Biology

Fluid Regulation

Extracellular fluid (ECF)

– the body’s internal environment
– consists mostly of interstitial fluid and plasma
• As part of homeostasis, the body must maintain volume and solute composition of its fluid
components within a narrow range
• Most aquatic invertebrates and many fish excrete ammonia directly
• Other animals convert ammonia to another substance prior to excretion
• Insects and birds excrete uric acid
• Mammals excrete urea

Fluid Regulation in Invertebrates

Flatworms expel excess water, ammonia and other unwanted solutes through a pore in the body
wall
• Flatworm excretory system. Movement of cilia in porous cells at the tips of tubules draws in-
terstitial fluid into tubules. Fluid exits tubules through a pore at the body surface.
Insects utilize a system of Malpighian tubules
• Insect Malpighian tubules (gold) are outpouchings of the gut (pink). Waste solutes are actively
transported from hemolymph into a tubule. The tubules then deliver wastes to the gut for elim-
ination through the anus.

Vertebrate Urinary System

Kidneys
• Organs that filter water, mineral ions, nitrogen wastes and other substances from blood
• Return water and non-wastes to blood, and form urine
Urine
• A mix of water and soluble wastes formed and excreted by the urinary system
The human urinary system consists of two kidneys, two ureters, a bladder, and a urethra

The Human Urinary System

Ureters
• Tubes that carry urine from kidneys to the bladder
• Channel for urine flow from a kidney to the urinary bladder
Urinary bladder
• Hollow, muscular organ that stores urine
• Stretchable container for temporarily storing urine
Urethra
• Tube which carries urine out of the body
• Channel for urine flow between urinary bladder and body surface
Kidney
• Constantly filters water and all solutes except proteins from blood; reclaims water and solutes
as the body requires, and excretes the remainder as urine

After age 2 or 3, the brain can override the reflex action causing bladder walls to contract and
expel urine

Kidney Function
 A renal artery carries blood to be cleansed to each kidney, and a renal vein transports cleansed
blood away from it
Kidneys contain many nephrons, which filter blood and form urine by three processes: filtration,
reabsorption, and secretion

How Urine Forms

Filtration
• Blood pressure forces water and small solutes out across the walls of capillaries at the start of
a nephron
• Proteins and blood cells remain in the blood
Reabsorption
• Water and essential solutes return to the blood
• Wastes such as urea remain in the filtrate
Tubular secretion
• H + and other unwanted substances move out of capillaries and into the nephron for excretion
Feedback Control of Urine Formation

The concentration of urine varies to maintain homeostasis under control of the antidiuretic hor-
mone (ADH)
• A signaling molecule that increase water reabsorption, thus making the urine more concen-
trated
• When you lose water, the hypothalamus stimulates the pituitary gland to produce ADH; kidney
tubules reabsorb more water
• When increased water reabsorption returns fluid and solute concentrations to normal, the
hypothalamus inhibits ADH secretion

Negative Feedback Control of ADH Secretion

Water loss lowers the volume of blood and makes it more salty. The hypothalamus in the brain
senses these changes and signals the adjacent pituitary gland to release ADH.
ADH travels through the blood to the kidney, where it affects kidney tubules. The ADH makes the
tubules more permeable to water.
More water is reabsorbed and less is lost in urine, so blood volume rises.
The hypothalamus senses the change in blood volume and concentration and stops calling for
ADH secretion.

Impaired Kidney Function

Kidney stones
• Sometimes urine solutes come out of solution and form stones, which can block ureters
• High-protein diets cause ketone formation, stress the kidneys, and promote kidney stone for-
mation
• Kidney stones can be removed surgically or broken up by shock waves
• Best prevention is drinking lots of fluids
Kidney failure (measured by filtration rate) causes waste buildup and can be fatal
Dialysis or kidney transplant are the only options for those with permanent kidney damage
Kidney dialysis
• Procedure used to cleanse blood and restore proper solute concentrations in a person with
impaired kidney function

Two Types of Kidney Dialysis

1. Hemodialysis
• Tubes carry blood from a patient’s body through a filter with dialysis solution that contains the
proper concentrations of salts.
 • Wastes diffuse from the blood into the solution and cleansed, solute-balanced blood returns to
the body.
2. Peritoneal dialysis
• Dialysis solution is pumped into a patient’s abdominal cavity. Wastes diffuse across the lining
of the cavity into the solution, which is then drained out.

