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Surface state modulation of red emitting carbon

dots for white light-emitting diodes†
Cite this: J. Mater. Chem. C, 2018,
6, 12631
Kang Yuan,a Xinghua Zhang, *a Ruohan Qin,a Xuefeng Ji,a Yahui Cheng, b

Lanlan Li, a Xiaojing Yang, a

Zunming Lua and Hui Liu*c

Received 4th September 2018,
Accepted 16th October 2018
DOI: 10.1039/c8tc04468f
rsc.li/materials-c
Controlling surface states using different functional groups is an effective and facile way to modulate
the fluorescence of carbon dots (CDs), but the underlying mechanisms are still unclear and urgent to
solve. In this work, we synthesized red emitting CDs and achieved multiple emission states (red, green
and blue emission) by tailoring the surface states with different amino groups. In particular, the
luminescence mechanism and the role of surface states were studied in detail. It is found that the
multiple emission states are related to the speciation of nitrogen (pyridinic N, pyrrolic N, graphitic N and
amino N) on the surface of CDs, of which the fluorophore formed by the deformation of
p-phenylenediamine contributes to the red emission, pyridinic N is responsible for the green emission
state, and pyrrolic N enhances the blue emission. A possible energy level diagram was proposed to
disclose the electron transition process and relative levels induced by different surface groups on CDs.
In addition, the modulated CDs with multiple emission states can be used as single light converters to
fabricate a white light-emitting diode, which has white light color coordinates of (0.31, 0.32), a high
1
color rendering index (CRI) of 85, a luminous efficiency of 8.8 lm W and good stability.

1 Introduction
As a new type of fluorescent carbon material, carbon dots (CDs)
have attracted broad scientific interest due to their unique
properties.1 Compared with conventional semiconductor
quantum dots,2 CDs are superior to dye-based fluorescence
probes for imaging and sensing due to the advantages of
excellent biocompatibility, low toxicity, tunable photolumines-
cence (PL) and less photobleaching.3–6 They have been applied
in various fields, such as light-emitting diodes (LEDs),7,8 water
splitting,9,10 and photocatalysis.11,12 Since the discovery of CDs,13
different luminescence mechanisms of CDs have been proposed.
Although there is no uniform explanation, the luminescence
mechanism of CDs is generally related to the quantum size
effect,14,15 recombination of electron–hole pairs,16 or surface
a
School of Materials Science and Engineering, Hebei University of Technology,
Tianjin 300130, China. E-mail: zhangxinghua@hebut.edu.cn
b
Department of Electronics, Nankai University, Tianjin 300350, China
c
School of Materials Science and Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072,
China. E-mail: hui_liu@tju.edu.cn
† Electronic supplementary information (ESI) available: Emission and excitation
spectra of p-CDs, EDA-CDs, PEI-CDs, and pro-CDs. Photoluminescence spectra of
the p-CDs in different solvents excited by 365 nm. Emission spectra of the
prepared CDs by changing pH values (1–7) with addition of HCl. Emission spectra
of the prepared CDs by changing pH values (7–14) with addition of NaOH. The
UV-Vis absorption and FTIR spectra of p-CDs, EDA-CDs, PEI-CDs and pro-CDs,
respectively. The atomic percentages of four kinds of CDs. See DOI: 10.1039/
c8tc04468f
states.17 The quantum size effect is not easy to use compared
with the semiconductor quantum dots, since it is more difficult
to control the size of CDs. Fortunately, the two latter lumines-
cence mechanisms provide a facile method to modulate the
fluorescence of CDs through controlling the surface states with
different functional groups.18 Different functional groups
can form various surface states during the formation of CDs.
Traditionally, most researchers introduced a variety of func-
tional groups in the preparation of CDs, which is not conducive
to studying the impact of specific functional groups on the
surface state. In addition, the surface state is a vague concept
for the luminescence mechanism. It is significant to further
elaborate the meanings of surface states and deeply investigate
the effects of surface states formed by specific functional
groups on luminescence properties.
