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1.1.1 Term

1.0 Introduction To Programming

programme

1.1 Introduction concepts Programming

programmer
language

Program:
 A set of step-by-step instructions that directs a computer to
perform a specific task and to produce the required results.
Programming:
 Programming is a process of designing/ creating a program.
Programmer:
 Programmer is a person who writes the program.
c) A programming language
 is set of instructions that can be used to
construct a program. A notation for
writing programs, which are specifications
of a computation or algorithm.
 is a language designed to describe a set of
consecutive actions to be executed by a
computer. A programming language is
therefore a practical way for us (humans)
to give instructions to a computer.

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1.1.2 Various types of Programming 1.1.3 (i) Machine language

Languages
 There are three basic types of
 The lowest-level programming language
programming languages.  Machine languages are the only languages
understood by computers.
 While easily understood by computers,
machine languages are almost impossible for
humans to use because they consist entirely of
numbers.
 Expressed in binary form, an instruction might
be 0111010110110011. Very difficult to use.
Lowest level of computer languages.
 For example, a program written in Apple PC cannot
be run in IBM PC

ii) Assembly language

 Second level of language.An assembler  English-like abbreviations representing

translates assembly language. elementary computer
 operations (translated via assemblers)
 It was developed to replace "0" and "1" used
in Machine Language.  Example: C++, C , FORTH

 Machine languages consist entirely of

numbers and are almost impossible for
humans to read and write.Takes a long
time to write programs

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iii) High-level language
 Instruction is written as a series of English-
like words.
 Translator (Compiler/Interpreter) is needed
to translate high level language to machine
language.
 It is Machine-Independent.The program can
be written and executed on any computer.
 E.g. Fortran, COBOL, SQL, PROLOG, C
 Codes similar to everyday English
 Use mathematical notations
Example: if (x < 10) {
printf(“too low, ry again\n”);
Scanf(“%d”,&x);
}
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1.1.4 Structured Programming
Languages
Definition of Structured Programming
 Structured programming can be defined as a
Software application programming technique that
follows a top down design approach with block
oriented structures.
 It support loop such as while, do-while and for.
 Structured programming
 The most popular structured programming
languages include C,C++, Ada, and Pascal.
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c. Object-Oriented Programming
b) Modular programming
Languages
 is about relation between the data and the code
 Programming paradigm based on data types. operating on the data (or data operating on the
 An object stores a data type value; variable name code).
refers to object.
 is a programming paradigm that uses "objects" –
 A programming style that brakes down program
functions into modules, each of which accomplishes data structures consisting of data fields and
one function and contains all the source code and methods together with their interactions – to
variables needed to accomplish that function. design applications and computer programs.
 Modular programming is a solution to the problem of Programming techniques may include features
very large programs that are difficult to debug and such as data abstraction, encapsulation,
maintain. By segmenting the program into modules modularity, polymorphism, and inheritance. Many
that perform clearly defined functions, you can
determine the source of program erros more easly. modern programming languages now support
OOP

 is one the newest and most powerful paradigms.

In object- oriented programs, the designer
specifies both the data structures and the types
of operations that can be applied to those data
structures.

 This pairing of a piece of data with the operations

that can be performed on it is known as an
object. A program thus becomes a collection of
cooperating objects, rather than a list of
instructions.

 Objects can store state information and interact

with other objects, but generally each object has
a distinct, limited role.

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 An object stores a data type value;  The most popular object-oriented

variable name refers to object.
 Object-oriented programming (OOP) is a
programming paradigm based on data
types.
programming languages include Java, Visual
Basic, C#, C++, and Python.
 Object-orientated programming
languages, such as SmallTalk and
HyperTalk, incorporate modular
programming principles

1.1.5 Comparison between the Structured programming is as

following types of programming: follows:

a) Structured programing
--Program start
 The main advantage for structured var
programing is that it make input easy, and var
var
also it is better to use because it does not
function { ... }
merges the data we stored in strings and function { ... }
variables, sometime it happens that we get function { ... }

merged data if we don't use structured data. main { ... }

--- Program End
And it also make easy to manage variables.
You have units of code, which operate on variables, and are
called in reference to those variables, to follow a structure
acting on those variables.

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b) Modular programming
 -A detailed process of problem solving
-Break a large problem into several
smaller
 Sub-sections are solved separately by
observing that all these small modules to
solve the whole problem of the origin
Modular Programming -
Process
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Modular Programming - Need
and Approach
 Typical industry programming projects
consist of thousands of lines of code or
more
 Analogous approaches: manufacturing a
spacecraft, or a car Manufacture individual
components, test separately
 Assemble into larger components,
integrate and test
Advantages of Modular
Programming
 Manageable: Reduce problem to smaller, simpler,
humanly comprehensible problems
 Divisible: Modules can be assigned to different
teams/programmers
 Enables parallel work, reducing program
development time
 Facilitates programming, debugging, testing,
maintenance
 Portable: Individual modules can be modified to
run on other platforms
 • Re-usable: Modules can be re-used within a
program and acrossprograms
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An Example of Code that Doesn't Use A Simple Example of Modular

