.)
b. Compute the theoretical spacing and edge distance required.
In the direction parallel to the edge,
8 8
S = d = (20)
3 3
S = 53.33 mm (ans.)
Le = 25 mm (From Table 4-3)

Le = 25 mm (ans.)
In the direction perpendicular to the edge,

8 8
S = d = (20) = 53.33 mm
3 3
or
S = 3d = 3(20) = 60 mm
Use S = 60 mm (ans.)
Le = 25 mm (From Table 4-3)

or
Le = 1.5d = 1.5(20) = 30 mm
Use Le = 30 mm (ans.)
4.7.5. DETERMINATION OF BOLT LENGTH AND WHETHER THE THREADS ARE EXCLUDED OR NOT
EXCLUDED FROM THE SHEAR PLANE
The location of the bolt threads in the connection, whether they are excluded or not excluded
from the shear plane, depends on the length of the bolt and the length of the grip. Table 4-5 gives
the length of thread for each size of bolt, as well as the required projecting length of bolt.
Table 4-5. Thread lengths of bolts.
Bolt Diameter Thread Length Projecting Length
(mm) (mm) (mm)
12 25 18
16 30 22
20 35 25
22 38 28
25 45 30
28 50 38
30 50 42
35 55 45
40 55 50
Refer to Fig. 4-8 below.
71
Grip LP
Bolt Length
Figure 4-8. Bolt Length

It is shown from Fig. 4-8 that the bolt length equals the length of grip plus the projecting
length.
Lbolt = Lgrip + LP
A butt joint shown is composed of 2 – 150 x 12 mm plates and 150 x 25 mm plate, as shown. The
joint is bolted using a 22-mm A325 bolt.
a. Compute the length of grip.
b. Compute the required bolt length.
c. Determine whether the threads are excluded or not excluded from the shear plane.
150 X 12 mm plates
150 X 25 mm plate
Solution:
Grip LP
12 25 12
Bolt Length
a. Compute the length of grip.

Lgrip = 12 + 25 + 12
Lgrip = 49 mm (ans.)
72
b. Compute the required bolt length.
Lbolt = Lgrip + LP
where: LP = 28 mm (From Table 4-5)
Lbolt = 49 + 28
Lbolt = 77 mm (ans.)
c. Determine whether the threads are excluded from the shear plane.
Length of thread = 38 mm (From Table 4-5)
x = 77 - 38 49 28
shear plane
x = 39 mm
t of plates = 12 + 25
t = 37 < 39
x = 39 38
77
Therefore, the threads are excluded from the shear plane. (ans.)
4.8. BOLTS SUBJECTED TO ECCENTRIC SHEAR

When the load P is applied on a line of action that does not pass through the center of gravity of a
bolt group, there will be an eccentric loading effect, such as in Fig. 4-9. The eccentric load will tend to
cause a relative rotation and translation of the connected parts, and the individual bolts will have
unequal loads induced in them.
Figure 4-9. Typical eccentric shear connections
A load P at an eccentricity e, as shown in Fig. 4-10 is statically equivalent to a moment Pe plus a

concentric load P both acting on the connection. Since both moment and concentric load contribute
shear effects on the bolt group, the situation is referred to as eccentric shear.
73
Figure 4-10. Combined moment and direct shear
4.8.1. METHODS OF ANALYSIS

There are three methods of analysis for bolts subjected to eccentric shear. These are:
1. ELASTIC METHOD
In this method, it is assumed that there is no friction with the plates, and that the
fasteners are elastic.
2. REDUCED ECCENTRICITY METHOD
In this method, friction is considered and an empirically reduced eccentricity is used.
3. ULTIMATE STRENGTH METHOD (PLASTIC ANALYSIS)
It is assumed that the eccentrically loaded fastener group rotates about an instantaneous
center of rotation and the deformation at each fastener is proportional to its distance from the
center of rotation.
4.8.2. TRADITIONAL ELASTIC METHOD

This elastic analysis method has been used because it makes use of simple mechanics of
materials and has been found to be a conservative procedure.
To develop the equations for use in this procedure, consider first the connection acted
upon by the moment M, as shown in Fig. 4-11a. Neglecting friction between the plates, the
moment equals the sum of the forces shown in Fig. 4-11b times their distances to the centroid
(C.G.) of the fastener group.
M = R1d1 + R2d2 + . . . + R6d6 = ∑Rd (Eq. 4.9.1)
Figure 4-11. Pure moment connections
74
The deformation in each fastener is assumed proportional to its distance d from the
assumed center of twist. If all fasteners are considered elastic and of equal cross-sectional area
A, the force R on each fastener is also proportional to its distance d from the centroid of the
fastener group.
R1 R 2 R
= =...= 6 (Eq. 4.9.2)
d1 d2 d6
Rewriting the forces in terms of R1 and d1,

R1 R1 R1
R1 = d ; R2 = d ; R6 = d (Eq. 4.9.3)
d1 1 d1 2 d1 6
Substituting Eq. 4.9.3 into Eq. 4.9.1,

R1 R1 R1
M= d1 • d1 + d 2 • d 2 + ... + d • d6
d1 d1 d1 6
or we get,
R1 2 R1 2 R1 2
M= d1 + d 2 + ... + d
d1 d1 d1 6
R1
Factoring out ,
d1
R1 2
M= (
d + d 2 2 + ... + d 6 2
d1 1
) or
R1
M= ∑d 2 (Eq. 4.9.4)
d1
The force in fastener 1 is therefore

Md1
R1 = (Eq. 4.9.5)
∑d 2
By similar reasoning, the forces on the other fasteners are

Md 2 Md 3 Md 6
R2 = 2
; R3 = 2
; R6 = (Eq. 4.9.6)
∑d ∑d ∑ d2
Or in general,
Md
R= (Eq. 4.9.7)
∑ d2
If the stress is desired,

R
 (Eq. 4.9.8)
Ab
where:
 = shear stress in the fastener
R = force in the fastener
Ab = bolt cross-sectional area
75
It is usually convenient to work with the horizontal and vertical components of R (Rx and
Ry, respectively), obtained when the horizontal and vertical components of d (x and y,
respectively) are used in Eq. 4.9.7.
Figure 4-12. Horizontal and vertical components of R
From Fig. 4-12,

y x
Rx  R and Ry  R (Eq. 4.9.9)
d d
Substituting Eq. 4.9.7. into Eq. 4.9.9 gives

y Md x Md
Rx   and Ry  
d  d2 d  d2
My Mx
Rx = and Ry = (Eq. 4.9.10)
2
d  d2
Noting that d 2  x 2  y 2 , Eq. 4.9.10 may be written into

My Mx
Rx =
  and
 
Ry = (Eq. 4.9.11)
2 2
x y 2
 x  y2
The total force R on the fastener due to the moment is
R  Rx2  Ry2 (Eq. 4.9.12)
To compute the total force on a fastener in an eccentric shear connection such as shown in
Fig. 4-10a, the direct shear force Rv is
P
Rv = (Eq. 4.9.13)
N
where: P = eccentric load

N = no.of fasteners in the group
The resultant force R then becomes
R  Rx2  Ry  Rv  2 (Eq. 4.9.14)
76
Use elastic method to compute the maximum force on any bolt in the eccentrically loaded bolt
group. The bolts are all of the same size.
100 125 mm 150 kN
75 mm
75 mm
Solution:
Find the moment.
M = Pe where: e = 175 mm
M = 150(175) = 26250 kN.mm
2 2 2 2
 (x  y )  6(50)  4(75)
= 37500 mm2
The most stressed bolts are bolt 2 and 6. Solve for the force on bolt 2.
50
1 2
R2
75 Rv
R2y
3 c.g. R2x
4 2
5 6
P
Rv 
N
77
150
Rv   25 kN
6
My
R 2x  2 2
 (x  y )
26250 (75)
R2x   52.50 kN
37500
Mx
R 2y  2 2
 (x  y )
26250 (50)
R 2y   35 kN
37500
R2  (R2x )2  (R2y  R V )2
R2  (52.5)2  (35  25)2
R2 = 79.73 kN (ans.)
A riveted bracket shown is subjected to a load of 40 kN acting at an angle of 45° with the horizontal.
There are 8 – 20mmø rivets, four on each column flange.
a. Compute the moment caused by the eccentric load.
b. Compute the maximum force on any bolt.
c. Compute the maximum shearing stress on any bolt.
250 mm
40 kN
300 P
450 mm
column
Solution:
a. Compute the moment caused by the eccentric load on each side.
M = (20 cos 45)(225) + (20 sin 45)(250)
M = 6717.51 kN.mm (ans.)
b. Compute the maximum force on any bolt.