Amino groups are very useful in modulating the lumines-
cence properties of CDs because nitrogen not only can be used
as a doping element, but can also form a variety of surface
states on CDs, such as pyridinic N, pyrrolic N, amino N and
so on, which greatly affects the luminescence properties
of CDs.19,20 Various materials and methods have been used to
synthesize N-doped CDs, and the luminescence properties of
CDs are influenced by the amounts, ratios, or speciation of
doped nitrogen. Dong et al.16 proposed that nitrogen doping
generated a new surface state, which would increase the
radiative recombination rate of electrons as a recombination
center. Xu et al.21 compared several kinds of N-doped CDs and

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found that nitrogen existed in the –NO3 form which contributed
little to the radiative recombination and only nitrogen bonding to
carbon could really enhance the emission of CDs. Qian et al.22,23
prepared a series of CDs and the results suggested that amino and
pyrrolic N could promote radiative recombination by generating
more protonation processes or aromatic structures, and these
were responsible for the improvement in the luminescence
properties. Sarker et al.24 revealed that the presence of graphitic
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N could cause red-shifting of CDs due to the electron-doping
effect. A large number of studies indicate that the effects
of nitrogen species on photoluminescence properties are signi-
ficant for improving the performance of CDs. However, the
influence of nitrogen on the fluorescence properties has
not been fully understood, and the chemical speciation and
functions of doped nitrogen have only received limited
attention. Therefore, it is necessary to clarify the effects of the
speciation of nitrogen, especially the effects of their speciation
on the surface of CDs on the luminescence properties, which is
beneficial for understanding the luminescence mechanism and
the meaning of surface states.
In this work, we used a one-pot hydrothermal method
to synthesize N-doped fluorescent CDs with tunable surface
states, employing p-phenylenediamine and typical raw materials
with various types of amino group to achieve controllable emis-
sion of CDs. It was found that nitrogen related speciation is
related to red, green and blue emitting states. Red emitting states
are attributed to the fluorophore formed by the deformation
of p-phenylenediamine on CDs. Pyridinic N is responsible for
the green emission state and pyrrolic N can enhance the blue
emission. Furthermore, the pro-CDs (p-phenylenediamine and
L-proline as carbon/nitrogen sources) with multiple emission
states are suitable for fabricating white LED devices. The
pro-CDs based LED device emits bright white light with CIE
coordinates of (0.31, 0.32) and a high CRI of 85, and it also has
excellent stability.
2 Experimental
2.1 Materials
p-Phenylenediamine (PDDA) and ethylenediamine (EDA) were
obtained from Damao Chemical Reagent Factory (Tianjin,
China). L-Proline was purchased from Tianjin Guangfu Fine
Chemical Research Institute. Polyethyleneimine (PEI) was
bought from Aladdin Company.
2.2 Synthesis of CDs
The CDs (p-CDs (carbon source is PDDA), EDA-CDs (PDDA
and EDA), PEI-CDs (PDDA and PEI) and pro-CDs (PDDA and
L-proline)) with different surface states were synthesized using
a hydrothermal method. For the synthesis of EDA-CDs,
0.25 mmol PDDA and 0.5 mmol EDA were added to 60 mL
deionized water. Next, the reaction solution was transferred to a
15 mL Teflon lined stainless steel autoclave and it was kept at
180 1C for 12 h. After that, the autoclave was cooled down to
room temperature naturally, then an equal volume of ethanol
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Journal of Materials Chemistry C
was added to the prepared solution. PEI-CDs, p-CDs and pro-CDs
were synthesized in the same way.
2.3 Fabrication of the white LED
Since the pro-CDs have blue, green and red emissions under
365 nm excitation, we selected a UV LED chip as a light source
to excite the pro-CDs and realize white light emission.
To fabricate the white LEDs based on pro-CDs as a single light
converter, the specific steps are as follows. First, 9 mL pro-CDs
solution (1.41 g L 1) was dried to obtain solid powders. Next,
the pro-CDs powders were dissolved in 9 mL absolute ethanol
and mixed with 9 mL epoxy in a water bath at 60 1C for 4 h
accompanied by stirring. During this time, ethanol will gene-
rally be removed. After that, 3 mL curing agent was added into
the above solution and stirred for more than 10 minutes at
room temperature. Then, the above uniform mixture was added
to a self-made mold with an ultraviolet LED chip (365 nm), and
cured at room temperature for 12 h. At last, the pro-CDs based
white LED was obtained.
2.4 Measurements
Morphologies of the CDs were characterized using a transmission
electron microscope (TEM, JEOL 2100). X-ray photoelectron
spectra (XPS) of CDs were obtained with a PHI1600EXCA photo-
electron spectrometer. A spectrometer (Bruker, WQF-410) was
used to obtain Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectra of CDs.
