Prestressed Concrete STRUCTURES

1) Advantages of Prestressed Concrete:

1. Prestressed concrete members are free from cracks and the resistance to the effect
of impact, shock, and stresses are higher than rcc structures.
2. Longevity of prestressed structure is greater than rcc structure because the
reinforcement stays unaffected from outer agencies.
3. High compressive strength of concrete and high tensile strength of steel are used
for prestressing that makes it more economical.
4. Smaller sections can be used for longer span by reducing the section of members.
5. Prestressed members are lighter in weight and easily transportable.
6. It requires a smaller amount of construction materials.
7. The shear resistance of members can be increased by using curved tendons.
8. Prestressing also reduces the diagonal tension in concrete.

3)
In prestress, the combined effect of prestressing force and external force can be
resolved into a single force. The locus of the points of application of this force in any
structure is termed as pressure line or thrust line or p-line.

4)
High strength concrete is necessary for prestress concrete as the material
offers highly resistance in tension, shear bond and bearing. In the zone of
anchorage the bearing stresses being hired, high strength concrete is
invariably preferred to minimizing the cost. High strength concrete is less
liable to shrinkage cracks and has lighter modulus of elasticity and smaller
ultimate creep strain resulting in a smaller loss of prestress in steel. The use
of high strength concrete results in a reduction in a cross sectional
dimensions of prestress concrete structural element with a reduced dead
weight of the material longer span become technically and economically
practicable.
5)
Pre-stressed concrete is a form of concrete where initial compression is given in the
concrete before applying the external load so that stress from external loads are
counteracted in the desired way during the service period. This initial compression is
introduced by high strength steel wire or alloys (called ‘tendon’) located in the concrete
section.

6)
Because elastic shortening in pretension amounts to maximum loss. Since this loss is
absent in simultaneous elongation of post tension members the overall losses is
relatively less..(elastic shortening is the decrease in the length of member i.e. Concrete
due to prestressing tendon forces that result in loss of stress)
7)

What is concordant prestressing? Concordant prestressing is the prestressing of members in which the
cable follow a concordant profile. In case of statically indeterminate structures it does not cause any
changes in support reaction.

8)

Define – bonded and non-bonded prestressing concrete Bonded prestressing concrete: Bonded
prestressing concrete is a concrete in which prestress is imparted to concretethrough bond between the
tendons and surrounding concrete. Pre tensionedmembers belong to this group. Non-bonded
prestressing concrete: Non bonded prestressing concrete is a method of construction in which the
tendons are not bonded to the surrounding concrete. The tendons may be placed in ducts formed in the
concrete members or they may be placed outside the concrete section.

9)

10)

The degree of prestress applied to concrete in which tensile stresses to a limited degree are permitted in
concrete under working load. In this case, in addition to tensioned steel, a considerable proportion of
untensioned reinforcement is generally used to limit the width of cracks developed under service load.

Mention the advantages of partial prestressing.

(AUC Nov/Dec 2012 & 2013)  Limited tensile stresses are permitted in concrete under service loads
with controls on the maximum width of cracks and depending upon the type of prestressing and
environmental condition.  Untensioned reinforcement is required in the cross-section of a prestressed
member for various reasons, such as to resist the differential shrinkage, temperature effects and
handling stresses.  Hence this reinforcement can cater for the serviceability requirements, such as
control of cracking, and partially for the ultimate limit state of collapse which can result in considerable
reduction in the costlier high tensile steel.  Saving in the cost of overall structure.

11)

http://civil.skpec.edu.in/wp-content/uploads/sites/4/2017/11/Prestressed-Concrete-Structures.pdf

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15)

http://civil.skpec.edu.in/wp-content/uploads/sites/4/2017/11/Prestressed-Concrete-Structures.pdf

pg no 40
INDUSTRIAL WASTE MANAGEMENT

1)

Solid waste means any garbage, refuse, sludge from a wastewater treatment plant, water
supply treatment plant, or air pollution control facility and other discarded materials. Solid
wastes can be solid, liquid, semi-solid or containerized gaseous material.

2)
Household waste is generally classified as municipal waste,
Organic waste: kitchen waste, vegetables, flowers, leaves, fruits
b) Industrial waste as hazardous waste
commercial wastes are those produced from businesses such as food and drink establishments,
shops, banks and by public administration offices. These wastes contain similar materials to
residential waste, although the proportions may vary. For example, a restaurant will produce
more food waste than a normal household and an insurance office will produce more paper and
less food waste.

3)
11)

The need for protection and conservation of environment and sustainable use of natural
resources is reflected in the constitutional framework of India and also in the international
commitments of India. The Constitution under Part IVA (Art 51A-Fundamental Duties) casts a
duty on every citizen of India to protect and improve the natural environment including forests,
lakes, rivers and wildlife, and to have compassion for living creatures. Further, the Constitution
of India under Part IV (Art 48A-Directive Principles of State Policies) stipulates that the State
shall endeavour to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and
wildlife of the country.

