Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
CME article
EDUCATIONAL AIMS
A R T I C L E I N F O S U M M A R Y
Keywords: Necrotising pneumonia remains an uncommon complication of pneumonia in children but its incidence
Epidemiology
is increasing. Pneumococcal infection is the predominant cause in children but Methicillin resistant
Panton-Valentine Leukocidin
Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and Panton-Valentine leukocidin (PVL) staphylococcal infection are also
Pneumococcal vaccination
Respiratory infection important causes of severe necrotising pneumonia. Clinical features of necrotic pneumonia are similar to
those of an uncomplicated pneumonia except that the patient is clinically much more unwell and has
usually failed to respond adequately to what would normally be considered as appropriate antibiotics.
Pleural involvement is frequent. Initial management is similar to that for non-complicated pneumonia
with careful attention to fluid balance and adequate analgesia required. Some patients will need
intensive care support, particularly those with PVL-positive staphylococcal infection. Broad-spectrum
antibiotics should be given intravenously, with the exact choice of agent informed by local resistance
patterns. Pleural drainage is often required. Despite the severity of the illness, outcomes remain excellent
with the majority of children making a full recovery.
ß 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1526-0542/$ – see front matter ß 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.prrv.2013.10.001
Table 1
Infections associated with necrotising pneumonia
The complications of bacterial pneumonia were major killers of thickness. The cavity is usually not in continuity with the
all age groups prior to the era of antibiotics and modern surgical conducting airways and is filled with either gas or liquid pus.
techniques. A high proportion of those dying in the great
pandemics of influenza such as that in 1919 will have died from Pneumococcal disease
complications related to the subsequent bacterial pneumonia. As
primary bacterial pneumonia became less common in the 20th A dramatic increase in paediatric empyema was first reported
century, so the more severe necrotising forms of the disease also from the West Midlands, UK in 19975 and this phenomenon has
decreased, at least partially as a consequence of the widespread since been confirmed by many centres across the globe.6–11
introduction of antibiotics. Barriers to understanding the cause or causes of this problem in the
The problem had become very uncommon in the antibiotic era UK have been that most cases are culture negative, presumably
but the incidence of complicated disease has again increased over because of antibiotics in primary care and hospital prior to
the last two decades.2 The mechanisms responsible for these obtaining pleural fluid for culture, and the fact that blood cultures
changes vary according to the causative organism, but are complex are usually negative even in antibiotic naı̈ve patients with invasive
and still incompletely understood. bacterial disease.12 Other countries with presumably higher rates
of positive bacterial culture disease subsequently demonstrated
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY that most of this disease was pneumococcal in origin.8 This was
then confirmed for culture negative disease with the advent of
The term necrotising refers to the death of cells or groups of cells pneumococcal PCR and other molecular detection techniques, and
and implies permanent cessation of their integrated function, of this most disease was shown to be due to serotype 1 disease
although this does not mean that significant clinical and structural using serotype specific ELISAs.13,14
recovery may not occur. Most necrosis in the context of the lung There are approximately ninety disease-causing pneumococcal
parenchyma is of the liquifactive or colliquative form. Necrosis by serotypes, and different serotypes are recognised to cause different
organisms causing putrefaction results in the production of foul- patterns of disease. Individual serotypes vary in properties
smelling gas and brown, green or black discolouration of the tissues including their propensity to cause disease in different organs,
is referred to as gangrene. The term pulmonary gangrene was coined their virulence and invasive potential, ability to colonise the
to describe this type of disease in the 1940s. Hseih et al3 have nasopharynx and likelihood of expressing genes responsible for
emphasised the distinction between necrosis referring to the conferring antibiotic resistance.15 There are also considerable
pathology whereas gangrene refers to the pathophysiological geographical differences in the relative prevalence of individual
mechanism involved, although the terms are often used inter- serotypes and how these change over time.16,17 The factors
changeably in clinical practice.3 This group has also demonstrated responsible for determining temporal changes in the relative
that thrombosis of intrapulmonary blood vessels may well be of prevalence of individual serotypes are incompletely understood.