The ultraviolet visible (UV-Vis) absorption spectra were carried
out on a spectrophotometer (Hitachi, U-3900H). The excitation
and emission spectra of CDs were collected using a steady and
transient state spectrophotometer (Horiba, FL-3-22). In addition,
the emission spectra of the pro-CDs based white LED under
different currents were also collected with the steady and transient
state spectrophotometer, and the LED tester was used to provide
the power. The other parameters such as color temperature (CCT),
color coordinates and color rendering index (CRI) were obtained
with a spectra irradiance illuminometer (Konica Minolta, CL-500A).
The luminous efficiency of the pro-CDs based white LED was
measured using a spectroradiometer (SpectraScan PR-650).
3 Results and discussion
3.1 Surface state modulation of CDs
To investigate the effects of amino groups on surface emission
states, different raw materials with amino groups were used to
prepare carbon dots (Fig. 1). PDDA was used to synthesize the
CDs with multiple emission states, and the addition of EDA,
PEI or L-proline was selected to modulate the surface states of
CDs during the synthesis process. As shown in Fig. 2, the four
samples are well-dispersed nanoparticles with similar sizes.
According to the TEM images, the p-CDs (Fig. 2a), EDA-CDs
(Fig. 2b), and PEI-CDs (Fig. 2c) have an average diameter
of 6.0 nm, and the average particle size of pro-CDs (Fig. 2d)
is about 7.5 nm. Therefore, the difference in luminescence
properties for the four samples should not originate from the
quantum size effect.
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Fig. 1 Synthesis of CDs with different emission states using a hydro-
thermal method.
Fig. 2 TEM images and the size distributions (inset) of (a) p-CDs,
(b) EDA-CDs, (c) PEI-CDs, and (d) pro-CDs.
3.2 Spectral properties of CDs
Fig. 3 shows the emission spectra of p-CDs, EDA-CDs, PEI-CDs,
and pro-CDs samples under different excitation wavelengths.
It can be seen that p-CDs (Fig. 3a) have three emission peaks
centered at 460 nm, 520 nm and 605 nm under 365 nm
excitation, and the red emission exhibits excitation-independent
features. When EDA with two amino groups was introduced to the
Fig. 3 Fluorescence emission spectra of (a) p-CDs, (b) EDA-CDs, (c) PEI-CDs,
and (d) pro-CDs solutions under various excitation wavelengths. Insets
show the photographs of the four kinds of CDs solution under 365 nm
excitation.
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p-CDs, the EDA-CDs (Fig. 3b) display only one emission peak
centered at 508 nm under different excitation wavelengths and
the emission peak intensity increases with the increase in EDA
amounts (as shown in Fig. S1a, ESI†). It is observed that the
EDA-CDs show excitation properties before 460 nm excitation,
which is different from the p-CDs with excitation independence.
The introduction of EDA greatly changes the emission states of
CDs, which may be attributed to the deformation of the amino
groups. PEI with a large number of imino groups was also used to
modulate the surface emission states of p-CDs. From Fig. 3c, one
can see that PEI-CDs have similar photoluminescence properties as
EDA-CDs except for an extra emission peak at 460 nm. In addition,
the emission intensity of PEI-CDs also increases with the increase
in PEI amounts (shown in Fig. S1b, ESI†). Comparing the differ-
ences between EDA and PEI, the blue emission state is probably
due to the presence of the imine group. To further prove the
assumption, L-proline with imino groups was chosen to modulate
the blue emission states. As shown in Fig. 3d, the intensity of the
blue emission peak at 460 nm is comparable to the intensity of
the red emission peak under 365 nm excitation. Compared with
the red emission, the blue emission intensity is increased and
reaches the maximum at a molar ratio of PDDA to L-proline of
1 : 1.25 with increasing L-proline (shown in Fig. S1c, ESI†), demon-
strating the effects of imino groups on blue emission states.
Excitation spectra of these CDs are shown in Fig. S2 (ESI†), and
are consistent with the change of emission spectra.