78
The most stressed bolts are the outermost bolts.
2 2 2 2
 (x  y )  2(150)  2(50)
2 2 2
 (x  y )  50 ,000 mm
My
R 1x  2 2
 (x  y )
6717 .51(150)
R1x   20.15 kN
50000
0.5(40 cos 45)
R vx 
4
Rvx = 3.54 kN
0.5(40 sin45)
R vy 
4
Rvy = 3.54 kN
R1  (R1x  R vx )2  (R vy )2
R1  (20.15  3.54)2  (3.54)2
R1 = 23.95 kN (ans.)
c. Compute the maximum shearing stress in any bolt.
R1 23950
 
 2 
d (20)2
4 4
   76.24 MPa (ans.)
An eccentrically loaded bearing-type connection has a load of 180 kN. ASTM A325 bolts are used
with threads excluded from shear planes (Fv = 207 MPa). Use Elastic Method.
a. Locate the centroid of the bolt group measured from B and below that of B.
b. Compute the resultant load on the most stressed bolt.
c. Compute the diameter of A325 bolts to be used.
d. Compute the shearing stress of bolt A.
180 kN
75 75 75
B
75 mm
75 mm
79
Solution:
4.8.3. REDUCED ECCENTRICITY METHOD

In this method, friction between plates is considered and the effective eccentricity is used
in moment computation.
4.9.3.1. Effective Eccentricity

A. With one gage line of fasteners
25 1  2n
e’ = e – (Eq. 4.9.15)
4
where: n = number of fasteners in each line along the direction of the applied load.
B. With two or more gage line of fasteners
251  n
e’ = e – (Eq. 4.9.16)
2
4.9.3.2. Moment in the Connection
M = Pe’ (Eq. 4.9.17)
Compute the moment in the connection shown using reduced eccentricity method. Compute also
the maximum shearing stress if the bolts are 22mm in diameter and 100 mm apart.
200 mm 40 kN
80
Solution:
25 1  2n
e’ = e –
4
251  2(3)
e’ = 200 –
4
e’ = 156.25 mm
M = Pe’
M = 40(156.25) = 6250 kN.mm (ans.)
2 2 2
 (x  y )  2(100)
2 2 2
 (x  y )  20 ,000 mm
My
R 1x  2 2
 (x  y )
6250(100)
R1x   31.25 kN
20000
Rv = 40/3 = 13.33 kN
R1  (R1x )2  (R v )2
R1  (31.25)2  (13.33)2
R1 = 33.98 kN (ans.)
Compute the stress in the most stressed bolt using 20mm dia. bolts. Use reduced eccentricity
method.
90 kN
100 mm 100
75 mm
75 mm
4.8.4. ULTIMATE STRENGTH METHOD

81
This method, also called plastic analysis, currently is recognized as the most rational one.
The application of the load P causes both translation and a rotation of the fastener group.
The translation and rotation can be reduced to a pure rotation about a point defined as the
instantaneous center of rotation (see Fig. 4.9.4).
Figure 4-13. Instantaneous Center of Rotation
The requirements for equilibrium are as follows:

n
 Fh  0 ;  R i sin  i  P sin   0 (Eq. 4.9.18)
i1
n
 Fv  0 ;  R i cos  i  P cos   0 (Eq. 4.9.19)
i1
 R i di  Pe  x o cos   y o sin   0

n
M  0 ; (Eq. 4.9.20)
i1
yi x
When the applied load is vertical and using sini  and cos i  i ,
di di
n yi
 Fh  0 ;  Ri
di
0 (Eq. 4.9.21)
i1
n xi
 Fv  0 ;  Ri
di
P  0 (Eq. 4.9.22)
i1
 R i di  Pe  ro   0
n
M  0 ; (Eq. 4.9.23)
i1
where:
R i = resistance of each fastener
d i = distance of fastener from the instantaneous center of rotation
82
(xo, yo) = location of the instantaneous center of rotation measured from the
centroid (CG) of the bolt group
ro = horizontal distance between the instantaneous center and centroid
of the bolt group
4.8.4.1. Bearing-Type Connections

For bearing-type connection, slip is neglected so that the deformation of each
fastener is proportional to its distance from the instantaneous center (I.C.).
di dmax
 (Eq. 4.9.24)
 i  max
Solving for I,
di
i   max
dmax
An expression (in US Customary unit) proposed by Fisher and used by Crawford and
Kulak for the resistance of a fastener is:

Ri  Rult 1  e 10 0.55 (Eq. 4.9.25)
where:
Rult = u A b (in kips)
u = 0.70 Fu (in ksi)
Ab = cross-sectional area of fastener (in square inch)
e = Naperian base (2.718…)
 = deformation of fastener (in inch)
The coefficients 10 and 0.55 were experimentally determined and the maximum
deformation  at failure was about 0.34 in (approximately 8.64 mm).
Determine the safe load P that maybe applied to a fastener group as shown. Use ultimate strength
method and assume that the maximum deformation at failure is 8.64 mm (0.34 in). The diameter of
the bolts is 22mm. Fu = 535 MPa.
P
100 mm 75
75 mm
75 mm
83
Solution:
Rult =  u A b = 0.7FuAb
 
Rult = 0.7(535)  (22)2  = 142,359.70 N or 142.36 kN
4 
First, let the first trial ro = 75 mm
75 125 mm
1 2
75 mm
IC 3 CG 4
75 mm
5 6
4.8.4.2. Slip-Critical Connections
A preferred procedure for analysis of slip-critical connections at service load is to

consider the resistance Ri as constant for all fasteners at whatever is the maximum
acceptable “shear stress” Fv (see Table 4.9.1). Since the bolts in a slip-critical joint must
be installed with initial tension, there will be a fairly uniform clamping action between the
pieces being joined.
Determine the safe load P that maybe applied to a fastener group as shown. Use ultimate strength
method for slip-critical connection. The diameter of the bolts is 22mm. Fu = 535 MPa
P
100 mm 75
75 mm
75 mm
84
UNIT 5
WELDED CONNECTIONS
5.1. INTRODUCTION
WELDING – is a process in which metallic parts are connected by heating their surfaces to a plastic or
fluid state and allowing the parts to flow together and join with or without pressure and
with or without the addition of filler material. The bond between the members is
completed after the molten metal solidifies.
ADVANTAGES OF WELDING
1. The first advantage is in the area of economy. Welding is economical in two aspects:
a. Welding permits large savings in the weight of steel used. It eliminates the large percentage of
the gusset and splice plates necessary for riveted or bolted structures. It also eliminates rivet or
bolt heads.
b. Welding also requires appreciably less labor than riveting because one welder can replace the
standard four-person riveting crew.
2. Welding has a much wider range of application than riveting or bolting. Consider a steel pipe
column and the difficulties of connecting to other steel members by riveting or bolting.
85
3. Welded structures are more rigid structures because the members are often welded directly to
each other. The connections for riveted or bolted structures are often made through connection
angles or plates which deflect due to load transfer, making the entire structure more flexible.
4. The process of fusing pieces together gives the most truly continuous structures. It results in one-
piece construction. This continuity advantage has permitted the erection of countless slender and
graceful steel statically indeterminate frames.
5. It is easier to make changes in design and to correct errors during erection (and at less expense) if
welding is used.
6. Welding is a relatively silent process.
7. Fewer pieces are used and as a result time is saved in detailing, fabrication and field erection.
5.2. TYPES OF WELDING

