1: Overvoltages in high voltage installations

1.0 Standardization

What types of pulse voltages are there?

 Lightning Surge 1,2/ 50 μs, f = 200 kHz

o Increase in short-circuit current
compared to voltage slower
due to parasitic inductances
o front time T1 = 1,2 μs ± 30%
o back half-life T2 = 50 μs ± 20%
o Frequency spectrum from low
frequencies to several MHz
 Switching impulse voltage 250/2500 μs,
f = 1 kHz (approximation f ≈ 1 / Tr)
o Only used for gas-insulated systems from Um ≥ 245 kV, also from Un ≥ 220 kV because
of the other discharge mechanism compared to air, see 2.1.3
o T1 = 250 μs ± 20%
o T2 = 2500 μs ± 60%
 Each double exponential
course
 Characteristic values
o Just draw / determine
by 0.3 Û and 0.9 Û
o Virtual zero:
intersection with
timeline:
o Forehead: intersection with u (t) = Û
o Back half-life: Intersection with u (t) = 0.5 * Û

What types of surge currents / pulsed currents are there?

o Rated leakage current (standard flash) 8/20 μs; Peak value usually 5, 10, 20 kA
o 4/10 μs, 1/9 μs, …

What is the highest voltage in electrical supply systems worldwide?

o AC: Chained voltage up to 1000 kV

o DC: Up to 800 kV, research up to 1000 kV in China and India
o Rated voltage = voltage between conductor and conductor (interlinked voltage), voltage
between conductor and earth = rated voltage / √3
What are the test levels for medium voltage?

o 𝑈𝑁 voltage level, rated voltage

o 𝑈𝑀 Rated voltage = 1.2 * UN to 30 kV or = 1.1 * 𝑈𝑁 from 30 kV
o Lower voltage levels: Testing with AC voltage & lightning impulse voltage
o Upper voltage levels: Testing with alternating voltage, lightning impulse voltage & switching
impulse voltage (with GIS, see High Voltages - impulse voltages)
o Bandwidth at 𝑈𝑑 / 𝑈𝑝 / 𝑈𝑠 due to different network operators' requirements for important /
unimportant systems
o Higher requirements for opened switch contacts than for earth - Avoiding work overruns, safety
requirements
o Rated switching impulse voltage only from 300 kV: For insulation distances above 300 kV other
air breakdown mechanism, Leader is covered by switching impulse voltage, does not take place
at lightning impulse voltage, Leader takes longer
o With increasing voltage level, fewer and fewer reserves, physical limits, ever more compact
construction, additional voltage limiting measures

What types of overvoltages do you know?

o External overvoltages: lightning

o Internal overvoltages (see 1.2)
o Network frequency: distinction based on duration
o Transient: differentiation depending on the frequency spectrum
Cabling of the substation - Draw a single line diagram.

o 300 cable connections in switchgear

o Power Supply Power Circuit
Breaker (220V DC, UPS Backed Up
Power Supply)
o Current transformers, voltage
transformers
o Switch position signals (binary
signals, 220 V DC)
o At least two per switch /
disconnector: switch open &
switch closed
o Density monitor 𝑆𝐹6 , 20 mA: too
little 𝑆𝐹6 => do not open circuit
breaker = locking mechanism
o In case of short circuit: measure current and voltage transformers, signal Binary Out to
open the circuit breaker, Binary In as feedback

How many control panels are there in a 110 kV switchgear?

o About five
o Incoming line and outgoing line
o Two panels for two transformers
o busbar coupling

1.1 External overvoltages

How do you make lightning?

o Earth negatively charged to the ionosphere

o Potential φ (Phi) of the ionosphere of 300 kV with respect to ground
potential at a height of 100-300 km = constantly obtained charge
separation
o 𝐸𝑆 fair weather field strength, DC electric field, 100 - 200 V / m
o Charge separation of particles in this field according to
the field (dust particles, moisture)
o The updraft carries further small charged particles
upwards, which collide with the previously mentioned
particle and take over part of the (graphic: positive)
charge
o Resulting charge separation in the cloud
o 𝐸𝐺 thunderstorm field strength, 1 kV / m

What origins can a thunderstorm have?

