CEMENT PLANT - FOLLOW UP

Technical Article
Adam A. Wajdowicz
The formulas presented in this table were taken from the current technical literature, and ordered in
an adequate manner.

The main purpose of this table is to supply our customers, in a compact form, with important
information to his daily work.

Of course this first form is neither complete, nor the best one. Suggestions will be welcome in future
revisions.

The usual ranges presented are only orientative, and may change considerably from plant to plant.

1. Lime Saturation Factor (LSF)

This formula is based on the evidence that MgO, up to 2%, will be totally combined with clinker
minerals, partially replacing CaO.

The excess MgO over 2% is present in the final clinker as periclase grains which, depending on
the clinker cooling rate, may lead to volumetric expansion during hydration.
LSF (MgO < or = 2) = 100 (C + 0.75 M) : (2.85S + 1.18A + 0.65F)
LSF (MgO > 2) = 100 (C + 1.50) : 2.85S + 1.18A + 0.65F
Usual Range = 90 - 98

OBS.:

· In the above equations, C represents the available lime content, i.e, the total lime after free
lime deduction.
· The SO3 is not incluaed because it is supposed to react preferentially with alkalies during
clinker burning.

a) When LSF > 98

Clinker burning is difficult, there is a tendency to high free lime contents, the potential C3S
is higher as well as the cement early strengths and the heat of hydration. When burning
coals with high ash content, the crude may have such LSF, but not the final clinker.

b) When LSF < 90

Clinker burning is easy, with low heat consumption. Free lime content is usually low. Due to
the excess of liquid phase in the burning zone,there is a tendency to ring formation and
coating washing. The basic bricks are infiltrated with clinker phases.

The potential C3S is lowered and the C2S is increased proportionally. The heat of hydration of
the finished cement tends to lower values. The clinker is bally and the nodules are hard to grind.
The final strength is increased. Depending on the SR and on the cooling rate, may occur clinker
dusting due to the Beta - C2S inversion.

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 2. Silica Ratio (SR)

SR = S : (A + F)
Usual = 1.8 - 3.4
The SR expresses the ratio between the calcium silicates and the interstitial phase of the clinker.
The higher the SR the higher will be the C3S + C2S contents and the lower will be the C3A +
C4AF contents.

a) When SR > 3
Clinker burning is impaired due to a decrease in the liquid phase content. There is a
tendency to dust formation and coating instabilization. Spurrite rings may appear at the
transition zone. The coating, when formed, has a low resistance to thermal shocks.The
tendency to clinker dusting is increased as well as the time of setting of cement.

b) When SR < 2
The burnability factor (BF) of clinker is decreased and an excess of liquid phase is present in
the burning zone. Depending on the SiO2 / Al2O3 ratio the viscosity of liquid phase may
decrease, causing brick infiltration with clinker minerals. The coating has a low softening
temperature and it is often washed away. The resulting bally clinker is hard to grind and its
strengths are lowered. The time of setting of cement is shortened and the heat of hydration
increased.

3. Alumina Iron Ratio (AR)

AR = A: F
Usual = 1.3 - 2.5

The AR greatly controls the viscosity of the liquid phase and the kinetics of C3A formation. Up
to 1338oC, to an increase in the AR corresponds an increase in the amount of liquid phase. In
the C-S-A-F equilibrium diagram, the 1338oC euthetic is formed when the AR = 1.38. In
presence of MgO, SO3 and alkalies, the effect of AR is diminished

a) When AR > 2.5

Too viscous liquid phase, high early strength and high heat of hydration in cement, low
sulfate resistance and also a marked tendency to quick setting.

b) When AR < 0.64

There is no possibility for C3A formation. The liquid phase has a high density and low
viscosity. The clinker is highly sulfate resistant and has a moderate heat of hydration.
Clinker burnability is impaired.

4. % Liquid Phase at the Burning Zone (LP)

The liquid phase is imprescindible for C3S formation during clinker burning. The normal value at
1450°C is 25%. For the quaternary system C-S-A-F the peritetic temperature is 1338°C.
However, the kiln is usually operated at higher temperatures to speed up the chemical reactions.

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 1338°C
If AR > 1.38 - % LP = 6.1 F + M + K + SO3

1338°C
If AR < 1.38 - % LP = 8.2 A - 5.22 F + M + K + N + SO3

1450°C
If AR < or = 0.64 - % LP = 3.00 A + 2.25 F + M + K + N + SO3

Usual LP at 1450°C = 25 - 28

In the presence of Al2O3, Na2O, K2O, Fe2O3, and SO3 the following apply:

· Al2O3, Na2O and K2O = Increase the liquid phase viscosity.