5.2.1. ARC WELDING – is the general term for the many processes that use electrical energy in the
form of an electric arc to generate the heat necessary for welding.
- used in almost all structural welding
TYPES OF ARC WELDING
A. Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) – one of the oldest, simplest, and perhaps most versatile
types for welding structural steel. This is often referred to as the manual stick electrode process
or stick welding. Heating is accomplished by means of an electric arc between a coated
electrode and the materials being joined, as shown in Fig. 5.1.
The coated electrode is consumed as the metal is transferred from the electrode to the
base material during the welding process. The electrode wire becomes the filler material and
the coating is converted partly into a shielding gas, partly into slag, and some part is absorbed
by the weld metal.
Fig. 5-1. Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
The electrode coating may perform the following functions:

1. Produces a gaseous shield to exclude air and stabilize the arc.
2. Introduces other materials, such as deoxidizers, to refine the grain structure of the weld
metal.
3. Produces a blanket of slag over the molten pool and the solidified weld to protect it
from oxygen and nitrogen in the air, and also retards cooling.
86
The American Welding Society (AWS) and American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM) have established an electrode numbering system which classifies welding electrodes as
follows:
EXXXX
where E stands for electrode and X’s refer to factors such as the suitable welding
positions, recommended power supply, type of coating, and type of arc
characteristics
 first two X’s are the two digits indicating the ultimate tensile strength Fu of the
weld material
 third X is a digit which indicates the suitability of welding position, which maybe
flat, horizontal, vertical or overhead.
1 - means it is suitable for all positions
2 – means it is suitable for horizontal fillets and flat position of work
 fourth X is a digit which indicates the current supply and welding technique
1 – for use with either ac or dc current
2 – for use with dc straight polarity
3 – for use with dc reversed polarity
Example: E6011 is an electrode with Fu = 60 ksi (450 MPa) which can be used for all position
welding and for use with either ac or dc current.
B. Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) – is the method of welding used in fabrication shop. In this
process, the arc is not visible because it is covered with a blanket of granular fusible material,
as shown in Fig. 5.2. The metal electrode is deposited as filler material. The end of the
electrode is kept continuously shielded by the molten flux over which is deposited a layer of
unfused flux in its granular condition.
Fig. 5-2. Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
The combinations of bare-rod electrodes and granular flux are designated as: FXXX-EXXX
where:
 first X after F is the first digit of the tensile strength (i.e. 7 for 70 ksi)
 second X is a letter indicating the condition of heat treatment (i.e. A for welded
and P for postweld heat treated)
 third X indicates the lowest temperature at which impact strength of the weld
metal meets or exceeds 27 J (when the third X is 6, for example, it means that the
impact strength is at least 27 J at –60°F (- 51°C)
87
 the three X’s following the letter E indicate properties of the electrode
Welds made by the submerged arc process have uniform high quality; exhibiting good
ductility, high impact strength, high density, and good corrosion resistance. Mechanical
properties of bare-rod electrodes and granular flux are consistently as good as the base
material.
C. GAS METAL ARC WELDING (GMAW) – is a welding process in which the electrode is a continuous
wire that is fed from a coil through the electrode holder, a gun-shaped device shown in Fig. 5.3.
Fig. 5-3. Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)

D. FLUX CORED ARC WELDING (FCAW) – is a process similar to GMAW, except that the continuously
fed filler metal electrode is tubular and contains the flux material within its core. The core
material provides the same functions as does the coating in SMAW or the granular flux in SAW.
5.2.2. GAS WELDING – is a process in which a mixture of oxygen and some suitable type of gas is burned
at the tip of a torch or blowpipe held in the welder’s hand or by an automatic machine. The gas
used in structural welding is probably acetylene and the process is called oxyacetylene welding.
The flame produced can be used for flame cutting of metals as well as for welding. Gas welding is
rather easy to learn and the equipment used is rather inexpensive. It is, however, a rather slow
process as compared to other means of welding, and is normally used for repair and maintenance
work and not for the fabrication and erection of large steel structures.
5.3. WELDING ELECTRODE

The electrode material is specified under American Welding Society (AWS) specifications that are
listed in Table 5.1.
Table 5-1. Electrodes Used for Welding

Min. Yield Stress Min. Tensile Strength
Welding Process
(Fy) (Fu)
SMAW SAW GMAW FCAW ksi MPa Ksi MPa
E60XX E6XT-X 50 345 62 (min) 425
F6XX-EXXX 50 345 62 - 80 425 - 550
E70XX ER70S-X E7XT-X 60 415 72 (min) 495
F7XX-EXXX 60 415 70 - 90 485 - 655
E80XX 67 460 80 (min) 550
F8XX-EXXX E8XT 68 470 80 - 100 550 - 690
ER80S 65 450 80 (min) 550
88
E100XX 87 600 100 (min) 690
F10XX-EXX 88 605 100 - 130 690 - 895
ER100S 90 620 100 (min) 690
E10XT 88 605 100 - 120 690 - 830
E110XX 97 670 110 (min) 760
F11X-EXXX 98 675 110 - 130 760 -895
ER110S 98 675 110 (min) 760
E11XT 98 675 110 - 125 760 - 860
Legend: SMAW – shielded metal arc welding SAW – submerged arc welding
GMAW – gas metal arc welding FCAW – flux cored arc welding
The coated electrodes should also match with the base metal (structural steel) as indicated in
Table 5.2.
Table 5-2. Matching Filler Metal Requirements (Adapted from AWS-Table 4.1.1.)
Welding Process
Group Base Metal Steel Specification
SMAW SAW GMAW FCAW
ASTM A36, A53 Grade B,
F6XX-EXXX E6XT-X
A500, A501, A529 E60XX or
I or F7XX- ER70S-X and E7XT-
A570 Grades 40, 45, and 50 E70XX
EXXX X
A709 Grade 36
ASTM A242,
II A572 Grades 40 and 50, E70XX F7XX-EXXX ER70S-X E7XT-X
A588, A709 Grades 50 and 50W
III ASTM A572 Grades 60 and 65 E80XX F8XX-EXXX ER80S-X E8XTX-X
ASTM A514 (over 2½ in. thick)
F10XX-EXX-
IV A709 Grades 100 and 100W (2½ to 4 E100XX ER100S-X E10XTX-X
XX
in.)
ASTM A514 (2½ in. and under),
F11XX-EXX-
V A709 Grades 100 and 100W (2½ in E110XX ER110S-X E11XTX-X
XX
and under)
5.3. CLASSIFICATION OF WELDS