Modular Programming Programming
A simple example of repeated code can be seen in: The aim of the programmer is now to ensure that code is reused as much as possible. They do this by identifying the code that can be place
separate functions and subroutines:
PI = 3.14159265358979
R= 1
PI = 3.14159265358979
C = 2 * PI * R
function circumference (R)
A = PI * R * R
circumference = 2 * PI * R
wscript.echo "Radius " & R & " Circumference " & C & " Area " & A
end Function
R= 2
function area (R)
C = 2 * PI * R
area = PI * R * R
A = PI * R * R
end function
wscript.echo "Radius " & R & " Circumference " & C & " Area " & A
sub print_details (R)
R= 3
C = circumference (R)
C = 2 * PI * R
A = area (R)
A = PI * R * R
wscript.echo "Radius " & R & " Circumference " & C & " Area " & A
wscript.echo "Radius " & R & " Circumference " & C & " Area " & A
end sub
R= 4
print_details 1
C = 2 * PI * R
print_details 2
A = PI * R * R
print_details 3
wscript.echo "Radius " & R & " Circumference " & C & " Area " & A
print_details 4

Here the same functionality is repeated but does works (as can be seen in figure 1). However, the programmer can work more ef ficiently
by using modular programming.
The output is the same as before (as can be seen in figure 2), but this time the chance of the operation of the script being altered due to a
typing error is greatly reduced, and if there is an error then the task of correcting it is made much simpler. The programmer can also
use the functionality throughout their application without worrying about having to rewrite the code, thereby improving the e fficiency
of both the code and their time.

c)Object oriented Why Object Oriented Language?

 - fourth-generation language is object 
oriented. Reusability-Cepatkan project
- Programmers will more tend to think of - Improve the quality of
the objects involved - Easily adjusted
the problem and the relationships - Flexible
between objects. - Easy maintenance
-Examples of programming languages are - Reduce the risk for complex projects
C + + Java

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c) Object oriented
 is as follows:
 Variables can be objects, which have their
--- Program Start
object { own data and functions. Think like C and
var
var structures, except structures can have
function { ... }
function { ... } functions "in them" which operate
function { ... }
} specificly on their own data.
var
var
function { ... }
main { ... }
--- Program end

Example 1: Object-oriented
Problem Solving Approach
Step 1: Problem Identification - Compute
the sum of two numbers and print out
the result.
Step 2: Object Identification
- Identify objects needed to solve the
problem.
Num1 - first number (object).
Num2 - second number (object).
Sum - result of the addition of the two
numbers (object).

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Step 3: Message Identification
- Messages needed to send to objects.
+ aNum - This is the message sent to the
receiver object with an parameter aNum.
The result of this message is the value (a
numeric object) of the total sum of the
receiver object and aNum. print - a message
that displays the value of the receiver object.
Note: The sequence of Smalltalk evaluation
is from left to right unless is specified by
parentheses ( ). For example:
2 + 3 * 4 is 20
while
2 +(3 * 4) is 14
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Step 4: Object-message sequences - Following
is the object-message sequence to solve the
problem.
(Num1 + Num2)print The message + with a
parameter Num2 (an object), is sent to the
object Num1.
The result of this is an object (Num1 +
Num2), which is sent the message print. The
parentheses are included to avoid any
ambiguity as to which message should be
activated first.
1.2.1 Stages of Problem Solving
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The steps in programming: 1.2.2 Elements of problem analysis


1-Definitions and identify problems
- Identify and understand the problems to
be solved
i. Read the questions and identify and
understand the requirements of the question PROCESS

ii. For the analysis to determine the

problem with three main areas:
* Input required
* OUTPUT issued
* PROCESS determine the formula
to get the output from a given input

3. Design a flow chart (design

2 - Planning variables
 variable is a reference to a memory
location
 Variables with a specific type of data to
determine the memory size provided
 All variables must be used in the program
prior diishtiharkan
software)
 Better known as the process of
designing algorithms
 algorithm - list of measures to solve
problems
 Created before the actual program coding
to make sure the solution method
correct the problem that is use

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There are two ways to write the

Pseudo code
algorithm:

i. Pseudo code Example: Changing a bulb is burned
-Steps problem solving
-Written to spoken language daily Start
Removing the bulb is burned
Replace with new bulb
End

Contoh:Mengira harga
Is it sufficient for the
bayarbagi buku
implementation of the computer?

