Lec5. Classification of Organisms

Classification
of
Organisms
1
2019| Villacencio, Jerzon G.| Biology
2
Classification has many
purposes
• Human culture group animals according to
usefulness or destructiveness, roles in
mythology
– E.g. cattle, livestock, pests
• Biologists group animals according to

evolutionary relationship
– Natural system
3
Carolus Linnaeus
✢ The Father of Taxonomy

✢ published Systema Naturae, a new
approach to classifying nature that
used nested hierarchies
✢ 1736: binomial nomenclature
✢ Grouped organisms according to

their form and structure
There’s no systematic
(morphology)
organization of anything!
I’m going to fix that!

2 Kingdom System
✢ Linnaeus divided all

living things into two
kingdoms: Plants and
Animals.
✢ Used until 1960

However...
Moves, consumes food =
animal-like
Many one-celled
organisms, such as
Euglena, don’t fit well in a
2 Kingdom system.
Am I a plant? Am
I an animal?
Has chloroplasts,
photosynthesizes = plant-like
Let’s vote!
1. Euglena should be classed

as an animal because it
moves and can eat food
particles.
2. Euglena should be classed
as a plant because it
photosynthesizes and
makes its own food.

Another problem…
We both fly!
What are some other
issues that you can think
of with a classification Are we related?
system that is based on
appearance?

Which pair of organisms is genetically most similar?
A B C
1. A is most like B
2. B is most like C
3. A is most like C

Analogous structures:
Solutions to a common
challenge
Homologous structures:
Inherited similarities

Hierarchical
classification is
fine, but it must
be natural.
Oui, mon professeur,

classification should be
natural, but a hierarchy
is not natural.
Buffon Cuvier
11
Classifying by Common Descent
Charles Darwin’s
contribution, Natural
Selection, suggested that all
living organisms are related
by descent.
If we can understand
patterns of descent, we
can design better
nature-based
classification systems.

Clues of evolutionary history and common ancestry
Clues: Unique & shared features

• Fossils
• Anatomy of extant species
• Genetic code
Robert Whittaker The outdated 2-
Kingdom
system has got
— working in the 1940s-70s, to go!
developed first a 3-kingdom
system (Fungi, Plants,
Animals) and later a 5-
kingdom system.
King
Philip
Came
Over
For
Good
Soup
Carl Woese
✢ Added a new taxonomic level
above Kingdoms: Domains.
✢ Discovered the Domain Archaea
✢ 6 kingdom system There is a better
system that really
reflects nature.

Peptidoglycan in cell No peptidoglycan in cell
walls; 1 RNA walls; 3 RNA polymerases;
polymerase; react to enzymes similar to Membrane-bound
antibiotics in a different Eukaryotes; organelles; linear
way than Archaea do. extremophiles. chromosomes; larger,
more complex cells.
Prokaryotic
Eukaryotic
Kingdoms within Bacteria and Archaea are as yet undecided.

Eukaryotic Kingdoms, too, may change.
Did
King
Philip
Come
Over
For
Good
Soup?

How is grouping accomplished?
• by identifying organismal features, formally
called “characters”, that vary among
species
19
• Taxonomists find characters by observing
patterns of similarity among organisms in:
– morphological, chromosomal, and molecular
features and less frequently in behavioral and
ecological ones
20
Character similarity that results from
common ancestry is called homology
21
Ancestral character
- character present in common ancestor of
the entire group
22
Derived character
• character that arose later within the group
(more advanced)
23
Out-group
– phylogenetically close but not within the group
being studied
– point of comparison against the other
organisms
24
Ancestral character
• Any character state found both within the
group (in-group) being studied and in the
out-group
25
Birds
Mammals
Reptile Feathers In-group
Amphibian
Fur
Fish Out-group
Endothermic
Amniotic Egg
Four Limbs
Vertebrae
2019| Villacencio, Jerzon G.| 26
Biology
Derived character
All character states found in the study group
that are absent from appropriate out-groups

Biology
Birds
Mammals
Reptile Feathers In-group
Amphibian
Fur
Fish Out-group
Endothermic
Amniotic Egg
Four Limbs
Vertebrae
Biology
Cladistics
• Cladistics emphasizes the criterion of
common descent
• Under cladistics rules all groups must

be monophyletic (contains the most
recent common ancestor of all
members of the group and all of its
descendants)