There are three (3) separate classifications of welds. These are based upon the types of welds
made, positions of welds, and types of joints.
5.3.1. TYPES OF WELDS
The four types of welds are the groove, fillet, slot, and plug welds, as shown in Fig. 5.4.
Each type of weld has specific advantages that determine the extent of its use.
89
Fig. 5-4. Types of welds
A. GROOVE WELDS – are used to connect structural members that are aligned in the same
plane. Groove welds are usually intended to transmit the full load of the members they
join, the weld should have the same strength as the pieces joined.
Types of Groove Welds
1. Complete Penetration Groove Weld – extend for the full thickness of the part being
connected
2. Partial Penetration Groove Weld – does not extend completely through the thickness
of the pieces joined.
There are many variations of groove welds and each is classified according to its
particular shape. Figure 5.5 shows several types of groove welds and indicates the groove
preparations required for each.
Fig. 5-5. Types of Groove Welds
Groove welds may also be used in tee connections as shown in Fig. 5.6.
90
Fig. 5-6. Groove welds in tee joints
B. FILLET WELDS – are the most widely used owing to their overall economy, ease of
fabrication, and adaptability. Few uses of fillet welds are shown in Fig. 5.7. They generally
require less precision in the “fitting up” because of the overlapping of pieces, whereas the
groove weld requires careful alignment with specified gap (root opening) between pieces.
In addition, the edges of pieces being joined seldom need special preparation such as
beveling or squaring since the edge conditions resulting from flame cutting or from shear
cutting procedures are generally adequate.
Fig. 5-7. Typical Uses of Fillet Welds
C. SLOT WELD – is a weld form in a slot or elongated hole which joins one member to the
other member through the slot. The slot may be partly or fully filled with weld material.
This type of weld is used to transmit shear in a lap joint when the size of the connection
91
limits the length available for fillet or other edge welds. Slot welds in combination with
fillet welds are shown in Fig. 5.8.
Fig. 5-8. Slot and Plug Welds in combination with fillet welds
D. PLUG WELD – is a circular weld passing through one member to another and joining the
two together. Plug welds in combination with fillet welds are shown in Fig. 5.8.
5.3.2. TYPES OF JOINTS

The type of joint depends on factors such as the size and shape of the members coming
into joint, the type of loading, the amount of joint area available for welding, and the relative
costs for various types of welds. There are five basic types of welded joints as shown in Fig.
5.9.
Butt
Lap
Tee Corner Edge
Fig. 5-9. Basic types of welded joints
A. BUTT JOINTS
The butt joint is used mainly to join the ends of flat plates of the same or nearly the
same thicknesses. The principal advantage of this type of joint is to eliminate the
eccentricity developed in single lap joints. When used in conjunction with full penetration
groove welds, butt joints minimize the size of a connection and are usually more
92
aesthetically pleasing than built-up joints. Their principal disadvantage lies in the fact that
the edges to be connected must usually be specially prepared (beveled, or ground flat) and
very carefully aligned prior to welding. The pieces to be joined must be carefully detailed
and fabricated. As a result, most butt joints are made in the shop where the welding
process can be more accurately controlled.
B. LAP JOINTS
The lap joint is the most common type. Examples of lap joints are shown in Fig. 5.10.
It has these principal advantages:
1. Ease of fitting - since the pieces being joined do not require the preciseness in
fabrication as do other types of joints. The pieces can be slightly shifted to
accommodate minor errors in fabrication or to make adjustments in length.
2. Ease of joining – since the edges of the pieces being joined do not need special
preparation and are usually sheared or flame cut. Lap joints utilize fillet welds and are
therefore equally well suited to shop or field welding. The pieces being joined are in
most cases simply clamped together without the use of special jigs.
3. Ease in which the plates of different sizes can be joined
Fig. 5-10. Examples of Lap Joints
C. TEE JOINTS
This type of joint is used to fabricate built-up sections such as tees, I-shapes, plate
girders, and in general, pieces framing in at right angles, as shown in Fig. 5.9. This type of
joint is usually useful in that it permits sections to be built-up of flat plates that can be
joined by either fillet or groove welds.
93
D. CORNER JOINTS
Corner joints are used principally to form built-up rectangular box sections such as
used for columns and for beams required to resist high torsional forces.
E. EDGE JOINTS
Edge joints are generally not structural but are most frequently used to keep two or
more plates in a given plane or to maintain initial alignment.
5.3.3. POSITIONS OF WELDS

Welds are referred to as being flat, horizontal vertical, and overhead. They are listed in
the order of their economy, and are shown in Fig. 5.11.
A. FLAT – is the most economical weld position and can often be made with an automatic
machine.
B. HORIZONTAL
C. VERTICAL
D. OVERHEAD – is the most expensive weld position. It has been previously indicated that the
assistance of gravity is not necessary for the forming of good welds but it does speed up
the process. The globules of molten electrodes can be forced into the overhead welds
against gravity and good welds will result but they are slow and expensive to make, so it is
desirable to avoid them whenever possible.
Fig. 5-11. Welds according to position
5.4. WELDING SYMBOLS

Before a connection or joint is welded, the designer must in some way be able to instruct the steel
detailer and the fabricator as to the type and size of weld required. The need for a simple and yet
accurate method for communicating between the designer and fabricator gave rise to the use of
shorthand symbols that characterize the type and size of weld. As a result, the American Welding Society
standard symbols shown in Fig. 5.12, indicate the type, size, length, and location of weld, as well as any
special instructions.
94
95
Fig. 5-12. Standard welding symbols (From LRFD Manual)
Most of the commonly made connections do not require special instructions and are typically
specified as shown in Fig. 5.13.
Fig. 5-13 Common Uses of Welding Symbols
Whenever special connections are used, they should be detailed sufficiently to leave no doubt as
to the designer’s intentions, as shown in Fig. 5.14.
96
Fig. 5-14 Details showing use of welding symbols
In Fig. 5.14.b, the designer specified that the plug weld be made in the shop and ground flush
while the double bevel weld connecting the gusset plate to the column be made in the field. Since the
designer did not specify whether fillet welds attaching the angle to the gusset plate were to be made in
the shop or in the field, the steel fabricator would be free to make the decision. However, in this
particular detail, it would be better to make the fillet welds in the shop since the plug weld might be
overstressed during the field erection process. In general, as many welds as feasible will be made in the
shop because of economic considerations. Therefore it is important that the designer specify those
welds that are to be field welded.
5.5. FACTORS AFFECTING THE QUALITY OF WELDED CONNECTIONS

Obtaining a satisfactory welded connection requires the combination of many individual skills,
beginning with the actual design of the weld and ending with the welding operation. The structural
engineer needs to be aware of the factors that affect the quality of the weld and design the connections
accordingly.
5.5.1. PROPER ELECTRODES, WELDING APPARATUS, AND PROCEDURES
After the proper electrode material is specified to match the strength of the steel in the pieces
being joined, the diameter of the welding electrode must be selected. The particular size of the
electrode selected is based on the size of the weld to be made and on the electrical current output
of the welding apparatus. Since most welding machines have controls for reducing the current
output, electrodes smaller than the maximum capability can easily be accommodated and should be
used.
97
Since the weld metal in arc welding is deposited by the electromagnetic field and not by gravity,
the welder is not limited to the flat or horizontal welding positions. The designer should avoid
whenever possible the overhead position, since it is the most difficult one. Joint welds may require
any welding position depending on the orientation of the connection. The welding position for field
welds should be carefully considered by the designer.
5.5.2. PROPER EDGE PREPARATION
Typical edge preparations provided for groove welds are shown in Fig. 5.15. The root opening
R is the separation of the pieces being joined and is provided for electrode accessibility to the base
of a joint. The smaller the root opening the greater must be the angle of the bevel. The feathered
edge in Fig. 5.13.a is subject to burn through unless a backup plate is provided as shown in Fig.
5.15.b. Backup strips are commonly used when the welding is to be done from one side only. The
problem of burn-through is lessened if the bevel is provided by a land as shown in Fig. 5.15.c. The
welder should not provide a backup plate when a land is provided, since there would be a good
possibility that a gas pocket would be formed, preventing a full penetration weld. Occasionally a
spacer as shown in Fig. 5.15.d is provided to prevent burn-through but is gouged out before the
second side is welded.
Fig. 5-15 Typical edge preparations for groove welds
5.5.3. CONTROL OF DISTORTION