Animal Respiration

The respiratory system, working with the circulatory system, uses the process of respiration to
exchange gases across a respiratory surface
Respiration
• Physiological process by which animals obtain oxygen and get rid of waste CO2
Two Sites of Gas Exchange

1. Gases enter and leave an animal’s body across a respiratory surface.

2. Second, exchange of gases takes place internally, at the plasma membrane of the body cells.

A circulatory system enhances the movement of gases between these two sites of gas exchange

Respiratory Systems

In some aquatic animals, the respiratory surface may be the entire body surface.
• e.g. sea anemones, flatworms, earthworms
Other aquatic animals have gills, a filamentous respiratory organs increase the surface area
available for gas exchange
Insects, the most successful air-breathing land invertebrates, have a hard surface and a tracheal
respiratory system
• Tracheal system: branching tubes deliver air from the body surface to tissues
All mammals and birds, most amphibians, and some fishes have lungs, which provide a large
surface area for gas exchange
Lungs
• Internal saclike organs
• Serve as the respiratory surface in most land vertebrates and some fish
Fish Respiration

Bony fish with its gill cover removed.Water flows in through the mouth, over the gills, then out
through gill slits.
Each gill has bony gill arches with many thin gill filaments attached.
Flow of blood and water in opposite directions maximizes diffusion of oxygen from the water into
the blood.

Bird Respiratory System

Lungs - 2
Posterior and Anterior Air Sacs

Human Respiratory Function

Pharynx
• Throat; opens to airways and digestive tract
Larynx
• Short airway containing vocal cords (voice box)
• Contraction of vocal cords changes the size of the glottis
Glottis
 • Opening formed when the vocal cords relax
Epiglottis
• Flap at the entrance to larynx
• Flops down when you swallow
Trachea
• Major airway leading to the lungs; windpipe
• Branches into two bronchi, each leading to a lung
Bronchus (Bronchi)
• Airway connecting the trachea to a lung
Bronchiole
• Small airway leading from bronchus to alveoli
Alveoli (Alveolus)
• Tiny, thin-walled air sacs
• Site of gas exchange in the lung
How You Breathe

Actions of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles allow you to breathe

Diaphragm
• Dome-shaped muscle at base of thoracic cavity that alters thoracic cavity size during breath-
ing
Intercostal muscles
• Muscles between the ribs; help alter the size of the thoracic cavity during breathing
The Respiratory Cycle

One inhalation and one exhalation

Inhalation is always active (requires energy)
• Muscle contractions expand the chest cavity
• Lung pressure decreases below atmospheric pressure, and air flows in
Exhalation is usually passive
• Muscles of respiration relax; volume of thoracic cavity decreases, pushing air out of lungs
Control of Breathing

A respiratory center in the brain stem controls depth and rate of normal breathing
Neurons signal diaphragm and intercostal muscles to begin inhalation, 10 to 14 times per minute
When activity increases CO 2 production, receptors in arteries and the brain signal for an in-
crease in rate and depth of breathing

Exchanges at Alveoli

Blood carries gases between lungs and body tissues

• Fused basement membranes of alveolar and pulmonary capillary cells form the respiratory
membrane
Cutaway view of a cluster of alveoli. Each alveolus is filled with air and surrounded by a network
of pulmonary capillaries.
The respiratory surface consists of the wall of the alveolus, the wall of the capillary, and their
fused basement membranes. Gases diffuse across this three- layered boundary.

Transport of Gases

Nearly all O 2 inhaled binds to hemoglobin

• Protein of four globin chains with an iron-containing heme cofactor
• In capillary beds, hemoglobin releases O 2 , which diffuses across interstitial fluid into cells
CO 2 diffuses from cells into interstitial fluid, then into blood
 Enzymes in red blood cells converts most CO 2 into bicarbonate (HCO 3 ), which dissolves in
plasma
• Converted back to CO 2 in pulmonary capillaries
CO 2 diffuses from pulmonary capillaries into air in alveoli, then is expelled

Respiratory Disorders

Ciliated and mucus-secreting epithelial cells lining bronchioles help protect us from respiratory
infections such as bronchitis
With asthma, an inhaled irritant triggers inflammation and constriction of airways, making breath-
ing difficult
Cigarette smoke damages the epithelial lining, and is the main cause of emphysema
• Irreversible loss of lung function
Emphysema - the effect of smoking

Neural Control and the Senses

Impacts of Concussions

While the skull protects brain tissue, it is still surprisingly delicate

• An impact to the head or sudden stop can cause the brain to move within the skull
Concussion
• Mild traumatic brain injury caused by mechanical stress of brain tissue
• Symptoms: confusion, dizziness, blurred vision, increased sensitivity to light, headache, im-
paired short-term memory, difficulty concentrating, irritability, nausea, and a temporary loss of
consciousness.
Only treatment is mental and physical rest
Center for Disease Control estimates between 1.4 and 3.8 million concussions occur each year
in the US
• Contact sports raise the risk, and occur also as a result of car accidents, workplace accidents
or simple falls.