 o Thermal: fair weather effect, warm air rises
o Cold front: Cold air pushes under the warm and pushes it upwards, then charge separation

Which phases does the formation of a storm cloud have?

o Phase of generation
o Development phase
o Saturation phase - strongest internal activity
o Reduction phase - strongest external activity, often with heavy rain
o Total duration approx. 1h

How is the isolation loss?

o Charge separation: High potential difference, so air must be ionized

o 1 Local electric field strength higher than the insulation strength of the air
o Electric channel ("streamer") grows in steps of tens of meters from the cloud towards
earth potential
o charge carriers are collected from the center of the cloud
o I = 0.5 - 1 A
o 2 Reload the channel from the center of the cloud
o New Leader
o No set direction
o 3 potential of the cloud is lowered, therefore increasing the local electric field
strength at the earth, catch discharge increases
o 4 lightning strike: Fang discharge unites with the leader

What are the critical field strengths of air and SF6?

o Air: 𝐸𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 = 28 kV / cm * bar

o 𝑆𝐹6 : 𝐸𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 = 88 kV / cm * bar

To how many impacts does it happen with a flash?

o A single flash = Up to ten hits in one second

o cloud is unloaded
o Return strokes = main flashes

Why are small-peak-up flashes so dangerous to humans and animals, high-peak-level lightning not
necessarily?

o Small lightning currents <100 A: small voltage drop across the body
o Lightning does not jump – deadly
o When tension above the body exceeds the dielectric strength of air, the flash bounces off the
body into the ground
o Decisive: lightning current
o Body resistance ≈ 500 Ω
o Power turnover in the body can be deadly (current flow)
 Sensation threshold 1 mJ
 Lethal energy ≈ 350 mJ (overhead lines: 10 J (?))
What is the internal impedance of the arc in the flash?

o Lightning currents are impressed currents that must be dissipated

o characteristic impedance discharge channel = internal impedance: 900 Ω at 50 kA lightning
current, 2000 Ω at 10 kA
o Strikes into low-impedance conductive structures, earthing resistances <10 Ω to a few 10 Ω (eg
foundations) (several hundred Ω mountains)
o Duration of some 10 μs
o Length of the lightning a few tens of meters

What types of lightning strikes are there?

o Lightning from negative clouds to the earth (90% of the flashes)

o Upward flashes of earth to the negative cloud
o Lightning from positive clouds to the earth (rare)
o Lightning from towers or tall buildings to positive clouds (rare)

What are the flash parameters?

o Current peak value - direct lightning overvoltages, linked by characteristic impedance

o Maximum current 200 kA
o peak of the traveling wave: û = 𝑍 * î
o Standard flash 30 kA (50% of all flashes)
o Maximum current increase - induced voltages in the phases (di / dt)
o charge-time integral - energy turnover at the point of impact, Erdseil must be able to absorb this
energy expenditure, thermal load
o charge square-time integral - thermal stress and force impulse between conductors due to
Lorentz force - mechanical load
o Lorentz force: force on a moving charge (current-carrying conductor) in an electric /
magnetic field

Why does the shelter expand in the event of a stronger flash?

o Hypothesis: When the leader's head has approached the objects on the earth except for a
certain end break distance hb, the catch discharge bridges the end breakthrough distance in the
shortest possible path.
o Lightning discharges, catch discharge comes from an object on earth
o The higher the lightning current of the first partial flash, the larger the final breakdown distance
hb and the larger the protection space: With larger current, the plasma channel is larger and
there are more charges available, these are dissipated; the conductivity is higher, the resistance
is lower and thus less voltage drops over the flash; it leaves more residual voltage for the
rollover to earth or the potential at the top of the flash rises and the shelter is larger
−î
o ℎ𝑏 = 2 ∗ î + 30 ∗ (1 − 𝑒 6,8 ), î in kA
How do lightning discharges on overhead lines work?