Example: Changing a bulb is burned (details)
 Start
Place the ladder in the position of the bulb burns
Choose a suitable lamp
Take the stairs up to the light bulb that burns
Turn the bulb counterclockwise and take out the
bulb
Fit the new bulb in place proper
Turn the bulb clockwise
Down the stairs
Place the back stairs
End

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4-Writing program 5-Testing & debugging program

 - Represents the implementation phase in 
which the code was written and typed into
the computer
- The program should follow the syntax
correctly written on the appropriate
programming language
- Some programming languages: BASIC,
COBOL, FORTRAN, C + +,Visual BASIC
and other.
 Problems ---- Pseudo Code /flow chart -----
program
-The program that has been built to test /
run (run) to ensure
output produced is correct and meet the
needs of users
- Menyahsilap (debugging) --- the program
is tested with real data
-There is a possibility of erroneous
output (error) could result from a
program written

The types of programming errors

i) Syntax Error / encoding
 when programmers fail to follow the rules governing how
the instruction should be written. iii. Time Error
 Example: wrong spelling of the WRITE command. The
computer will print a diagnostic message. Due to data entry is not in accordance
 After all syntax errors corrected or removed compiler can
understand and translate the program.
with the instructions written in
programming
ii) Logic errors
 error occurred from instruction sequences that are not
correct.
 It might be the error in logic programming.
 Instruction means may be in conflict.
 Example: the programmer should write direction READ but
it write WRITE

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6-Documentation Program
 If the output properly certified and meet
consumer needs
- at this stage is to prepare a report for
reference and for the updates in the
future
- Facilitate the programmer to understand
the design and programmable logic
1.2.4 Determine input, process and
output for a given problem
 Understand, identify and define problems.
 Determine the input requirements,
process and output (IPO)
 Provide IPO
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The documentation includes:
 Type of problem or the specific requirements
of the appropriate
 Description of inputs, outputs, constraints and
formulas for problem
 A tool used logic---- flow chart or pseudo
code
 Example output of the program was
implemented (executed) using the test data
 The steps or guidelines for using the program
Problem analysis
Problem 1
Create a program that will accept three numbers as input
from the user. Find the average number and the third show -
the three numbers together with the average value.
Analysis of problems
Input - 3 numbers
Process - 1. Add 3 numbers
2. 3 Divide the total number to 3
Output - 3 and the average number
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answers Problem 2

Given the value of x = 10 and the value of

a = 12, find the equation of state revenue
under
y = 2x + a -6

1.2.5 DESIGN TOOL

 Problem analysis  It is a framework or flow that shows the

1) Input: steps in problem solving.
the value of x = 10
and the value of a = 12  Methods to design a program:
2) the formula / process:  Flowchart
y = 2x + a - 6  Pseudocode
3) output:  IPO Chart(input-process-output
the value of y chart)
 Structure Chart

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a) Flowchart

 A graphical representation of data,

information and workflow using certain
symbols that are connected to flow lines
to describe the instructions done in
problem solving.

 It shows the flow of the process from

the start to the end of the problem
solving

Explanation of basic
flowchart symbol:

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Cont…Explanation of basic There are few additional symbols of flowchart

used in a complicated program: GOSUB and
flowchart symbol: RETURN. It’s usually used in a big program.

Example Flowchart:
Flowchart to calculate the total of fine for late
returning of library books.

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b)Pseudocode
 Steps in problem solving that is written half in
programming code and half in human language. Example:

 For example, some part uses C language code and

some part uses Malay or English language. START
Total=0, Average=0
 Advantages: Input a, b, c
i. Easily understood. Total = a + b + c
ii. Easily maintained.
iii. The codes are changeable. Average = Total / 3
Output a, b, c
 Disadvantages: Output Average
Cannot be executed in the computer. END

c)IPO Chart (Input Process

Output) Problem 1
Chart IPO (input output processing)
Compiling information available in the Detailed get in shape with a display input,
processing and output  Uncle Ahmad wants to buy 5 cans of paint
to paint his house. The price for a can of
paint is RM 25.50. Calculate the price to
be paid for 5 cans of paint to buy.

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 analysis of the problem:
1) input:
Number of cans of paint purchased, the
price of a can of paint
2) The formula / process:
5 cans of paint price = price x number of
cans
3) output:
prices for purchased 5 cans of paint
 1) input:
marks obtained
2) The formula / process:
If you score 85-100, is a grade A
If the contrary is a B grade
3) Output:
grade obtained
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Problem 2
 A lecturer to determine the grade a
student based on the marks obtained by
students in the special examination. If you
score between 85 and 100, grade A if the
student is not the student will receive a
grade of B. What grades will be earned by
the student if the score is 89?
Problem:
A photostat shops charge 5 cents
for each page copied. Design
solutions to calculate the fee should
imposed if a number of pages that have
been
diphotostat.
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Example 1:
Problem: To calculate the amount of water bill

 definition and identify problems

plan using the variable
Writing pseudo code
Design a flow chart (design software)

Example 2:
Problem: To calculate area of a circle
Example : Calculate the Salary of
Employee

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d)Structure Charts
 Structure chart is an additional method in
preparing programs that has many sub
modules.
 It consists rectangular boxes, which
represents all the sub modules in a
program and is connected by arrows.
 It illustrates the top-down design of a
program and is also known as hierarchical
chart because its components are in
hierarchical form.
 The advantage is that it is easy to be drawn
and to be changed.

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