· Fe2O3 and SO3 = Decrease the liquid phase viscosity.

a) When % LP < 20
Tendency to dusty (fine) clinker, scarce coating, ring formation. The raw meal charge advances
continuously towards the burning zone causing kiln disturbances and upsets. Alkalies circulation
phenomena are increased and the preheater is continuously blocked. Dust rings are formed in
transition and burning zone.

b) When % LP > 30
As explained before in this paper, excessive liquid formation causes severe attack to the basic
bricks in the burning zone. The burden slides down the lining and coating, instead of cascading.
C3S is formed but decomposes easily into C2S and free lime.

5. Coating Index (AW)

The coating index has much to do with the coating formation and stability.

AR > or = 0.64
AW = C3A + C4AF + 0.2 C2S + 2 F
Usual 27 - 32
AR < 0.64
AW' = C2F + C4AF + 0,2 C2S + 2 F

a) When AW, AW' < 20

No coating is formed.

b) When AW, AW' > 30

Excessive but unstable coating, with tendency to ring formation.

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6. Minimum Burning Temperature (oC)

°C = 1300 + 4.51 C3S - 3.74 C3A - 12.64 C4AF

It is an empirical but very useful formula. Accordingly, the higher the C3S content, the higher
will be the clinker burning temperature for a given free lime content. Both the C 3A and the
C4AF decrease the burning temperature, and the C4AF is 4 times more effective in this aspect.
For instance, when C3S is 54%, let us compare two situations:

a) C3A = 11 and C4AF = 8 °C = 1401

b) C3A = 8 and C4AF = 11 °C = 1374

The lower the burning temperature, the less heat will be consumed and the longer the bricklife.

7. Burnability Index (BI)

The BI serves to compare the easiness of burning two different clinkers or crudes. The higher
the BI, more difficult will be the burning.

BI = C3S : (C3A + C4AF)

Usual 2.6 - 3.5

High early strength clinker, rich in C3S, will be more difficult to burn than an ordinary clinker.

8. Burnability Factor (BF)

This is another way to express the burnability of a given clinker or raw meal. It is easier to
calculate than the BI because it involves directly the chemical moduli and not the potential
composition. Both are faulty in that the raw meal fineness is not taken into account.

BF = LSF + 10 SR - 3 (M + Alkalis)
Usual 105 - 120

This formula takes into account the effect of MgO and alkalis in the
burnability.

9. Alkalis Equivalent (AE)

The AE expresses the total alkalis content converted into Na2O. The molecular weight of each
oxide is:
Na2O = 62 K2O = 94 So,

Na2 O
= 62 = 0.659 or Na 20 = 0.659 K 2O
K2 O 94

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 AE = Na2O + 0.659 K2O
Usual < or = 0.60%

Some countries limit this content to 0.60%, to avoid expansive reaction between cement and
aggregates. The alkalis have an interesting behaviour because they increase the liquid phase
content at the same time increasing the liquid phase viscosity.

10. Alkali Sulphate Ratio (ASR)

This ratio expresses the amount of sulphate needed to combine with alkalis to decrease the
circulation phenomena consequences.

Unfortunately it is not a molar or stoichiometric ratio.

ASR = SO3 : (Na2O + 0.5 K2O)

Usual 0.6 < ASR < 1.4

11. Sulphate Modulus (Mso3)

This formula gives the molar ratio between the sulphate and the other volatile components of
clinker. When this proportion is unbalanced, serious troubles during kiln operation may arise,
such as preheater blocking and ring formation between the inlet chamber and the transition zone.

Chlorine, the most volatile of the four components, is taken into account because it first
combines with Na+ and K+. The best range to minimize blocking problems is 0.83 - 1.00.

Mso3 = (SO3 / 80) : {(K2O / 94) + (Na2O / 62) - 2 (Cl / 35.5)}

12. Bogue's Potential Composition

Being potential, the clinker composition thus calculated does not correspond to the actual
composition but, it is a good approximation.

The value of lime in the equations means available lime after free lime deduction.It is assumed
that part of the total lime is combined with SO3 as CaSO4.

a) AR > 0.64
C3S = 4.071 C - 7.6 S - 6.718 A - 1.43 F - 2.852 SO 3
C2S = 2.867 S - 0.754 C3S
C3A = 2.650 A - 1.692 F
C4AF = 3.04 F

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 b) AR < or = 0.64
C3S = 4.071 C - 7.6 S - 4.479 A - 2.859 F - 2.852 SO3
C2S = 2.867 S - 0.754 C3S
(C2F + C4AF) = 2.10 A + 1.702 F
C4AF = 4.766A

The usual ranges for the minerals are expressed, together with their respective heat of
hydration Delta D Hydr.

13. Check the homogeneity of your process

In this section we present two easy and quick ways to check how homogenious your process is.

(1) Daily variations of ± 0,1 SR and AR or ± 1 in the LSF shows you an homogenious process
with an imediate effect on the coating behaviour.

(2) When we plot the daily data for SR x SAT on the correspondent graphic, two important
information arise: How difficult, normal or easy to burn is our clinker, and how
homogenious our process is since a big dispersion of the points will mean a big variation in
the process as a whole.

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