o Traveling waves on the ladders, reverse rollover

o Thermal stress
o Overload
1
o Direct impact into the conductor: û = î * 𝑍 * , some MV
2
possible (Z = 400 Ω, î = 20 kA)
o Indirect impact
 Much of the lightning between the clouds
 Influence = accumulation of positive, free charge
carriers on the overhead line
 After the lightning in the cloud these charge
carriers flow on the line
 = traveling wave after cloudbursts, i.A. <200 kV
 Danger for message lines, gas lines, MS lines etc.
 Especially in developing countries with insulated wires
o Direct mast impact: û = î * 𝑅𝑒 , 𝑅𝑒 = earthing resistance of the mast, some
Ω
 Critical to phase opposition, as the voltage difference between
mast and conductor then becomes the largest - breakdown most
likely
o Induced overvoltages
o In case of impacts in the ground
 Lightning current is dissipated via the earth cable to the next
mast
di
 𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑀 ∗
𝑑𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥
 Induced high di / dt voltages in adjacent circuits or conductor
loops
 Coupling M with electrical appliances / fences difficult to
determine
o Self-induction: At high curvature of the lightning protection device high
parasitic inductance
 High probability that the flash will fail
di
 û= 𝐿 ∗ 𝑑𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥
 o Lightning foot spot
o Entry point into a ladder: base, transition gas
plasma ladder
o Anode / cathode case
 Anode / cathode voltage of 10-20 V
independent of the current, with power of
several 10 kA => High performance
 material melts, earth rope must be thick
enough (fiber in the core)
 Low probability that lightning hits the same spot twice

o Adiabatic warming
o Adiabatic: The amount of heat added or removed is
irrele vant (applies as it is relatively short)
o Two parallel conductors, traversed by the current in the
same direction
o Field is raised in the middle
o Residual field, force on both leaders who pulls them in
the middle (why?)
o Bending in case of short circuit must be prevented

How is the shelter of a ground conductor geometrically

constructed? Please record shelter!

o hB is independent of the safety rod height, but only by

the requirements
o Lightning rods hit by lightning: breakthrough distance
is reached faster
o Shelter = Hatched room where the lightning will never strike
o For small lightning smaller shelter (due to less catch discharge), but lightning more harmless
o Table: 90% of the flashes greater than 10 kA

At which catch rod height is the shelter maximum? Why?

o (overlapping shelters due to several interception rods)

o Maximum safety rod height h = ℎ𝑏
o If the fishing rod is larger, the shelter at the bottom does not
become larger, but the shelter only becomes smaller if the
mast height / catch rod height is smaller than ℎ𝑏
o catch rod at increased potential - keep clearances, eg
ventilation systems
o Better protection e.g. through two earth cables
o Fence line = catching rod of an overhead line (earth rope)
o Shelter below the trap line
 o Suspension height with maximum
protection space h = ℎ𝑏 , otherwise
reduction of the protection space,
at h = 2 * ℎ𝑏 no protection space
o With a safety rope, the shelter can
become zero if the rope is too high

Why is the earth ladder partly omitted in

the mountains, always in medium voltage?

o High earthing resistances, some

100 Ω, therefore high voltage
differences between phases and mast, so high probability of
reverse flashovers (earthing resistance should be <10 Ω)
o Thus, in any case, lightning strike in the phase - omission is
more economical
o Remedy: earth conductor, protected area at the mast, surge
arrester ladder, earthing system
o MS: Isolated star point, earthing resistance goes against
infinity: no ground cables, as lightning strikes always
backward rollover

What is the step tension?

o Lightning strike in the ground

o Power is safely dissipated via the funnel
o 𝑅𝐾 ≫𝑅𝐴 ≫→Δ𝑈=î ∗Δ𝑅𝐴
ρE 1 1
o Δ𝑅𝐴 =𝜌𝐸2𝜋(1/𝑟1−1/𝑟2)Δ𝑅𝐴 = (
2π 𝑟1
−𝑟 )
2
o Δ𝑈 im Bereich von einigen kV

How is the risk of a flashback when lightning strikes determined?

o Criterion: Peak value of the voltage across the insulator must be less than the lightning impulse
withstand voltage of the equipment BIL: Û𝐼𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑔 <Û𝐵𝐼𝐿
o UBIL from table, BIL = Basic lightning impulse insulation level
o Insulation not loaded with chained voltage: peak value of conductor to ground = voltage of
conductor to ground * √2 = (Rated voltage ∗ √2)/ √3
o Û𝐼𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑔 =Û𝐿𝐸 + Û𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑡

4
Volume sphere 𝑉𝐾 = 3 π𝑟 3 , surface sphere 𝐴𝐾 = 4π𝑟 2 ,, smallest surface area at given vol.

Characteristic impedance of a conductor at a distance s above a plane

60Ω 2∗s
o 𝑍𝐸 = √εr * ln ( d )
 o s: height above the earth
o d: diameter of the conductor including fill factor

1.2 Internal overvoltages

Which internal surges do you know?

o Internal overvoltages = overvoltages that occur in the network itself

o Network frequency: distinction based on duration
o Continuous: Voltage boost at isolated neutral point (√3), in the range of several hours
o Short-term: range of a few seconds, partly high-frequency, transients, resonances in the
network, Ferranti effect
o Transient: differentiation depending on the frequency spectrum
o Switching overvoltages (250/2500 μs)
o Lightning overvoltages (1.2 / 50 μs)
o Very Fast Transients (in the range of ns)
 Wide frequency spectrum, low amplitudes - critical for inductors
 breakdown and reconsolidation in the ns range, eg 𝑆𝐹6

Where are Very Fast Transients (VFT) occurring? (?)

o Occur in gas-insulated switchgear (GIS) when the switch contacts of the earthing switch move
towards or away from each other due to multiple ignitions of the arc
o Flashbacks occur especially when restarting
o Steep voltage increase and reflection at the bushing

How can electrical flashovers occur between grounded parts?

o (?) For high frequency overvoltages, e.g. in insulating gases

o Ground only for frequencies around 50 Hz
 o Coupling to secondary technique by traveling wave effects
o Bridging of protective insulators
o Eg long cables in encapsulated switchgearWhat do the factors δ and κ describe?
o δ and κ are factors for measuring the overvoltage in the healthy phases in monotone ground
fault
𝑆𝑒𝑙𝑓 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑈𝑙𝑒𝑓
o δ= 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
=𝑈 mains frequency overvoltage, depending on neutral point
𝑚 /√3
treatment
𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 û
o 𝑘𝐿𝐸 = 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
= û𝑙𝑒𝑓 transient overvoltage
𝑙𝑒𝑓
o Factor for overvoltage of conductor against earth
o Peak value of the overvoltage related to the peak value of the rated voltage
o Typically in the range of 2.5 - 3.5

What is the single-pole ground fault? How big is the factor δ there?

o Three-phase network with isolated neutral point

o External conductor voltage is normally √3 higher than the
phase-to-earth voltage
o External conductor voltages in two phases remain even after
ground fault
o Star point shifts towards faulty phase
o Potential of the faulty phase is at ground potential, therefore the voltage in the "healthy"
phases increases by δ = √3

Draw and explain the course of current and voltage when switching short-circuit currents via circuit
breakers.

o U curve of the applied AC voltage at 50 Hz, inductive character of the net at high currents phase
shift of 90 °
o 𝑈𝐿 curve of arc voltage (100 V - 2 kV)
o 𝑈𝐸 transient recovery voltage
o 𝑖𝑘 Course of the short circuit current through the
circuit breaker
o Short-circuit currents from the network flow to
the fault location, light arc temperature up to
25,000 K.
o arc is cooled by gas, but arc resistance increases
due to heat extraction = "competition" between
reconsolidation of the switching path (cooling)
and voltage increase
o Electricity goes faster to zero than 𝑖𝑘
o From t1 no more arc, but hot gas between the contacts
o The contacts are connected to U, so the potential at the two contacts has to settle on it, TRV
oscillates - internal overvoltage in the LS, not in the network
o Voltage gradient du / dt up to 20 kV / μs
o Residual conductivity causes a residual current 𝑖𝑝𝑎 , which should be limited
What is the stored energy in capacitor and coil?
1
o Coil: 𝑊𝐿 = ∗ 𝐿 ∗ 𝐼 2 , [𝑊𝐿 ] = H*A² = (Vs/A)*A² = VAs = Ws = J
2
o Unit [L] = Vs / A = Ωs
o Component equation uL (t) = L * di / dt
1
o Kondensator: 𝑊𝐶 =2∗𝐶∗𝑈 2 ,, [WC] = F*V² = (As/V)*V² = VAs = Ws = J
o Unit [C] = As / V
o Component equation ic (t) = C * du / dt or C = Q / U
o plate capacitor C = ε * A / d
2π ∗ ε ∗ l Q 𝑟 𝑄
o Cylinder capacitor / coaxial cable 𝐶 = ln (r2/r1) with 𝑈 = 2π ∗ l ∗ ε ∗ ε0
* ln ( 𝑟𝑎 ) and 𝐶 = 𝑈
𝑟 𝑖