The four kinds of CDs have similar sizes and distinct photo-
luminescence properties, which indicates that the changes
of luminescence mainly originated from the surface groups
instead of the quantum size effect. Fig. S3 (ESI†) shows that
p-CDs exhibit various emission spectra in different polar solvents
under 365 nm excitation. The emission peaks of p-CDs are
located at 522, 534, 556 and 600 nm in toluene, dichloromethane,
acetone and ethanol, respectively. The polar dependence of the
emission for p-CDs suggests that the emission of prepared CDs is
mainly related to the surface states.25 In order to further confirm
the luminescence origin of CDs, the effects of pH values on
luminescence of the four CDs were investigated. As shown in
Fig. S4 and S5 (ESI†), the emission peak intensity of CDs
gradually decreased with increasing pH value or decreasing pH
value from 7, which further proved that the fluorescence of
prepared CDs is mainly related to the surface structure of
CDs.26 The detailed effects of pH values on prepared CDs will
be discussed below. Taking into account the fact that the raw
material contains only amino groups, the multiple emission
states of CDs are mainly related to the amino groups and their
deformation.
The UV-Vis absorption spectra of the four kinds of CDs
display several absorption peaks/bands (Fig. S6, ESI†). p-CDs
show characteristic absorption bands at 225–282 nm and
340–502 nm, which are assigned to the p - p* transition of
the aromatic CQC bonds, and the n - p* transition of the
aromatic sp2 system containing CQO and CQN bonds,
respectively.27 This indicates that the different energy states
resulted from functional surface states. EDA-CDs and PEI-CDs
exhibit similar absorption peaks centered at 241 nm, 304 nm,
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and 404 nm, except for the peak above 404 nm of PEI-CDs with
a long absorption tail and the absence of an absorption band at
500 nm. Compared with p-CDs, pro-CDs show the same absorp-
tion peaks at 225–282 nm and 405 nm, but pro-CDs exhibit
obvious absorption peaks at 504 nm instead of the broad peak
of p-CDs.
These absorption changes disclose that surface states have
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been changed through adding different amino-containing
precursors, which significantly affects the photoluminescence
performance of CDs.
3.2 Chemical bonding states of CDs
To analyze the elemental composition and chemical bonding
of prepared CDs, FTIR and XPS spectra were investigated.
As shown in Fig. S7 (ESI†), all CDs display characteristic
IR peaks centered at 831 (C–H stretching), 1043–1350 (C–O
stretching), 1403 (C–N stretching), 1514 (CQC stretching), 1642
(CQO/CQN stretching) and 3450 (–NH2 stretching) cm 1.20,28
The FTIR results suggest that the amounts of chemical bonds
result in the changes of emission since the four samples consist
of the same types of chemical bonds.
According to the XPS spectra (Fig. 4), all samples contain C,
N and O elements. As shown in Table S1 (ESI†), oxygen
amounts are increased from p-CDs to pro-CDs, but the emis-
sion spectra of the samples do not have a red shift with
the increasing degree of surface oxidation, which is different
from the luminescence mechanisms where the band gap is
decreased with an increasing number of oxygen atoms in the
structure.29 We have demonstrated that the emission of the
CDs originates from the surface states, so the changes of
luminescence spectra are mainly attributed to the N related
surface states. Fine scan XPS spectra of C 1s and N 1s for the
CDs are given in Fig. 4(e–h) and (i–l), respectively. The C 1s
spectra of CDs can be well-fitted into four curves centered at
284.3, 285.1, 286.4 and 288.1 eV, which corresponded to
C–C/CQC, C–N, C–O and CQN/CQO bonds, respectively. The
N 1s spectra can be fitted well with four curves centered at
Fig. 4 XPS spectra (full survey) of (a) p-CDs, (b) EDA-CDs, (c) PEI-CDs,
and (d) pro-CDs. C 1s spectra and fitting results of (e) p-CDs, (f) EDA-CDs,
(g) PEI-CDs, and (h) pro-CDs. N 1s spectra and fitting curves of (i) p-CDs,
(j) EDA-CDs, (k) PEI-CDs, and (l) pro-CDs.
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Table 1 The nitrogen speciation percentages of four kinds of CDs
Pyridinic N Amino N Pyrrolic N Graphitic N
Sample (atom%) (atom%) (atom%) (atom%)
p-CDs 27 61 12 —
EDA-CDs 97 — 3 —
PEI-CDs 53 36 11 —
pro-CDs 35 18 18 29
398.4, 399.2, 400.1 and 401.1 eV, corresponding to pyridinic,
amino, pyrrolic and graphitic N,25,30,31 respectively.