Animal Nervous Systems

Animal nervous systems respond quickly to stimuli using communication lines of neurons
Neurons
• Excitable cells that relay electrical signals along their plasma membranes and signal other
cells by means of chemical messages
• Make up the communication lines of nervous systems
Invertebrate Nervous Systems

Nerve net
• Mesh of interconnected neurons
• No centralized, controlling organ
• Example: sea anemones; other cnidarians
• Nerve net (purple) of a sea anemone. There is no central organ that integrates signals.
Ganglion
• A cluster of neuron cell bodies
• Concentrated in anterior end of simple bilateral animals like flatworms
• Planarian nervous system. Two ganglia in the head serve as integrating centers. Nerve cords
extend the length of the body along the ventral (lower) surface.
Brain
• A central control organ of a nervous system
• Present in simple form in arthropods; more complex in other animals
 • Insect nervous system. A brain with hundreds of thousands of neurons integrates information.
It connects to a ventral nerve cord that has a ganglion in each segment. The ganglia serve as
local control centers.

Vertebrate Nervous Systems

Central Nervous System

• The brain and spinal cord in vertebrates
• Evolved from dorsal nerve cord of chordates
Peripheral Nervous System
• Nerves through vertebrate body
Neuron Function

Three types of neurons

• Sensory neurons
• Neurons that detect specific stimuli
• Sensory neurons become excited when receptor endings of their dendrites detect a specific
stimulus, such as light or touch. Their axon terminals send chemical signals to interneurons
or motor neurons.
• Interneurons
• Neurons that relay signals from other neurons
• Interneurons have dendrites that receive chemical signals from sensory neurons (as
shown) or other interneurons. Their axon terminals send chemical signals to other interneu-
rons or to motor neurons (as shown).
• Motor neurons
• Neurons that control muscles / glands (effectors)
• Motor neurons have dendrites that receive chemical signals from interneurons (as shown)
or from sensory neurons. Their axon terminals send chemical signals to the muscle or
gland that they control.

Neuron Structure

Signals move through neurons from dendrites to the cell body to the axis
• Dendrite
• Neuron’s signal-receiving cytoplasmic extension
• Axon
• Cytoplasmic extension of a neuron; transmits electrical signals along its length and chemi-
cal signals at its ending said
• Nerve
• A bundle of sensory or motor neuron axons enclosed within a sheath of connective tissue
Neuroglia - Neuron Helpers

All neurons are metabolically assisted, protected, insulated, and held in place by neuroglia
• Myelin Sheath
• Discontinuous covering formed by Schwann cells (neuroglia) wrapped around axons
• Each axon within the nerve has a discontinuous myelin sheath consisting of many
Schwann cells that wrap around the axon.
• Its presence speeds the flow of electrical information along an axon.
• Multiple Sclerosis
• With this disorder, the immune system mistakenly attacks the myelin-making cells of CNS.
Resting Potential

Signals reaching neuron input zones disturb cell’s resting potential

 • The electrical gradient (potential energy) across the membrane of a resting neuron
Sodium-potassium pumps maintain a difference in charge and ion concentration across the
plasma membrane

The Action Potential

When properly stimulated, neurons and muscle cells undergo an action potential
Action potential
• An abrupt, brief reversal in the voltage (membrane potential) across a cell’s plasma mem-
brane, beginning at a trigger zone
• Opening and closing channel proteins with gates that open at a particular voltage
Threshold potential
• Potential at which voltage-gated sodium channels in a neuron axon open, causing an action
potential

A neuron’s trigger zone at resting potential. All voltage-gated ion channels (white) are closed.
At threshold potential, Na + channels open and Na + flows inward (blue arrows). The inside of
the axon become increasingly positive.
Na + channels close and K channels open. K + flows outward (red arrows). Farther along the
axon, diffusion of Na + has driven the membrane to threshold and Na + channels have begun to
open.
K site close + gates at the original. The action potential continues along as diffusion of Na+ trig-
gers opening of gated Na + channels farther and farther down

The Chemical Synapse

Chemical synapse: communication point between a neuron and another cell

To signal another cell, a neuron releases a chemical signaling molecule called a neurotransmit-
ter.

Disruptive Synaptic Function

Some neurological disorders are caused by disrupted signaling at synapses

• Parkinson’s disease is caused by damage to dopamine-secreting neurons in one area of the
brain
• Lower than normal dopamine levels in a different area of the brain can cause ADHD
Brain PET scans. Red and yellow indicate regions with high metabolic activity in dopamine-se-
creting neurons.