Draw and explain the voltage curve for ground faults (single line faults).

o Voltage curve in the three-phase system with

isolated neutral point for earth faults -
clarification - renewed earth fault
o Dashed star point voltage, continuous line
voltages UR, US, UT
o P1: Single line fault: earth fault at the time of
the peak of phase UR
o Faulty phase goes to zero potential
o Star point takes over the voltage -UR
and oscillates at 50 Hz
o Healthy phases follow and resonate
o Healthy phases: over-swinging, mains-frequency voltage increases by √3
o P2: Clearance: Error cleared while star point 1 p.u. reached (earth capacity of the neutral point
charges up and discharges slowly), which is why at this time the voltage of the healthy phases
and also of UR to 2 p.u. going
o P3: Re-ignition: Re-entry of the fault o star point potential drops from +1 p.u. to -1 p.u. = UStotal
– UR
o Healthy phases follow the transient response of this phase
o Overvoltage is even greater than at the first entry, since the phase voltage is already increased
by the displaced neutral point

How do you determine the ground faults δ and κ from the drawing?

o Only between P1 and P2:

√3 p.u
o δ: Consider the peak of a phase: δ = 1 p.u
≈1,732
2 p.u
o 𝐾𝐿𝐸 : Consider peak overshoot: 𝐾𝐿𝐸 ≈ 1 p.u
o Between P2 and P3 and in total:
2 p.u
o δ: Consider the peak of a phase: δ = 1 p.u
2,6 p.u
o 𝐾𝐿𝐸 : Consider peak overshoot: 𝑘𝐿𝐸≈ 1 p.u
o 𝐾𝐿𝐸 is dependent on the time of the earth fault, δ is not
Can the potential of the star point between t2 and t3 be different?

o Yes, depending on the phase angle at the time of interruption

o error at 0.5 p.u. → neutral point only by 0.5 p.u. relocated
o Second short circuit could be prevented if the error were clarified earlier

What does the voltage at the star point depend on?

o (?) ... Earth capacity

Which star points are often used at different voltage levels?

o Arrangement of the phases is reversed for impedance optimization (twisting)

o The higher the voltage, the more grounded
o Type of neutral treatment influences the magnitude of the fault currents, the voltage increase
and the transient overvoltages in the event of a fault
o HöS: Rigid Starpoint Grounding
o earthing resistance with 0 Ω
o In the event of a fault, large KS currents
o Lower overvoltages
o Fast detection and cut-off of these currents
through circuit breakers (100 ms)
o HS: Resonance Star Point Grounding (Deleted
Network)
o Grounding resistance in kΩ range (two earth
cables)
o High resistance during normal operation
o In the event of a fault, short-circuit currents
o Line can remain in operation, so that shutdown can be performed after a certain time
(time to switch off)
o MS: Isolated neutral point grounding (deleted network)
o Grounding resistance goes against infinity: no ground
cables
o Negligible KS current: No shutdown in the event of a
fault: Higher supply safety
o Not every interruption should lead to KS
o NS: Rigid star point grounding (mostly cable plus neutral)
o See HöS: Fuses detect KS current

What does the so-called Ferranti effect describe?

o Capacitive voltage increase at the end of long, lossless

(unloaded) lines with l> 100 km
o U2> U1, usually U2 ≤ 1.1 U1
o Unintended effect, is deliberately exploited in metrology
o resistance, in order not to receive an infinitely high voltage
U2 in the case of resonance; not included in the formula
Which areas have to be differentiated in star point treatment?

o The higher the voltage level, the more likely a rigidly earthed star point
o Arc suppression coil = Petersen coil

Which switching overvoltages can occur in the network?

o Worst" case: reconnecting a long, unloaded line (4.1 p.u.)