critical importance in mediating the pathophysiology of this group There are considerable ‘‘secular’’ changes which probably reflect
of conditions.3,4 Darwinian competition for ecological space between pneumococ-
These changes are additional to the features of lobar pneumonia cal serotypes and between pneumococci and other organisms.18 In
which classically are associated with complete clinical and addition there are other recognised influences including selection
radiological resolution over time. The consequences of necrosis pressure from antibiotic use, and more recently from the
are ultimately destruction of the normal lung architecture, which introduction of conjugate pneumococcal vaccines.19
is replaced by cavities which are surrounded by a wall of variable The first commercially available conjugate pneumococcal vaccine
Prevenarß was introduced into the routine infant vaccine schedule
Table 2 in the USA between 2000 and 2001. The first commercially available
Important non-infectious causes of necrotising pneumonia version of this vaccine contained antigen for serotypes 4, 6B, 9 V, 14,
Aspiration of foods contents 18C, 19F and 23F which were the seven most common causes of
Chemotherapeutic agents including Bleomycin, Cyclophospamide culture positive pneumococcal disease prevalent in the USA at the
Crohn’s disease
Graft versus host disease
time.20 Introduction of the vaccine was associated with an initial
Inhalation of chemicals including hydrocarbons, kerosene, mineral oils, rapid reduction in the incidence of pneumonia and complicated
furniture polish and turpentine disease in both immunised patients and the general population,
Inhaled foreign body presumably as a consequence of increased herd immunity.21
Meconium aspiration syndrome
Unfortunately some of these benefits were short lived and there
Psoriasis
Sickle cell disease followed an increase in severe invasive pneumococcal disease related
Smoke inhalation to serotypes not present in the seven valent vaccine, especially 19A
Toxic shock syndrome disease.22,23 19A disease is notable for being particularly associated
Systemic lupus erythematosis with a severe, virulent necrotising pneumonia which is often
Wegener’s granulomatosis and other necrotising vasculitides
associated with resistance to multiple antibiotics.24
The problem of an increase in pneumococcal disease from non- PVL-production is rare in isolates of S. aureus in the UK, with less
vaccine serotypes was not unexpected and has been termed than 2% of isolates producing the toxin.31 However, that rate
‘‘replacement disease’’.18,24 The magnitude of this problem appears increases significantly to 15% when isolates associated with
to vary between different countries, and the general consensus has pneumonia are examined separately. Cases of PVL-positive S.
been that for most countries the overall benefit from reduction in aureus causing disease increased in the UK between 2005 and 2008
disease related to vaccine serotypes has been much greater than but have subsequently declined. It is not yet clear whether the
the increase in disease from non-vaccine serotypes. Moreover, the increases seen were true increases in prevalence or due to
hope is that much replacement disease will be from non-vaccines increasing efficacy of surveillance and diagnostic procedures.
serotypes which are intrinsically less virulent than disease related The relationship between methicillin resistance (MR) and PVL
to vaccine serotypes. It is also theoretically possible that production remains controversial. The rate of MR in Gilet et al’s
introduction of multivalent conjugate vaccines into routine infant original series was low at 6%, yet cases in the USA have shown a
vaccine schedules may result in an increase in infection from other much higher prevalence of MR resistance.30 This has been
organisms; especially those frequently present colonising the attributed to the high prevalence of the MR S. aureus USA300
nasopharynx such as Staphylococcus aureus and Group A strepto- clone which carries the genes for PVL expression.30 To date isolates
coccus. To date there has been no evidence that this potential of PVL-SA outside of the USA have demonstrated a high level of
problem has materialised. There has been one report of at least a clonal variability, without evidence of one S. aureus clone type
transient increase in nasopharyngeal colonisation with staphylo- predominating.26,31
cocci following vaccination with Prevenar 7ß in Dutch infants, but Non-PVL MR S. aureus (MRSA) infection may also be an
this has not resulted in any adverse clinical consequences.25 increasing problem. Between 1992 and 2002 S. aureus became the
Following the introduction of the seven valent conjugate leading cause of empyema in a large Texas children’s hospital,
vaccine, two other vaccines with coverage against an extended overtaking S. pneumoniae.32 Latterly, over 75% of S. aureus isolates
range of pneumococcal serotypes have been licensed and were methicillin resistant. However, while this change does not
introduced into routine infant vaccine programmes across the appear to have been observed in other settings, clinicians need to
globe. Prevenar 13ß (referred to in some countries as Prevnar 13ß ) be alert to the possibility of MRSA infection.
contains antigens to protect against six additional pneumococcal
serotypes namely 3, 5, 6A, 7F and 19A compared to the seven CLINICAL FEATURES OF NECROSTING PNEUMONIA
valent vaccine. The ten valent vaccine Synflorix contains antigen
to protect against three additional serotypes compared to the The overall features of necrotising pneumonia are similar to
seven valent vaccine, namely 1, 5 and 7F. Prevenar 13ß replaced those of an uncomplicated pneumonia, usually with pleural
Prevenar 7ß in the routine infant vaccination schedule in the UK in involvement. The main distinction is that the patient is clinically
2010. Whilst it would be premature to confirm that this much sicker and has usually failed to respond adequately to
development has definitely resulted in a reduction in necrotising appropriate antibiotics by the time that the diagnosis is consid-
pneumonia and empyema, the serotype coverage of this vaccine ered. The child may well have persisting fever, tachycardia,
would certainly be expected to cover a significantly higher hypoxia and tachypnoea with poor peripheral perfusion. Chest
percentage of relevant serotypes than the previous vaccine. signs may include bronchial breathing, the stony dullness of a
Preliminary findings from the UK-ESPE enhanced pneumococcal pleural effusion and possibly signs of mediastinal shift.