Biology
Groupings showing relationship between
taxonomic groups and phylogenetic
tree/cladogram
Monophyletic
• taxon that
includes the most
recent common
ancestor of a
group of
organisms, and
all of its
descendants;
such groups are
sometimes called
holophyletic
Biology
Polyphyletic
• taxon does not
include the
common ancestor
of all members of
the taxon

Biology
Paraphyletic
• taxon includes
the most recent
common
ancestor, but not
all of its
descendants

Biology
33
Clade
• a grouping that includes a common
ancestor and all the descendants
(living and extinct) of that ancestor
• basic “unit” of a cladogram
* Clade should be monophyletic
34
Cladogram
• Evolutionary
relationship of a
group of organisms
• Each clade (group)
share something in
common
• Ancestral traits are
the oldest
• Derived traits
evolved later

Biology
Cladogram for Transportation

Biology
Cladistics
based on the presence of shared derived characters,

37
outgroup
Clade/ingroup (once shared a common
ancestor that had jaws).
Derived trait =traits shared

among ingroup but not with
outgroup
38
Cladogram
• Important in the formation of a
cladogram is the distinction between:
– synapomorphic (derived) and

symplesiomorphic (ancestral) characters
39
Synapomorphy
• A derived character shared by two or
more groups.
– E.g. Fur is a synapomorphy for the
various groups of mammals
• Synapomorphies are used to
determine evolutionary relationships
40
Birds Mammals
Reptile Feathers
Amphibian Fur
Fish Endothermic
Amniotic Egg
Four Limbs
Vertebrae • Synapomorphies
– Four limbs for amphibians,
reptiles, birds & mammals
– Amniotic egg for reptiles,
birds & mammals
– Presence of feather and
absence of fur are
synapomorphies that identify
the birds as a clade
41
Symplesiomorphy
• Character shared by a number of
groups
• Inherited from ancestors older than

the last common ancestor.
• Do not provide useful information on

nesting of clades within clades
Biology
Birds Mammals
Reptile Feathers
Amphibian Fur
Fish Endothermic
Amniotic Egg
Four Limbs
Vertebrae
• Symplesiomorphies
– Vertebrae for amphibians,
reptiles, birds & mammals

Biology
Principle of Parsimony
Systematics
— the combined study of taxonomy and phylogenetics
• Taxonomy - science of describing, naming, and
classifying species
• Phylogenetics - study of evolutionary relationships
among species
They tend to look at:

─ anatomy - a traditional method
─ molecular data - to examine genetic
similarities and differences
Biology
Feathers Fur Lungs Gizzard Jaws
Lamprey
Antelope
⁄ ⁄ ⁄
Sea bass
⁄
Bald eagle
⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
Alligator
⁄ ⁄ ⁄
2019| Villacencio, Jerzon G.| Biology 46
Systematics
— the combined study of taxonomy and phylogenetics
• Taxonomy - science of describing, naming, and
classifying species
• Phylogenetics - study of evolutionary relationships
among species
They tend to look at:

─ anatomy - a traditional method
─ molecular data - to examine genetic
similarities and differences
Biology
Biology
Characteristics Checklist
Characteristics Bryophyta Lycopodiophyta Pteridophyta Gymnosperm Angiosperms
Presence of
Cuticle &
Stomata
Vascular
Tissue
Pollen & Seed
Flowers and
Fruits
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Cell Organization Body Symmetry Embryonic Development Distinguishing
Features
No. of Fate of Blastopore Molting Body
Germ Layer Plan
Porifera Multicellular Asymmetrical N/A N/A N/A Porous bodies
Cnidaria Multicellular Radial two N/A N/A Cnidocyte/

stinging cells
Platyhelminthes Multicellular Bilateral three Protostome No Acoelomate Dorsoventrally
flattened
Mollusca Multicellular Bilateral three Protostome No Coelomate Mantle, Radula,
Visceral mass,
muscular foot
Annelida Multicellular Bilateral three Protostome No Coelomate Annuli and
segmentation
Nematoda Multicellular Bilateral three Protostome Yes Pseudocoelo Round bodies
mate
Arthropoda Multicellular Bilateral three Protostome Yes Coelomate Jointed
appendages,
chitinous
exoskeleton
Echinodermata Multicellular Bilateral three Deuterostome N/A Coelomate Spiny-skinned,
water vascular
system
Chordata Multicellular Bilateral three Deuterostome N/A Coelomate Notochord,
pharyngeal slits,
post anal tail,
dorsal nerve
chord
Phylum Chordata
Subphylum Cranium Vertebrae Jaw Lung Limbs Amniotes Distinguishin
precursors, g Features
Bony
Skeleton
Urochordata Tunicates No No No No No No Tunic covering,
saclike body
Cephalochordata Lancelets No No No No No No Elongated Body
with no heart
Vertebrata Jawless Fish Yes Yes No No No No
Cartilaginous Yes Yes Yes No No No Cartilage