Another factor affecting the weld quality is shrinkage. If a single bead is put down in a
continuous manner on a plate, it will cause the plate to distort as shown in Fig. 5.16. Such
distortions will occur unless care is exercised in both the design of the joint and welding procedure.
Fig. 5-16 Distortion of Plate
98
Figure 5.16 shows the result of using unsymmetrical welds as compared to symmetrical welds.
Although there are many techniques available for minimizing distortion, the most common one is
that of staggering intermittent welds as shown in Fig. 5.17, and then returning to fill in the spaces.
Fig. 5-17. Sequences for intermittent welds
The following summarizes ways of minimizing distortion:

1. Reduce the shrinkage forces by
a. Using minimum weld metal; for grooves no greater root opening than necessary; do
not overweld.
b. Using few passes as possible.
c. Using proper edge preparation and fit-up.
d. Using intermittent weld, at least for preliminary connection.
e. Using backstepping; depositing weld segments toward the previously completed weld;
i.e., depositing in the direction opposite to the progress of welding the joint.
2. Allow for shrinkage to occur by
a. Tipping the plates so after shrinkage occurs they will be correctly aligned.
b. Using prebending of pieces.
3. Balance shrinkage forces by
a. Using symmetry in welding; fillets on each side of a piece contribute counteracting
effects.
b. Using scattered weld segments
c. Stretching the metal by series of blows
d. Using clamps, jigs, etc.; this forces weld metal to stretch as it cools
5.6. POSSIBLE DEFECTS IN WELDS

Unless good welding techniques and procedures are used, a number of possible defects may result
relating to discontinuities within the weld. Some of the common defects are shown in Fig. 5.18.
99
Fig. 5-18 Possible weld defects
A. INCOMPLETE FUSION
Incomplete fusion is the failure of the base metal and the adjacent weld metal to fuse together
completely. This defect may occur if:
a. the surfaces to be joined have not been properly cleaned and are coated with mill scale, slag,
oxides or other foreign materials;
b. the welding machine used has insufficient current so that the base metal does not reach
melting point;
c. The rate of welding is too rapid.
B. INADEQUATE JOINT PENETRATION

Inadequate joint penetration means the weld extends a shallower distance through the depth
of the groove than specified, as shown in Fig. 5.16 where complete penetration was specified.
Partial joint penetration is acceptable only when it is so specified.
This defect, relating primarily to groove welds, occurs from use of an unsuitable groove design
for the selected welding process, excessively large electrodes, insufficient welding current, or
excessive welding rates.
C. POROSITY
Porosity occurs when voids or a number of small gas pockets are trapped during the cooling
process. This defect results from excessively high current or too long an arc length. Porosity may
100
occur uniformly dispersed through the weld, or it may be a large pocket concentrated at the roof of
a fillet weld or at the root adjacent to a backup plate in a groove weld. The latter is caused by poor
welding procedures and careless use of backup plates.
D. UNDERCUTTING
Undercutting means a groove melted into the base material adjacent to the toe of a weld and
left unfilled by a weld metal. The use of excessive current or an excessively long arc may burn or
dig away a portion of the base metal. This defect is easily detected visually and can be corrected by
depositing additional weld material.
E. SLAG INCLUSION
Slag is formed during the welding process as a result of chemical reactions of the melted
electrode coating and consists of metal oxides and other compounds. Having a lower density than
the molten weld metal, the slag normally floats to the surface, where upon cooling, it is easily
removed by the welder. However, too rapid a cooling of the joint may trap the slag before it can
rise to the surface. Overhead welds are especially subject to slag inclusion and must be carefully
inspected. When several passes are necessary to obtain the desired weld size, the welder must
remove slag between each pass. Failure to properly do so is a common cause of slag inclusion.
F. CRACKS
Cracks are breaks in the weld metal, either longitudinal or transverse to the line of weld, that
result from internal stress. Cracks may also extend from the weld metal into the base metal or may
be entirely in the base metal in the vicinity of the weld. Cracks are perhaps the most harmful weld
defect; however, tiny cracks called microfissures may not have any detrimental effect.
Some cracks form as the weld begins to solidify, generally caused by brittle constituents. More
uniform heating and slower cooling will prevent the “hot” cracks from forming.
Cracks may also form at room temperature parallel to but under the weld in the base material.
These cracks arise in low-alloy steels from the combined effects of hydrogen, a brittle martensite
microstructure, and restraint to shrinkage and distortion. Use of low-hydrogen electrodes along
with proper preheating and postheating will minimize such “cold” cracking.
5.7. ALLOWABLE STRESSES
Table 5-3. Allowable Stresses of Welds
101
5.8. FILLET WELDS
5.8.1. TYPES OF FILLET WELDS

Depending on the direction of the applied load and the line of the fillet weld, fillet welds are
classified as longitudinal or transverse fillet weld. These are shown in Fig. 5-19.
A. Longitudinal Fillet Weld – is one in which the shear force to be transferred is parallel to the
weld line.
B. Transverse Fillet Weld – is one in which the force to be transmitted is perpendicular to the
weld line.
102
Fig. 5-19 Fillet Welds (Longitudinal and Transverse Fillet)
Fillet welds can either be equal-leg or unequal leg, as shown in Fig. 5-20.
Fig. 5-20. Fillet Welds (Equal and Unequal Leg Fillet)
The intersection point of the original faces of the steel elements being connected is called the
ROOT of the weld. The surface of the weld should have a slight convexity. In the computation of
the strength of the weld, however, this convexity is not taken into account and the theoretical flat
surface (or diagrammatical face) is used. The normal distance from the root to the theoretical face
of the weld is called the THROAT of the weld.
Experiments performed on fillet welds indicate that they are weaker in shear than in tension
and compression. Also, equal-leg fillet welds fail in shear through the throat (at angles of about 45°
with the legs of the weld).
5.8.2. EFFECTIVE THROAT THICKNESS

A. For Equal-Leg Fillet Welds
Throat, t = 0.707w where w = leg size
B. For Unequal-Leg Fillet Welds
wh
Throat, t =
w 2  h2
5.8.3. NSCP SPECIFICATIONS FOR FILLET WELDS

1. The effective area of fillet welds shall be taken as the effective length times the effective
throat thickness.
Ae = tL where t = effective throat thickness
L = weld length
2. The effective length of fillet welds, except fillet welds in holes and slots shall be the overall
length of full size fillets including returns.
3. The effective throat thickness of a fillet weld shall be the shortest distance from the root of
the joint to the face of the diagrammatic weld, except that for fillet welds made by
submerged arc process (SAW), the effective throat thickness shall be taken equal to the leg
size for 10 mm and smaller fillet welds and equal to the theoretical throat plus 3 mm for
fillet welds larger than 10 mm.
t = 0.707w
103
For SAW process,
a. When w  10 mm
t =w
a. When w > 10 mm
t = 0.707w + 3
4. For fillet welds in holes and slots, the effective length shall be the length of the centerline of
the weld along the center of the plane through the throat. In the case of overlapping fillets,
the effective area shall not exceed the nominal cross-sectional area of the hole slot in the
plane of the faying surface.
5.8.4. LIMITATIONS OF FILLET WELDS