empyema surveillance programme suggest that this is indeed Cases of PVL-positive staphylococcal necrotising pneumonia
proving to be the case, and that a worrying increase in 19A disease are characterised by high fever (>39oC), increased risk of
appears to have been aborted. haemoptysis and purulent expectoration when compared to
non-PVL staphylococcal pneumonia. In addition, there is often a
Staphylococcal disease history of recent S. aureus infection either in the affected individual
or close family contacts. There may also be a history of preceding
S. aureus has long been recognised as a cause of necrotising influenza infection. Laboratory models have suggested that
pneumonia in children, but recently it has been the focus of influenza infection may predispose to staphylococcal pneumonia
considerable interest following the recognition of the contribution by suppression of Th-17, T-helper cells.27 PVL-positive staphylo-
of the staphylococcal virulence factor Panton-Valentine leukocidin coccal necrotising pneumonia may also cause purpura fulminans.
(PVL). In an important study in 2002, Gillet et al reported the Predictors of mortality in PVL-positive staphylococcal necrotis-
association between PVL expression and severe and often fatal ing pneumonia in the largest cohort of cases yet analysed, were the
staphylococcal necrotising pneumonia in previously healthy presence of pulmonary haemorrhage, leucopenia and erythro-
children and young adults for the first time.26 Descriptions of derma.28 Later series have reported similar findings and the
cases of PVL-positive staphylococcal (PVL-SA) necrotising pneu- presence of these features should act as a trigger for aggressive
monia have since emerged from across the world.27–29 Panton- management.
Valentin leukocidin is an example of a syngeroghymenothrophic
toxin. In vitro, it causes lysis of leucocytes by causing pore INVESTIGATIONS
formation in their cell membranes leading to the release of
cytotoxic granules which in turn drive lung inflammation and All patients should have routine blood count and serum
injury.30 Mortality in Gilet et al’s original series was 63% and biochemistry along with blood culture if pyrexial. An antistrepto-
similar levels have been observed elsewhere.26–28 lysin titre and acute viral and mycoplasmal serology should also be
Histopathological examination of the lungs of patients who sent. Anaemia is common, as are thrombocytosis and thrombocy-
died from PVL-SA necrotising pneumonia illustrated the severity of topenia. Frank renal failure is unusual, but hyponatraemia is not
the necrotising process, with macroscopic massive ulceration and uncommon.
necrosis of the tracheal and bronchial mucosae. The bases of the It is unusual for paediatric patients to be able to expectorate
ulcers were composed of necrotic tissue devoid of inflammatory sputum, but if produced this should be sent for bacterial and viral
cells and the lung parenchyma contained massive alveolar studies. Nasopharygeal aspirates can reasonably be taken for these
haemorrhage with necrosis of the interalveolar septa and large studies in younger infants. Bronchoscopy has not gained general
clusters of gram positive cocci.26 acceptance as a method for obtaining bronchoalveolar lavage for
Figure 2. Cross-section from a CT scan taken of the same patient on the same day as
Figure 1. Note relationship between the consolidation in the right lower lobe seen in
Figure 1. Plain radiograph illustrating necrotic pneumonia caused by
the plain radiograph and air-filled necrotic cavity.
pneumococcal 19A infection in a young infant. Note air-fluid level in right sided
abscess and extensive right lung involvement. This child required ECMO support
but eventually made a good recovery.
MANAGEMENT
microbiological and viral studies because of valid concerns General initial management should be similar to that for non-
regarding the potential for adverse effects and increasing complicated pneumonia. Patients should be given supplemental
respiratory distress, although a Belgian study did find that this oxygen if they are hypoxic. Adequate analgesia is imperative,
appears to be effective and safe in selected patients.33 There is especially as the intensely sharp discomfort of pleuritic pain may
increasing reluctance to perform a pleural tap for diagnostic result in shallow breathing and a reluctance of the patient to cough
purposes, although this is generally a very safe procedure. If pleural adequately.
fluid is obtained either by tap or at thoracotomy it should be sent Particular care should be made in the assessment and manage-
for bacterial culture including mycobacterial studies. More ment of circulating blood volume. It has previously been suggested
advanced techniques including bacterial PCR on pleural fluid that patients with pneumonia are prone to the syndrome of
and blood as well as serotype-specific ELISAs and the Binax Now inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion (SIADH) resulting in
test to diagnose pneumococcal infection are now beginning to patients being managed with inappropriate volume restriction. It is
become available as routine clinical tools in many centres. Pleural now becoming recognised that the biochemical abnormalities see in
fluid should be sent for glucose level, pH, LDH and total protein pneumonia are more likely to be due to volume and salt depletion
level as well as cytological analysis. rather than SIADH, and that as such volume replacement is more
likely to be necessary than restriction.34
RADIOLOGY Some patients will require ventilatory support, and occasionally
extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) may be lifesaving.