o line has negative charge surface by previous switching action, at the contacts are then 2
p.u. on, doubled by traveling waves
o Can be prevented by voltage transformer or compensation choke
o Switching of inductively loaded transformers (2,85 p.u.)
o Low current (some 10 A) is switched
o More in MS critical: vacuum switch & current chopping
o Switching on of long cables, see Ground faults (2.6 p.u.)
o Further switching overvoltages possible, foils 52f

Which factors influence the maximum switching overvoltage?

o Power System Equipment: Cables, Busbars, Transformers - Resistance, Freqency Dependency,

Saturation
o Power System Configuration: KS power, parallel lines
o Switching Parameters: Dielectric properties of the LS
o Operation Parameters: rated voltage and line frequency

How can switching overvoltages be reduced?

o Connecting inductances (voltage transformers) to avoid residual charges (?)

o Discharge of charge deposits via resistors
o Damping of overshoots / traveling wave processes when switching through damping resistors
o Synchronous switching, so that overvoltage is minimal - see HVDC (?)
o Synchronous loading (?)
o Surge arresters
How can a transformer be protected against overvoltages?

o Protection by surge arresters

o Enlarging the C by introducing capacitors in parallel with the stray capacitance with upstream
resistance to vibrations

1.3 Overvoltage protection

Draw and explain the structure of a surge arrester.

o Series connected resistors (varistor block)

o Overall height correlated with voltage level, diameter with energy
absorption capacity: 𝑅 = (ρ * 𝑙)/𝐴
o Nominal discharge currents of 5, 10, 20 kA (peak value of an 8/20 μs
pulse current)
o Exterior design depending on location and degree of pollution (double
screens with high pollution for long creepage distances)
o Early spark gaps, which ignite at certain voltage load, over the Wi-
resistors in series, the current is limited; outside porcelain case
o Porcelain explodes on thermal overload of the arrester,
additionally heavy
o Later pressure relief flaps and duct, gas discharge openings
o Hot gas with lower dielectric strength than air, short circuit
on the outside via the arrester, arc will burn on the outside,
material inside will be relieved
o 1 porcelain
o 2 pressure relief channel
o 3 pressure spring
o 4 desiccant (?)
o 5 copper jacket (?)
o 6 Pressure relief flap
o 7 seal - corrosion over 20-30 years
o 8 connection flaps
o 9 zinc oxide varistors, stacked
o 10 flange
o Today metal oxide arrester (ZnO), non-linear resistor, leakage current at some
μA, outside silicone housing, is sprayed directly onto the stack, no gas gap
o If overloaded the material will burst, no overpressure
o 1 GRP tape (Taping) that absorbs bending forces and fixes the stack
o 2 silicone
o 3 earth electrode
o 4 high voltage connection
o 5 Upper yoke
o 6 zinc oxide varistors, stacked
o 7 Glass fiber reinforced plastic ring that compresses the stack
o 8 Lower yoke
Explain the microstructure of a surge arrester.

o Zinc oxide crystals with bismuth oxide Bi2O3 as insulator in between

o Schottky junctions in both directions, ≠ diode, there only in one direction:
o Schottky effect: When a response voltage is exceeded, the material becomes
conductive. If the voltage collapses, it suddenly becomes insulating again
o Breakthrough speed and reconsolidation when exceeding the on-demand voltage in the
ns range

What is the task of a surge arrester?

o Limiting overvoltages to protect equipment such as transformers

o In max. 10 meters away from each power transformer
o Relatively cheap compared to equipment: MS: 100 €, HS / HöS: several 1000 €
o Below a response voltage like a capacitor, non-conducting; Ideally conductive from this voltage

What is the benefit of using zinc oxide compared to silicon carbide?

o Current through the arrester 𝐼 = 𝑘 * U α

o SiC
o High leakage current even at low voltages
o Use only with FS because of losses
o α=4–6
o ZnO
o Low leakage current - no FS necessary
o Fast response time
o α = 30 – 1000

What are the special features of surge arresters in the high voltage range?

o Stacking multiple arresters, such as a 110 kV arrester

o Upper varistors are more heavily charged due to stray capacitances, hence use of field control
gain
o Linear degradation of the electric field outside
o Lower breakdown voltage to earth