1. The minimum size of fillet welds shall be as shown in Table 5-3. Minimum weld size is
dependent upon the thickness of the two parts joined, except that the weld size need not
exceed the thickness of the thinner part. Base metal thickness is that of the thicker part
joined.
Table 5-3 - Minimum Size of Fillet Welds
Material Thickness of Thicker Part Joined Minimum Size of Fillet Weld
To 6 mm 3 mm
Over 6 mm to 12 mm 5 mm
Over 20 mm 8 mm
2. The maximum size of fillet welds that is permitted along edges of connected parts shall be
as shown in Table
Table 5-4 - Maximum Size of Fillet Welds
Material
Size of Fillet Weld
Thickness
 6 mm Not greater than the thickness of the material
> 6 mm Not greater than the thickness of the material minus 1.6 mm
3. The minimum effective length of fillet welds designated as the basis of strength shall not
be less than 4 times the nominal size or else the size of the weld shall be considered not to
exceed ¼ of its effective length.
L ≥ 4w or w≤¼L
4. If longitudinal fillet welds are used alone in end connections of flat bar tension members,
the length of each fillet weld shall not be less than the perpendicular distance between
them. If the load is transmitted to a plate by longitudinal welds along both ends at the end
of the plate, the length of the welds shall not be less than the width of the plate.
5. The transverse spacing of longitudinal fillet welds used in end connections of tension
members shall not exceed 200 mm, unless the member is designed on the basis of
effective net area.
6. Intermittent fillet welds are permitted to transfer calculated stress across a joint or faying
surface when the strength required is less than that developed by a continuous fillet weld
of the smallest permitted size, and to join components of built-up members. The effective
104
length of any segment of intermittent fillet weld shall not be less than 4 times the weld
size, with a minimum of 38 mm.
7. In lap joints, the minimum lap shall be 5 times the thickness of the thinner part joined, but
not less than 25 mm. Lap joints joining plates or bars subjected to axial stress shall be fillet
welded along the end of both lapped parts, except where the deflection of the lapped part
is sufficiently restrained to prevent opening of the joint under maximum loading.
8. Fillet welds in holes or slots are permitted to transmit shear in lap joints or to prevent the
buckling or separation of lapped parts and to join components of built-up members. Such
fillet welds may overlap, subject to the provision of the Code. Fillet welds in holes or slots
are not to be considered plug or slot welds.
9. Side or end fillet welds terminating at ends or sides, respectively, of parts or members,
shall, wherever practicable, be returned continuously around the corners for a distance
not less than 2 times the nominal size of the weld. This provision shall apply to side and
top fillet welds connecting brackets, beam seats and similar connections, on the plane
about which bending moments are computed. For framing angles and simple end-plate
connections which depend upon flexibility of the outstanding legs for connection
flexibility, end returns shall not exceed four times the nominal size of the weld. End
returns are useful in reducing the high concentrations which occurs at the ends of the
welds. End returns shall be indicated on the design and details drawings.
Sample Problem 5- 1
Two 12mm x 350 mm plates are connected using double fillet welded lap joint. The nominal
tensile strength of the weld metal is 550 MPa.
a. Compute the maximum size of the fillet weld.
b. Compute the capacity of the connection if SMAW process is used.
c. Compute the capacity of the connection if SAW process is used.
d. Compute the recommended minimum length of lap.
Solution:
a. wmax = 12 – 1.6 = 10.4 mm (ans.)
b. Using SMAW process: say we use w = 10 mm

Effective area of weld
Ae = 0.707wL where: w = 10 mm and L = 2(350) mm
Ae = 0.707(10)(350)(2)
Ae = 4949 mm2
Shear capacity based on effective area of weld

T = FvAe where Fv = 0.3Fu
T = 0.3(550)(4949)
T = 816585 N or 816.59 kN
c. Using SAW process:

Since w = 10 mm, then
Ae = tL
105
Ae = (10) 350)(2)
Ae = 7000 mm2
T = 0.3FuAe
T = 0.3(550)(7000)
T = 1155000 N or 1155 kN (ans.)
d. Minimum length of lap, Llap

Llap = 5w
Llap = 5(10) = 50 mm (ans.)
Sample Problem 5- 2
A lap joint shown is welded using a fillet weld. The plates used are made of A36 steel.
b
150 mm 190 mm
b
15 x 150 mm a
12 x 190 mm
a. Compute the size of the weld
b. Compute the length of end return “b”
c. Compute the value of “a” using SMAW process if E60 electrodes (Fu= 425 MPa) are used.
d. Compute the value of “a” using SAW process if F7 electrodes (Fu = 485 MPa) are used.
Solution:
a. wmax = 15 – 1.6 = 13.4 mm
Use w = 13 mm ans.
b. Length of end return “b”
b = 2w
b = 2(13) = 26 mm ans.
c. Using SMAW process, Fu = 425 MPa
Compute for the capacity of the base metals.
For 12 x 190 mm plate
T = 0.6FyAg
T = 0.6(248)(12)(190)
T = 339264 N
For 15 x 150 mm plate
T = 0.6FyAg
T = 0.6(248)(15)(150)
T = 334800 N
Use T = 334800 N
Shear capacity of fillet welds based on its effective area
106
T = 0.3Fu Ae
T = Fv (0.707wL) where L = 2a + 2b
334800 = 0.3(425) (0.707)(13) [2a+ 2(26)]
a = 116.85 mm (ans.)
d. Using SAW process, Fu = 485 MPa
Shear capacity of fillet welds based on its effective area
T = 0.3Fu Ae
T = 0.3Fu (0.707t + 3) L
334800 = 0.3 (485) [(0.707)(13) + 3] [2a + 2(26)]
a = 68.37 mm (ans.)
5.8.5. BALANCED WELD GROUP

In some cases, members subjected to direct axial stresses are unsymmetrical and cause
eccentricities in welded connections. Such is the case of an angle section welded to a gusset plate as
shown in Fig. 5-21.
Fig. 5-21. Balancing the welds on a tension member connection
To avoid any eccentricity, the following equations must be satisfied.

Fh  0 ; P = P1 + P2 + P3
 M cg 
 0 ; P1 y1 + P3 y3 = P2 y2
where P1, P2, P3 are capacities of each weld.

If all of these welds are equal-leg fillet and have the same size, the following equations may be
used.
P = Fv (0.707wL)
L = L1 + L2 + L3
L1 y1 + L3 y3 = L2 y2
Sample Problem 5-3

107
A truss member shown consists of two L 125 x 88 x 10 with the 125mm leg welded to a gusset plate.
The member is to carry a tensile load of 848 kN. Using 6mm fillet weld with E60 electrode (Fu = 425
MPa) , determine the length of each side fillet weld for balanced condition. All steels are A36 steel.
Solution:
Consider one member only,
1
P = 2 (848) = 424 kN
Solve for L based on allowable shear on effective area of weld.

P = 0.3Fu (0.707wL)
424000 = 0.3(425)(0.707)(6) L
L = 783.94 mm
For balanced condition:
L1 y1 = L2 y2
L1 (40) = L2 (85)
L1 = 2.125 L2
L = L1 + L2
783.94 = 2.125 L2 + L2
L2 = 250.86 mm (ans.)
L1 = 533.08 mm (ans.)
Sample Problem 5-4

An L 100 x 100 x 10 is to be welded to a gusset plate as shown. The angle carries a load of 185 kN
applied along its centroidal axis. The maximum size of fillet that can be used is 8 mm with the use of
E60 electrodes (Fu = 425 MPa). Determine the lengths of the fillet welds if a transverse fillet is welded
at the end of the angle.
108
Solution:
Solve for L based on allowable shear on effective area of weld.
P = 0.3Fu (0.707wL)
185000 = 0.3(425)(0.707)(8) L
L = 256.54 mm
Solve for the length of transverse weld c.
c = 2(29) = 58 mm
Solve for the capacity of the transverse weld, P2.
P2 = Fv (0.707w)c
P2 = 0.3(425)(0.707)(8)(58)
P2 = 41,826.12 N
MP3  0 ;
P1 (100) + P2 y2 = P y2
P1 (100) + 41826.12(29)= 185000(29)
P1 = 41,520.43 N
But,
P = P1 + P2 + P3
185000 = 41520.43 + 41826.12 + P3
P3 = 101,653.45 N
Solve for a.
41520.43 = 0.3(425)(0.707)(8)a
a = 57.58 mm
Solve for b.
101653.45 = 0.3(425)(0.707)(8)b
b = 140.96 mm
5.8.6. ECCENTRICALLY LOADED WELDED CONNECTION