Fish skeleton, paired
fins
Bony Fish Yes Yes Yes Yes No No Swim bladders,
paired fins
Amphibia Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Respire via lungs,
gills, and moist
skin
Reptilia Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Scales and
Feathers
Aves Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Scales and
Feathers
Mammalia Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Hair, Mammary
glands
CLASSIFICATION
SCHEME

Biology
Body symmetry

Biology
Embryonic stages
56
Germ layers
57
Body Plan
58
*Only in Triploblastic!
Fate of
the
blastopore
*Only COELOMATES!
Spiral
Radial
60
Digestive system
61
Systematics
(Cladogram)
From Algal ancestor to
Embryophytes
Embryo-bearing plants
Cell wall forms

after Cell Division,
Arrangement of
Flagella on sperm
Common Ancestor
Presence of
Cuticle &
Stomata
Vascular
Tissue
Pollen &
Seed
Flowers and
Fruits
Presence of
Cuticle &
Stomata
Vascular
Tissue
Pollen &
Seed
Flowers and
Fruits
Presence of
Cuticle &
Stomata
Vascular
Tissue
Pollen &
Seed
Flowers and
Fruits
Presence of
Cuticle &
Stomata
Vascular
Tissue
Pollen &
Seed
Flowers and
Fruits
Presence of
Cuticle &
Stomata
Vascular
Tissue
Pollen &
Seed
Flowers and
Fruits
Pollen and Seed

Presence of
Cuticle &
Stomata
Vascular
Tissue
Pollen &
Seed
Flowers and
Fruits
Presence of
Cuticle &
Stomata
Vascular
Tissue
Pollen &
Seed
Flowers and
Fruits
Dichotomous branching,
Lycophyll
PLANTS ANIMALS
Porous
Multicellularity Bodies
Radial Symmetry
Two
Germ layers
Stinging cells
Characteristics
Tissue Bilateral Symmetry
Protostome Development Acoelomate

Checklist
3 Germ layers
Trochophore Segmentation Mantle, Foot,

Larvae Visceral mass
Molting Pseudocoelom Jointed Appendages,

Exoskeleton, segmentation
Spiny skin, Radial Symmetry, Notochord, dorsal nerve cord,

Deuterostome Development
Water vascular system Pharyngeal slits, Post anal tail
2 Subkingdoms under
Animalia
Subkingdom Eumetazoa – animals with true
tissues
Subkingdom Parazoa – animals with no true
tissues
2 Types of Protostomes
Ecdysozoans – animals that exhibit ecdysis
or molting
Locotrophozoans – do not exhibit ecdysis

Mantle, Foot, Pseudocoelom Jointed Appendages,
Segmentation Visceral mass Exoskeleton, segmentation
Spiny skin, Radial Notochord, dorsal nerve
Two Symmetry, Water cord, Pharyngeal slits, Post
vascular system anal tail
Germ layers
Trochophore
Porous
Stinging cells Acoelomate
Larvae Molting
Bodies
Protostome Development Deuterostome Development
Radial Symmetry Bilateral Symmetry
3 Germ layers
Tissue
Multicellularity
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Cell Organization Body Symmetry Embryonic Development Distinguishing
Features
No. of Fate of Blastopore Molting Body
Germ Layer Cavity
Porifera Multicellular Asymmetrical N/A N/A N/A Porous bodies
Cnidaria Multicellular Radial two N/A N/A Cnidocyte/

stinging cells
Platyhelminthes Multicellular Bilateral three Protostome No Acoelomate Dorsoventrally
flattened
Mollusca Multicellular Bilateral three Protostome No Coelomate Mantle,
Radula,
Visceral mass,
muscular foot
Annelida Multicellular Bilateral three Protostome No Coelomate Annuli and
segmentation
Nematoda Multicellular Bilateral three Protostome Yes Pseudocoelo Round bodies
mate
Arthropoda Multicellular Bilateral three Protostome Yes Coelomate Jointed
appendages,
chitinous
exoskeleton
Echinodermata Multicellular Bilateral three Deuterostome N/A Coelomate Spiny-skinned,
water vascular
system
Chordata Multicellular Bilateral three Deuterostome N/A Coelomate Notochord,
pharyngeal
slits, post anal
tail, dorsal
nerve chord
Swim bladders, paired fins
Characteristics
Jaws
Cartilage skeleton, paired