Table 1 gives nitrogen speciation percentages of four kinds
of CDs. Here p-CDs can serve as a reference sample with three
emission states for different surface structures including
pyridinic, amino, pyrrolic and graphitic N. When the EDA
was introduced to form EDA-CDs, the disappearance of amino
N and decrease of pyrrolic N are related to the change of red
and blue emission states, and the sample has only one green
emission state with drastic increasing of pyridine N, which
reveals that pyridine N should be responsible for the green
emission. The PEI-CDs also prove that pyridine N contributes to
the green emission owing to the highest content of pyridine N
in the PEI-CDs. Moreover, the PEI-CDs show a blue emission
peak in addition to the green emission accompanied with the
increase of pyrrolic N compared with EDA-CDs, disclosing that
pyrrolic N is related to the blue emission state. Specifically,
graphitic N is the dominant nitrogen configuration in pro-CDs
while the photoluminescence of pro-CDs is similar to that of
p-CDs except for the enhancement of blue emission due to the
further increase of pyrrolic N, which suggests that graphitic N
plays an important role in enhancing the PL in CDs instead of
leading to significantly red-shifted light absorption.32 Based on
the above discussion, it can be concluded that luminescence
of prepared CDs mainly originated from the surface states,
and tunable nitrogen speciation is the essential cause for the
change of luminescence properties.
3.3 Schematic structures and energy levels of CDs
Combining all of the factors, the possible structures of the four
types of CDs are given in Fig. 5, which reveals apparent
differences of N doping. As shown in Fig. 5a, when forming
p-CDs, the surface amino groups of PDDA will produce different
groups, eventually forming multiple emission states on the
surface of CDs. Some of the N atoms will form pyridinic N and
pyrrolic N on the surface. In addition, PDDA or its deformation
will be connected to the surface of the carbon core to form a
luminescent center, which may be the origin of the red light
emission. As a part of the molecular state, amino groups reflect
changes of this molecular state because the red emission state is
the most sensitive to pH values and the intensity of red emission
is related to the number of amino groups. The other part of the
benzene ring becomes a broken chain connecting to the CDs in a
hydrothermal reaction.
From the XPS of EDA-CDs, the emission state of the EDA-CDs
becomes a single green emission. Meanwhile, the amounts of
pyridinic N are obviously increased and the amino groups
almost disappear. This indicates that the introduction of EDA
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Fig. 5 Schematic structure of prepared CDs with multiple emission states.
can transform the original heterocyclic N to pyridinic N, and
these changes are closely related to green emission (Fig. 5b).
Similar to EDA-CDs, PEI-CDs (Fig. 5c) have an increase in
pyridine N due to its amino groups on the long-chain branch.
At the same time, it is easier for imino structures to form
pyrrolic N, and blue emission has also been enhanced. As we
can see, additional amino groups result in an increase of
pyridine N with strong green emission and the imino groups
are beneficial to form pyrrolic N with enhanced blue emission.
Moreover, L-proline is used to introduce only imino groups
(Fig. 5d), and the carboxyl groups reacted with basic amino
groups to make it connect to the surface of CDs, which
increases the amounts of pyrrolic N, leading to the enhance-
ment of blue emission. In addition, the contents of graphitic
N are increased with the introduction of L-proline, which also
enhances the luminescence intensity of CDs.
The results of acid–base treatment can further confirm the
rationality of the structure of prepared CDs (Fig. S4 and S5,
ESI†). Under alkaline conditions, the protonation degree of N
species decreases with increased pH values from 7 to 14, and
the possible proton transfer from the protonated nitrogen to
the conjugated carbon structure can enhance the fluorescence
of the CDs, thus decreasing the emission intensity of p-CDs as
the pH value increases.23 Under acidic conditions, the influ-
ence of protonation is not dominant, and the destruction of
acids for N species leads to the decrease of the luminescent
center. Various N species have different responses to acid,
which results in the decrease of fluorescence intensity in
varying degrees. The red emission state is first destroyed
because amino groups in the molecular state are liable to react
with the acid. Pyridinic N is more basic than pyrrolic N since
that lone-pair of electrons of the pyridinic nitrogen atom does
not participate in the conjugated system of the pyridine ring.