The analysis and design of an eccentrically loaded welded connection are approached in a
similar way as eccentrically loaded bolted connection’s elastic method. In Fig. 5-22, the eccentrically
applied load P lies in the plane of the connection. P may be resolved into a concentric load – moment
combination.
109
P P
Fig. 5-22. Eccentrically loaded welded connection

The concentric load acts through the centroid of the weld configuration, and the torsional
moment (M = Pe) is with respect to the same centroid as the center of rotation. Therefore, the
forces acting on the welds will be made up of two components (as shown in Fig. 5-23):
1. Pv due to the axial effect of the eccentric load – this axial effect produces a load per unit
length of the weld
P
Pv =
L
where :
P = applied eccentric load
L = total length of weld
This load acts in a direction parallel to P and will be the same for each unit length of weld.
The components of this effect are:
P Py
Pvx = x and Pvy =
L L
2. Pm due to the torsional moment effect – this effect will vary with the distance r from the
centroid of the weld configuration to that element of weld being considered and will act in a
direction normal to the line that connects the centroid with that weld element. This
torsional load Pm may be determined by applying the classic torsional stress formula to the
weld configuration.
Mr
Pm =
J
where:
M = torsional moment (Pe)
r = radial distance from the center of gravity of weld configuration to any point of
the weld being considered
 L2 
J = polar moment of inertia of the weld =  L   x 2  y 2 
 12 
110
Resolving Pm to its horizontal and vertical component,
My
Pmx =
J
Mx
Pmy =
J
Therefore, the total load per unit length of the weld is
PL  (Pvy  Pmy )2  (Pvx  Pmx )2
Sample Problem 5-5

A plate is lapped over and welded to a gusset plate as shown.
a. Determine the maximum force per millimeter of weld due to the moment alone acting at the
centroid of the weld group.
b. Determine the maximum force per millimeter of weld due to the given load.
c. Determine the minimum weld size using E60 electrodes (Fu = 425 MPa).
Solution:
Locate the centroid of the weld group.
450 x = 150(0) + 2(150)(175)
x = 116.67 mm
Solve for a, b, and c.
a = 175 – 116.67 = 58.33 mm
b = 116.67 mm
c = 250 – 116.67 = 133.33 mm
Solve for e.
e = 100 + 150 + 100 – 116.67
e = 233.33 mm
Solve for torsional moment M.
M = Pe
M = 90(233.33) = 20999.7 kN.mm
Solve for J.
111
 L2 
J=   12  x 2  y 2 
L
 
 (150)2   (150)2 
J = 150   (58.33)2  (75)2 2  150   (116.67)2  0
 12   12 
6 3
J = 5.59 x 10 mm
My 20999.7(75)
Pmx = = = 0.28175 kN/mm or 281.75 N/mm
J 5.59x10 6
Mx 20999.7(58.33)
Pmy = = = 0.21913 kN/mm or 219.13 N/mm
J 5.59x10 6
a. Pm = (Pmy )2  (Pmx )2
Pm = (219.13)2  (281.75)2
Pm = 356.93 N/mm (ans.)
b. Pvy = 90000/450 = 200 N/mm
PL  (Pvy  Pmy )2  (Pvx  Pmx )2
PL  (200  219.13)2  (281.75)2

PL = 505.03 N/mm (ans.)
c. Solve for min. weld size

PL = 0.3Fu(0.707w)
505.03 = 0.3(425)(0.707)w
w = 5.6 mm say use 6mm fillet weld. (ans.)
5.9. GROOVE WELDS

Groove welds are welds made in a groove between adjacent ends, edges, or surfaces of two parts
to be joined in a butt, tee, or corner joint. These are used to connect structural members that are
aligned in the same plane.
5.9.1. NSCP SPECIFICATIONS FOR GROOVE WELDS
1. The effective area of a groove weld shall be considered as the effective length of the weld
times the effective throat thickness.
2. The effective length of a groove weld shall be the width of the part joined.
3. The effective throat thickness of a complete penetration groove weld shall be the thickness of
the thinner part joined.
112
4. The effective throat thickness of a partial-penetration groove weld shall be as shown in Table
5-4.
Table 5-4. Effective Throat Thickness of Partial-Penetration Groove Welds
Included Angle
Welding Effective Throat
Welding Process at Root of
Position Thickness
Groove
Shielded metal arc
welding (SMAW)
J or U joint
Submerged arc
Depth of chamfer
welding (SAW)
Gas metal arc welding All Bevel or V joint
(GMAW)  60º
Bevel or V joint
Flux cored arc welding Depth of chamfer
< 60°
(FCAW) minus 3 mm
 45º
5. The effective throat thickness of a single V butt groove weld shall be taken as 5/8 times the
thickness of the thinner part joined.
6. The effective throat thickness of a double V butt groove weld shall be the thickness of the
thinner part joined.
5.9.2. LIMITATIONS OF GROOVE WELDS

1. The minimum effective throat thickness of a partial-penetration groove weld shall be as
shown in Table 5-5. Minimum effective throat thickness is determined by the thicker of
the two parts joined, except that the weld size need not exceed the thickness of the
thinnest part joined.
Table 5-5. Minimum Effective Throat Thickness of Partial-Penetration Groove Welds
Material Thickness of Thicker Part Joined Minimum Effective Throat Thickness

To 6 mm 3 mm
Over 150 mm 16 mm
Sample Problem 5-6
113
Two plates 200mm x 10 mm and 200mm x 16mm are to be connected using butt weld connection.
Use E70 electrodes with Fu = 485 MPa.
a. Compute the tensile capacity of the connection using single V butt weld.
b. Compute the tensile capacity of the connection using double V butt weld.
Solution:
a. Using single V butt weld
5 5
t = tp = (10) = 6.25 mm
8 8
P = 0.3Fu tL
P = 0.3(485)(6.25)(200)
P = 181875 N or 181.88 kN (ans.)
b. Using double V butt weld

t = 10 mm
P = 0.3Fu tL
P = 0.3(485)(10)(200)
P = 291000 N or 291 kN (ans.)
Sample Problem 5-7

A full penetration groove weld using E60 electrodes (Fu = 425 MPa) is connecting two 150mm x
12mm plates made of A36 steel, as shown. Compute the allowable load on the connection.
Solution:
Shear capacity based on effective area of groove weld
P = 0.3Fu t L
P = 0.3(425)(12)(150)
P = 229500 N or 229.50 kN
Tensile capacity based on tension of plates
P = 0.6Fy Ag
P = 0.6(248)(12)(150)
P = 267840 N or 267.84 kN
Allowable load on the connection = 229.50 kN (ans.)
Sample Problem 5-8

A partial penetration V-groove weld will be used to connect two 15 x 200 mm plates. The depth of
chamfer is 10 mm. Use E70 electrodes. The plates are made of A36 steel.
114
a. Compute the capacity of the connection if the groove angle is 45°.
b. Compute the capacity of the connection if the groove angle is 65°.
Solution:
a. groove angle = 45°

t = 10 – 3 = 7 mm
P = 0.3FutL
P = 0.3(485)(7)(200)
P = 203,700 N or 203.7 kN
Tensile capacity of the plate

P = 0.6FyAg
P = 0.6(248)(15)(200)
P = 446,400 N or 446.40 kN
Capacity of the connection = 203.7 kN (ans.)
a. groove angle = 65°

t = 10 mm
P = 0.3FutL
P = 0.3(485)(10)(200)
P = 291,000 N or 291 kN
Tensile capacity of the plate

P = 0.6FyAg
P = 0.6(248)(15)(200)
P = 446,400 N or 446.40 kN
Capacity of the connection = 291 kN (ans.)
5.10. PLUG AND SLOT WELDS
5.10.1. NSCP SPECIFICATIONS FOR PLUG AND SLOT WELD