Slime production
Cartilage
Checklist
Cranium
fins skeleton Lungs, Elongated Body with no

Vertebrae hearth
Limbs
Lung precursors, Bony Skeleton Amnion Tunic covering

saclike body
Respire via lungs, gills, and moist skin
Hair, Mammary glands Scales and Feathers

Hair, Mammary glands
Amnion
Scales and Feathers
Lungs,
Limbs Respire via lungs, gills, and moist skin
Lung
precursors,
Bony Skeleton Swim bladders, paired fins
Jaws
Cartilage skeleton, paired fins
Vertebrae
Cartilage skeleton
Cranium
Slime production
Elongated Body with no hearth
Tunic covering saclike body

Phylum Chordata
Subphylum Cranium Vertebrae Jaw Lung Limbs Amniotes Distinguishing
precursors, Features
Bony
Skeleton
Urochordata Tunicates No No No No No No Tunic covering,
saclike body
Cephalochordata Lancelets No No No No No No Elongated Body
with no heart
Vertebrata Jawless Fish Yes Yes No No No No
Cartilaginous Yes Yes Yes No No No Cartilage

Fish skeleton, paired
fins
Bony Fish Yes Yes Yes Yes No No Swim bladders,
paired fins
Amphibia Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Respire via
lungs, gills, and
moist skin
Reptilia Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Scales and
Feathers
Aves Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Scales and
Feathers
Mammalia Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Hair, Mammary
glands
End

Lec5. Classification of Organisms

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Lec5. Classification of Organisms

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Classification

• Biologists group animals according to

✢ The Father of Taxonomy

✢ 1736: binomial nomenclature

✢ Grouped organisms according to

2019| Villacencio, Jerzon G.| Biology

✢ Linnaeus divided all

✢ Used until 1960

2019| Villacencio, Jerzon G.| Biology

1. Euglena should be classed

2019| Villacencio, Jerzon G.| Biology

2019| Villacencio, Jerzon G.| Biology

2019| Villacencio, Jerzon G.| Biology

2019| Villacencio, Jerzon G.| Biology

Oui, mon professeur,

2019| Villacencio, Jerzon G.| Biology

Clues: Unique & shared features

2019| Villacencio, Jerzon G.| Biology

Kingdoms within Bacteria and Archaea are as yet undecided.

2019| Villacencio, Jerzon G.| Biology

2019| Villacencio, Jerzon G.| 27

• Under cladistics rules all groups must

2019| Villacencio, Jerzon G.| 29

2019| Villacencio, Jerzon G.| 31

2019| Villacencio, Jerzon G.| 32

* Clade should be monophyletic

2019| Villacencio, Jerzon G.| 35

2019| Villacencio, Jerzon G.| 36

based on the presence of shared derived characters,

Derived trait =traits shared

– synapomorphic (derived) and

• Inherited from ancestors older than

• Do not provide useful information on

2019| Villacencio, Jerzon G.| 43

They tend to look at:

They tend to look at:

Pollen & Seed

Cnidaria Multicellular Radial two N/A N/A Cnidocyte/

Cartilaginous Yes Yes Yes No No No Cartilage

2019| Villacencio, Jerzon G.| 54

2019| Villacencio, Jerzon G.| 55

Cell wall forms

Pollen and Seed

Protostome Development Acoelomate

Trochophore Segmentation Mantle, Foot,

Molting Pseudocoelom Jointed Appendages,

Spiny skin, Radial Symmetry, Notochord, dorsal nerve cord,

Locotrophozoans – do not exhibit ecdysis

Protostome Development Deuterostome Development

Radial Symmetry Bilateral Symmetry

Cnidaria Multicellular Radial two N/A N/A Cnidocyte/

Cartilage skeleton, paired

fins skeleton Lungs, Elongated Body with no

Lung precursors, Bony Skeleton Amnion Tunic covering

Respire via lungs, gills, and moist skin

Hair, Mammary glands Scales and Feathers

Hair, Mammary glands

Elongated Body with no hearth

Tunic covering saclike body

Cartilaginous Yes Yes Yes No No No Cartilage

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