Therefore, the green emission is completely destroyed before
the blue emission at low pH values.
A possible band structure was proposed to explain the
photoluminescence process of the CDs with multiple emission
states, as shown in Fig. 6. It can be seen clearly that there are N
related surface emission states for CDs, which correspond to
different electron transition processes. Electrons are excited
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Fig. 6 The energy level diagram of nitrogen-related surface states
for CDs.
from HOMO levels to LUMO levels when the excitation energy is
higher than 3.40 eV (l = 365 nm). Then the N related speciation
as a rearrangement of the irradiation center results in blue,
green and red emission from CDs. Specifically, the irradiation
center formed by pyrrolic N emits blue light (l = 460 nm) as
the excitation energy is B3.35 eV (l = 370 nm). Green light
(l = 508 nm) is emitted from the irradiation center formed by
pyridinic N. Red light emission (l = 605 nm) may be formed
by the deformation of PDDA, which can be excited by 2.46 eV
(l = 504 nm).
3.4 Performance of a pro-CDs based white LED
We have synthesized different CDs with multiple emission
states and modulated the emission peaks and intensities by
changing the N related groups. From Fig. 3d, it can be seen that
the pro-CDs have blue, green, and red emission peaks centered
at 460 nm, 500 nm and 605 nm under 365 nm with CIE
coordinates of (0.34, 0.33), which makes them suitable for
fabricating white LED devices. Unfortunately, pro-CDs possess
aggregation-induced luminescence quenching in the solid
state. To solve this problem, people embed fluorescent dopants
in solid matrices such as BaSO4,33 silica xerogel,34 organically
modified silicate gel glasses35,36 and PMMA37,38 to realize solid-
state fluorescence of CDs. The matrices actually act as media
like water. Here epoxy resin is chosen as the matrix because it
not only acts as media like water, but also is suitable for LED
encapsulation. As shown in Fig. S8 (ESI†), the fluorescence
properties of pro-CDs dispersed in epoxy resin are similar to
those in solution except for 23 nm blue shift of red emission
and 17 nm blue shift of blue emission which are induced by
polarity changes.25 pro-CDs in epoxy resin also emit white light
under 365 nm excitation, which indicates that pro-CDs in epoxy
resin can be a good single light converter for white light-
emitting diodes. Therefore, we employed pro-CDs as a single
light converter for white LEDs by dispersing them into epoxy
resin on an UV LED chip with 365 nm emission. Fig. 7a displays
the emission spectra of the fabricated white LED, and blue
shifts of emission spectra occur due to the polarity changes of
epoxy resin for pro-CDs.45 The white LED has CIE coordinates
of (0.31, 0.32) which are very close to balanced white-light
emission (0.33, 0.33), and the CRI is 85 which is also close to
white light (Fig. 7b). The corresponding color temperature (CCT)
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Paper Journal of Materials Chemistry C

states can serve as a single light converter for fabricating white

LED devices. The pro-CDs based white LED device has white
CIE coordinates of (0.31, 0.32) and a high CRI of 85 with
8.8 lm W 1, and it also exhibits excellent optical stability at
long working time intervals.

Conflicts of interest
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We declare that there are no conflicts of interest.

Fig. 7 Characterization of a white LED fabricated with the pro-CDs.
(a) Emission spectrum of the white LED (inset is a stability test of the white
LED), and (b) CIE color coordinates of the white LED (inset shows the
Acknowledgements
photograph of the white LED in the on-state).
This work was supported by the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (No. 51771068, 21603052, 51671079,
of the white LED is 5837 K, which is superior to commercial 51771067, 51571123, 51671108), the Natural Science Founda-
white LEDs for daily lighting. Compared with other CDs-based tion of Hebei Province (No. E2018202082), Financial Support
white LEDs, the pro-CDs-based white LED is prepared with only for Scientific and Technological Activities of Returnees from
one kind of CDs as a converter. The luminous efficiency of the Abroad (CL201606), and the Innovation Fund for Excellent
white LED is 8.8 lm W 1. In addition, the CIE chromaticity Youth of Hebei University of Technology (No. 2015005).
coordinates of (0.31, 0.32) are superior to those (0.27, 0.32) of
LED devices reaching the white region.44 A comparison of details
Notes and references
is shown in Table 2, and it can be seen that the prepared pro-CDs
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