The effective shearing area of plug and slot welds shall be considered as the nominal
cross-sectional area of the hole or slot in the plane of the faying surface.
5.10.2. LIMITATIONS OF PLUG WELDS

1. Plug or slot welds are permitted to transmit shear in lap joints or to prevent buckling of
lapped parts and to join component parts of built-up members.
2. The diameter of the hole for a plug weld shall not be less
than the thickness of the part containing it plus 8 mm
115
nor greater than 2.25 times the thickness of the weld.
Diameter of plug weld, D  tp + 8 but not greater than 2.25t
3. The minimum center-to-center spacing of plug welds shall be four times the diameter of
the hole.
Center-center spacing, S = 4D
4. The thickness of plug or slot welds in material 16 mm
or less in thickness shall be equal to the thickness of
the material. In material over 16 mm thick, the
thickness of the weld shall be at least ½ the thickness
of the material but not less than 16 mm.
When tp  16 mm, t = tp
When tp > 16 mm, t = 0.5tp  16 mm
5.10.3. LIMITATIONS OF SLOT WELDS

1. The minimum spacing of lines of slot welds in a direction transverse to their length shall be
4 times the width of the slot. The minimum center-to-center spacing in a longitudinal
direction on any line shall be 2 times the length of the slot.
Center-to-center spacing transverse to the axis of the slot, Sw = 4W
Center-to-center along the axis of the slot, SL = 2L
2. The length of slot for a slot weld shall not exceed 10 times the thickness of the weld.
Length of slot, L  10t
3. The width of the slot shall not be less than the thickness of the part containing it plus 8 mm,
nor shall it be larger than 2¼ times the thickness of the weld.
Width of slot, W  tp + 8 but not greater than 2.25t
4. The ends of the slot shall be semicircular or shall have the corners rounded to a radius not
less than the thickness of the part containing it, except those ends which extend to the
edge of the part.
116
Radius at the end of the slot, R  tp
Sample Problem 5–9

Plug welds in a 200 x 12 mm plate are used to connect it to a 200 x 18 mm plate. Use F6 electrodes.
a. Compute the thickness of the plug welds.
b. Compute the diameter of the plug welds.
c. Compute the center-to-center spacing of the plug welds.
d. Compute the shear capacity of the plug welds if there are 4 plug holes.
Solution:
a. t = 12 mm (ans.)
b. D  tp + 8 but not greater than 2.25t
D = tp + 8 = 12 + 8 = 20 mm
check: 2.25t = 2.25 (12) = 27 mm

Use D = 20 mm ( ans.)
c. S = 4D = 4(20) = 80 mm ans.
d. P = 0.3FuAe

P = 4[0.3(425) (20)2 ]
4
P = 160,221 N or 160.22 kN (ans.)
Slot welds in a 300 mm x 10 mm plate are used to connect it to a 300 x 20 mm plate. Use E60
electrodes.
a. Compute the thickness of the slot welds.
b. Compute the length of the slot welds.
c. Compute the width of the slot welds.
d. Compute spacing between slot welds in the direction normal to the axis of the slot.
e. Compute spacing between slot welds along the axis of the slot.
f. Compute the radius of the slot.
g. Compute the shear capacity of a single slot weld.
Solution:
a. t = 10 mm ans.
b. L  10t
L = 10t = 10(10) = 100 mm
c. W  tp + 8 but not greater than 2.25t

W = tp + 8 = 10 + 8 = 18 mm
117
Check: 2.25t =2.25(10) = 22.5 mm
Use W = 18 mm ans.
d. Sw = 4W = 4(18)
Sw = 72 mm ans.
e. SL = 2L = 2(100)
SL = 200 mm ans.
f. R = 9 mm
g. Ae = 82(18) + π(9)2
Ae = 1730.47 mm2
P = 0.3FuAe
P = 0.3(425)(1730.47)
P = 220,634.93 N or 220.63 kN (ans.)
A 225mm wide plate is to be used in a lap joint to carry a tensile load of 558 kN as shown. To ensure
a tighter joint, a plug weld is to be used. Assume the gusset plate to which the 225 mm plate is
welded does not control any of the design. Use A36 steel and E60 electrodes with Fu = 425 MPa.
tp
a. Compute the required thickness of the plate.

b. Compute the fillet weld size for best joint.
c. Compute the length of lap.
Solution:
118
a. Thickness of the plate based on its tensile strength
P = 0.6FyAg
558000 = 0.6(248)(225tp)
tp = 16.67 mm say 17 mm ans.
b. t = 17 – 1.6 = 15.4 mm
Use 15mm fillet weld
c. Shear capacity of fillet and plug welds
  
P = 0.3Fu 0.707w(2L  225)  D 2 
 4 
Solve for D,
D = tp + 8 = 17 + 8 = 25 mm and 2.25t = 2.25(16) = 36 mm
Use D = 25 mm
therefore
  
558000  0.3(425)0.707(15)(2L  225)  (25)2 
 4 
L = 70.70 mm ans.
119

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO STEEL DESIGN

1.2. OBJECTIVES OF THE STRUCTURAL DESIGNER

1.3. METHODS OF DESIGN

1.4. FACTOR OF SAFETY

1.5. VARIATIONS IN DESIGN

CEILINGS FLOOR FILL

Table 1-3. Minimum Roof Live Loads

E. HIGHWAY LIVE LOADS

1.8. THE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS

2.1. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF STEEL AS A STRUCTURAL MATERIAL

DISADVANTAGES OF STEEL AS A STRUCTURAL MATERIAL

2.2. CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURAL STEEL

Grade A 290 310 Cold-formed welded & seamless

Modulus of elasticity (E) for all structural steel is 200,000 MPa.

2.3. STEEL SHAPES

3.2. GROSS AND NET AREAS OF TENSION MEMBERS

Net Area, An = Ag –  ht

Solve for the net area.

Sample Problem 3-3

Solve for the hole diameter

Use critical net width = 229.80 mm

Table 3 - 2. Standard Gages for Angular Sections (values in mm)

3.3. ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN (ASD)

3.3.1. EFFECTIVE NET AREAS

B. Effective Net Area of Bolted or Riveted Steel Plates

Find the critical path.

Use critical net width = 266.85 mm

C. Effective Net Area for Welded Connections

Table 3-4. Reduction Factor U for Longitudinal Welds on Plate

3.3.2. ALLOWABLE TENSILE STRESSES AND LOADS

Therefore: use U = 0.9

Find the critical path.

Therefore: Use critical net width = 175.83 mm

Allowable tensile load = 1779.40 kN (ans.)

where: Anv = net shear area

a. Bolted Angle shear plane

Tbs Ant = (W – 0.5 h ) t

Anv tension plane

Solve for the net areas in tension and shear.

Solve for the block shear strength

Solve for the safe load considering yielding of gross area.

Solve for the safe load considering fracture of net area.

Anv = [300 – 2.5(22.6)](8) = 1948 mm2

Tbs = 0.3 Fu Anv + 0.5 Fu Ant

Case 2: Possible path of failure along a-b-c-e:

Tbs = 0.3 Fu Anv + 0.5 Fu Ant

3.3.4. DESIGN OF TENSION MEMBERS

Determine the required

Determine the required area based on the

Select a trial section.

Assume a reduction coefficient U based

Determine the net area.

Determine T based on fracture of net area.

Reselect trial section.

Reselect trial section.

DESIGN PLATE NO. 1

3.4. TENSION RODS

Calculate the load on each purlin.

WT = (1849 + 495.41) sin 26.57°

a. When sagrods are placed at midspan,

Using three-moment equation: 1048.63 N/m

Use 20mm dia. sag rods. (ans.)

b. When sagrods are placed at third points,