Some of the important legislations for environment protection are as follows:

 The National Green Tribunal Act, 2010

 The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981
 The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974
 The Environment Protection Act, 1986
 The Hazardous Waste Management Regulations, etc.
Several environment protection legislations existed even before Independence of India.
However, the true thrust for putting in force a well-developed framework came only after the UN
Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm, 1972). After the Stockholm Conference,
the National Council for Environmental Policy and Planning was set up in 1972 within the
Department of Science and Technology to establish a regulatory body to look after the
environment-related issues

12)

http://ghangrekar.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/02-Waste-minimization.pdf

Waste Strength Reduction • It is a second major objective for an industry. • Reduction in strength will
achieve saving in treatment cost. (Sometimes due to limitations of hydraulic loading it may not save
cost). The strength of waste may be reduced by 1. Process changes 2. Equipment modification 3.
Segregation of wastes 4. Equalization of wastes 5. By-product recovery 1. Process change: The waste
problem of industry can be resolved by process change. e.g. In textile finishing starch is traditionally
used as sizing agents before weaving. Replacing starch with carboxy- methyl cellulose can considerably
reduce pollution (about 50% BOD reduction is possible). e.g. In metal plating to reduce cyanide
pollution. • Change from copper- cyanide plating to acid-copper solution. • Replacing soluble oils and
other short-term rust-preservative oils by cold cleaners. 2. Equipment modification Changes in
equipment can effect a reduction in the strength of the waste by reducing waste- quantity. e.g., dairy
milk cans by eliminating sharp corners and also installing drip pans to collect milk which drains from the
cans after they have been emptied. e.g., placing traps on the discharge pipelines in poultry plants to
prevent emission of feathers and pieces of fats. 3. Segregation of wastes: • Segregation reduces
strength of waste and difficulty of treating. • Small volume of strong waste can be handled with
methods specific to the problem it present. (e.g. InoTech Pharma, Bromine wastewater separation) •
Segregation results in two wastes (1) One strong with small volume. (2) Other weaker with similar
volume as non-segregated waste. • Segregation of cooling waters from process waste will reduce size of
the final treatment plant. • Some waste like dye can be effectively treated when concentrated.
Examples: separation of kiering (scouring) waste from other waste stream in textile industry is effective.
In metal plating producing chromium and cyanide waste segregation is effective. • For cyanide waste
make alkaline and oxidize • For chromium waste acidified and reduced • Then it can be combined and
precipitated in alkaline solution to remove metal. Segregation may not always work- some time
combining will be effective e.g. for neutralization/ equalization. 4. Equalization of wastes: ¾ Holding of
wastes for certain period of time to equalize when many products using different processes are
produced. • The detention time of equalization basin will be for complete cycle time of process. • The
effluent from equalization basin is much more consistent in its characteristics, than separate influent to
the same basin. Stabilization of pH, BOD, SS and heavy metals can be achieved. • Sometimes no
treatment may be required after equalization, e.g. when acidic and alkaline waste is a problem from the
same industry. 5. by- product recovery: • The use of waste material for by- product will reduce pollution
load and generate revenue through byproducts. e.g. paper mills recovery of caustic soda from cooking
liquors, methane recovery, sludge digestion and drying and fertilizer, etc. • Black strap molasses from
sugar to alcohol production • sulphite waste liquor byproduct from paper mills used as fuel, road binder,
insulating compound. • Waste yeast from brewery as poultry food. • Dried and evaporated butter milk
from milk plant used as chicken food. • In dairies materials collected on Oil and grease trap soap
manufacturing.

13

14) http://mpcb.gov.in/images/pdf/Advantages_of_CETP.pdf

Advantages of CETP • Saving in Capital and Operating cost of treatment plant. The Common treatment is
always cheaper than small scattered treatment units. • Availability of land which is difficult to be
ensured by all individual units in the event they go for individual treatment plants. • Contribution of
nutrient and diluting potential, making the complex industrial waste more amenable to degradation. •
The neutralization and equalization of heterogeneous waste makes its treatment techno-economically
viable. • Professional and trained staff can be made available for operation of CETP which is not possible
in case of individual plants. • Disposal of treated wastewater & sludge becomes more organized. •
Reduced burden of various regulatory authorities in ensuring pollution control requirement.

15)
Hazardous waste is waste that has substantial or potential threats to public health or
the environment

When categorizing hazardous waste, the EPA breaks

it down by four characteristics:
 ignitability, or something flammable
 corrosivity, or something that can rust or decompose
 reactivity, or something explosive
 toxicity, or something poisonous

These high level categories each have their own characteristics that further help
you as a generator define with what your are dealing.

Ignitability
There are three types of ignitable forms:

 Liquids with a flash point–the lowest temperature at which fumes above

waste ignite–of 60 degrees Celsius or 140 degrees Fahrenheit. Examples
include alcohol, gasoline, and acetone.
 Solids that spontaneously combust.
 Oxidizers and compressed gasses.
Corrosivity
Corrosive substances, such as hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, and sulfuric acid,
have the ability eat through containers, causing the leakage of harmful materials.
A corrosive is anything liquid with a pH of less than or equal to 2 or greater than
or equal to 12.5, or has the ability to corrode steel. Everyday example of
corrosives include battery acid and rust removers.

Reactivity
Given their instability, reactive wastes can be very dangerous. The EPA
recognizes that there are too many conditions and situations to identify all types
of reactive materials. However, they use the following as guidelines to assist
generators:

 unstable, and routinely experiences violent change without detonating

 potential for explosive mixture or violent reaction when combined with
water
 toxic gasses are released when mixed with water

Toxicity
Poisonous materials pose a threat to our groundwater, which can have long term
effects to human health and the environment. This is different from the first three
characteristic groups, which the EPA views as containing immediate and
firsthand dangers. There are 60 contaminants on the toxicity characteristics list.
These contaminants are identified solely through a test method called Toxicity
Characteristic Leaching Procedure or TCLP.

As a generator of any the above, you have two options to determine which
characteristics above best define the waste you generate: test it, or use applied
knowledge from previous company records or industry data and studies.

16)

http://www.environmentalpollution.in/waste-management/hazardous-waste/how-to-treat-hazardous-
waste-physical-chemical-and-biological-treatment/6741