All patients will have a routine chest radiograph performed. As Antibiotic therapy should be guided by the regional prevalence
well as demonstrating pneumonic changes, this may indicate the of individual organisms and national guidelines. In most countries
presence and approximate volume of pleural fluid along with an it will be important to cover for S. pneumoniae, S. aureus and Group
indication of any mediastinal shift due to pleural involvement. The A Streptococcal infection, but antibiotic sensitivity patterns to
plain chest radiograph will reveal the presence of larger cavities these organisms vary widely across the world. Doses should be at
and abscesses, although significant changes visible only on CT can the top of the recommended range. There is increasing evidence
easily be missed (Figures 1 and 2). The plain radiograph can also that uncomplicated pneumonia in children can usually be
not tell the nature of any pleural involvement, for which managed with oral antibiotics. This is not the appropriate initial
ultrasonography is required to determine whether fluid is route for children with life-threatening disease because of
homogenous or loculated, and whether there is pleural thickening. concerns concerning inconsistent absorption and gastrointestinal
Chest CT with contrast is an increasingly useful investigation for adverse effects from high dose antibiotics, so intravenous therapy
the assessment of suspected necrotising pneumonia. CT findings is mandatory.
include the loss of normal parenchymal architecture2, decreased Guidelines for the management of PVL-SA necrotising pneu-
parenchymal enhancement, multiple thin walled fluid or air filled monia have been produced by the UK Health Protection Agency
cavities without enhancing borders and the ‘‘mass within a mass’’ and are available from: http://www.hpa.org.uk/webc/HPAweb-
or ‘‘air crescent’’ sign of pulmonary gangrene as well as the File/HPAweb_C/1218699411960. Recommendations include add-
presence of loculated pleural fluid with pleural thickening. These ing Linezolid or Clindamycin (toxin suppressing agents) to
changes can develop very rapidly and the increasing availability of standard empiric treatment. If further deterioration is seen then
ultrafast CT machines which use very low radiation doses is a additional therapy with intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) and
particularly useful and welcome development which allows repeat rifampicin is suggested. Aggressive supportive therapy is also
scanning to be performed safely and without requiring without strongly recommended and intensive care admission is frequently
general anaesthesia. needed for these patients. Several case reports in the literature
30. Gillet Y, Etienne J, Lina G, Vandenesch F. Association of necrotizing pneumonia 34. Harris M, Clark J, Coote N, et al. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the
with Panton-Valentine Leukocidin–producing Staphylococcus aureus, regardless management of community acquired pneumonia in children: update 2011.
of Methicillin resistance. Clin Infect Dis 2008;47:985–6. Thorax 2011;66(Suppl. 2):ii1–23.
31. Holmes A, Ganner M, McGuane S, Pitt TL, Cookson BD, Kearns AM. Staphylococ- 35. Thomson AH, Hull J, Kumar MR, Wallis C, Balfour Lynn IM. Randomised trial of
cus aureus isolates carrying Panton-Valentine Leucocidin genes in England and intrapleural urokinase in the treatment of childhood empyema. Thorax
Wales: Frequency, characterization, and association with clinical disease. J Clin 2002;57:343–7.
Microbiol 2005;43:2384–90. 36. Li S-TT, Gates RL. Primary Operative Management for Pediatric Empyema:
32. Schultz KD, Fan LL, Pinsky J, et al. The changing face of pleural empyemas in Decreases in Hospital Length of Stay and Charges in a National Sample. Arch
children: epidemiology and management. Pediatrics 2004;113:1735–40. Pediatr Adolesc Med 2008;162:44–8.
33. De Schutter I, Malfroot A, Piérard D, Lauwers S. Pneumococcal serogroups and 37. Avansino JR, Goldman B, Sawin RS, Flum DR. Primary Operative Versus Non-
serotypes in severe pneumococcal pneumonia in Belgian children: theoretical operative Therapy for Pediatric Empyema: A Meta-analysis. Pediatrics 2005;
coverage of the 7-valent and 9-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccines. 115:1652–9.
Pediatr Pulmonol 2006;41:765–70.