Psychoactive Drugs

Psychoactive drugs
• Chemicals that enter the brain and alter mood or perception; act at synapses
Analgesics
• Drugs that relieve pain
• Opiate analgesics mimic endorphins
• Neurotransmitters that serve as the body’s natural painkillers
Use of many psychoactive drugs can lead to addiction
• Dopamine plays an important role in creating dependency
The Central Nervous System

The brain and spinal cord are organs of the central nervous system (CNS)
Meninges
• Membranes that surround and protect the brain and spinal cord
 Cerebrospinal fluid
• Fluid around the brain and spinal cord
Blood-brain barrier
• Controls the composition of cerebrospinal fluid
• Consists of walls of capillaries and neuroglia
• Failure can result in meningitis
Two Types of CNS Tissues

White matter
• Tissue of brain and spinal cord consisting of bundles of myelinated axons (tracts)
• Carries information between parts of the CNS
Gray matter
• Tissue in brain and spinal cord consisting of unmyelinated cell bodies, dendrites, and neu-
roglial cells

Regions of the Human Brain

During development, the brain is organized as three regions: forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain
The midbrain has a role in reward-based learning
The hindbrain and midbrain constitute the brain stem, which regulates breathing and reflexes
such as swallowing and coughing

Forebrain
• Cerebrum
• Localizes, processes sensory inputs; initiates, controls skeletal muscle activity; governs
memory, emotions, abstract thought
• Thalamus
• Relays sensory signals to and from cerebral cortex; has a role in memory
• Hypothalamus
• With pituitary gland, functions in homeostatic control. Adjusts volume, composition, temper-
ature of internal environment; governs behaviors that ensure homeostasis (e.g., thirst,
hunger)
Midbrain
• Relays sensory input to the forebrain
Hindbrain
• Pons
• Bridges cerebrum and cerebellum, also connects spinal cord with forebrain. With the
medulla oblongata, controls rate and depth of respiration
• Cerebellum
• Coordinates motor activity for moving limbs and maintaining posture, and for spatial orien-
tation
• Medulla Oblongata
• Relays signals between spinal cord and pons; functions in reflexes that affect heart rate,
blood vessel diameter, and respiratory rate. Also involved in vomiting, coughing, other re-
flexive functions

A Closer Look at the Cerebral Cortex

Cerebral cortex
• Thin, highly folded layer of gray matter on the surface of the cerebrum
• Controls voluntary activity, sensory perception, abstract thought, language and speech
• Two hemispheres have slightly different functions
Four lobes control separate functions
• Frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes
 • Somatosensory areas in each lobe receive sensory input
The Limbic System - Emotion and Memory

Limbic system
• Governs emotions, assists in memory, and correlates organ activities with self-gratifying be-
havior
Generally poorly understood but some regions have known function

The Spinal Cord

Portion of central nervous system that connects peripheral nerves with the brain
• Damage that disrupts signal flow can cause permanent loss of sensation and paralysis
The Peripheral Nervous System

Includes, 31 pairs of spinal nerves that connect to the spinal cord and 12 pairs of cranial nerves
that connect to the brain
Two Functional Division
• Somatic nerves
• Nerves that control skeletal muscles and relay signals from joints and skin
• Nerves that carry signals to and from skeletal muscle, tendons, and the skin
• Reflex − An involuntary response to a stimulus
• Autonomic nerves
• Relay signals to/from internal organs/glands
• Nerves that carry signals to smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands
• Parasympathetic neurons − Most active in times of relaxation; Predominates under normal
circumstances; facilitates resting and digesting
• Sympathetic neurons − Most active in times of excitement or danger; Predominates in
times of stress or danger; brings about fight-flight response

The Stretch Reflex

(Stimulus)
Addition of fruit to a bowl stretches the biceps muscle of the arm holding the bowl.
Stretching out of the biceps stimulates muscle spindles, which are receptor endings of a sensory
neuron. The stimulation triggers an action potential that travels along the sensory neuron’s axon
to the spinal cord.
In the cord’s gray matter, axon terminals of the sensory neuron synapse with a motor neuron,
causing it to undergo an action potential.
The action potential travels along the axon of the motor neuron to the biceps muscle.
When the action potential arrives at the motor neuron’s axon terminals, it triggers the neuron to
release ACh. The ACh triggers the biceps muscle to contract.
(Response)
Stimulation of the biceps muscle causes it to contract, so the bowl is held steady.

Effects of Autonomic Nerves

Sympathetic Effects
Eyes
• Widens pupils
Salivary Glands
• Increases salivation
Heart
• Increases heart rate
Airways
 • Widens airways
Stomach
• Slows secretions and movements
Liver, Pancreas
• Slows secretions to digestive tract
Adrenal Gland
• Increases secretion
Small and Large Intestines
• Slows secretions and movements
Bladder
• Inhibits urination
Genitals
• Promotes ejaculation
Parasympathetic Effects
Eyes
• Narrows pupils
Salivary Glands
• Decreases salivation
Heart
• Decreases heart rate
Airways
• Constricts airways
Stomach
• Increases secretions and movements
Liver, Pancreas
• Increases secretions to digestive tract
Adrenal Gland
• Decreases secretion
Small and Large Intestines
• Increases secretions and movements
Bladder
• Stimulates urination
Genitals
• Promotes erection, lubrication