Terminology for voltage values

o 𝑈𝑚 rated voltage
o 𝑈𝑐 = 𝑈𝑛,𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑧 Max. Continuous operating voltage (𝑈𝑚 / √3)
o 𝑈𝑟 Last possible operational voltage = measurement voltage of the
arrester, 1.25 * 𝑈𝑐
o 𝑈𝑇𝑂𝑉 Temporary overvoltage = √3 * 𝑈𝑐 = 𝑈𝑚 (?)
o T TOV strength factor
o TOV Capability: Short term overvoltage load, slightly larger than UTOV
o 𝑈𝑝𝑠 Switching Impulse Protection Level, Upl Lightning Strike
o Voltage protection level - voltage to be measured via arrester, when
nominal discharge current such as 8/20 μs flows over it
 o 𝑈𝑤𝑠 switch-surge voltage, 𝑈𝑤𝑙 lightning impulse voltage
o Auslegeregel: factor 1.4 between Ups / Upl and Uws / Uwl - 110 kV: 550 kV Lightning impulse
withstand voltage → 𝑈𝑝 = 550 kV / 1.4 = 380 kV

Draw the current-voltage characteristic for a surge

arrester.

o Up protection level, voltage across output at

nominal leakage current - 1 p.u. at 10 kA
o Factor 1.4: reserve between working medium
strength and overvoltage protection
o Current does not follow the standard, with
higher frequencies at 4/10 μs and thus higher
voltages across the arrester due to parasitic
inductances

What is the meaning of Uref?

o Uref Voltage at which a current of 3 mA can be measured at the

arrester, change from capacitive to ohmic behavior, breakthrough
at Schottky transitions
o Graphic: mains voltage dashed
o Mains voltage below Uref: purely capacitive small leakage currents
(rushing forward), some 10 μA
o See comparison SiC – ZnO
o When the voltage is raised, the current becomes resistive and
superimposes the capacitive current (?)
o Steep climb
o Tapered, as in highly conductive area
o When voltage drops below Uref, the current becomes capacitive again (?)

What is the difference between capacitive and resistive current?

o Voltage below Uref → capacitive current, 90 degrees out of phase

o voltage above Uref → resistive current that follows the voltage curve directly

What shape does the resistive current flow have and why?

o Uref high current gradient, therefore sharp course of the resistive current (?)
How is the reflection factor defined?

o Traveling waves: current and voltage not only time, but also location dependent
𝑍 −𝑍
o Reflection factor voltage 𝑟𝑢 = 𝑍𝐸𝑛𝑑𝑒 +𝑍𝐾 = -𝑟𝑖 = reflection factor current
𝐸𝑛𝑑𝑒 𝐾
o Open end
o voltage 𝑟𝑢 = 1, current 𝑟𝑖 = -1
o Ex. with transformer: 10 kΩ against characteristic impedance of overhead line
o short circuit
o voltage ru = -1, current ri = 1
o eg termination with cable, low impedance
o Exception: dielectrically short termination with ZEnde = Zline, then no reflection: Wandering
waves only on lines, not behind them

What criteria must be considered when selecting surge arresters?

o Protection level Up depending on the lightning impulse withstand voltage of the equipment BIL
o Ur = 1.25 Uc of the arrester as a function of the system voltage
o permanent operating voltage
o Selection of the arrester depending on the neutral point
o Rigid earthed star point, single-pole fault - overvoltage up to 1.1 * Un → 1.25 with 15%
buffer
o Isolated neutral point, single-pole fault - overvoltage up to √3 * 𝑈𝑚
o Energy absorption capacity depending on cable length and cable capacity
o Energy that an arrester can absorb without becoming thermally unstable
o Normally, release the heat to the environment
o Red: cooling capacity over surface
o Blue: temperature the arrester would accept (power (?))
o operating point left stable, because power dissipation
higher than cooling capability (the other way round (?))
o arrester takes over the energy, with long cables large: 𝑊𝐶 =
1
* 𝐶 * 𝑈 2 and 𝐶 ~ 𝑙
2
o Influencing factors: frequency of discharges conditions,
material, ambient temperature, height, diameter
o Solution: increase the diameter or several arresters parallel
o Economic aspects

What is the characteristic impedance of cables and overhead lines?

R ′+ jωL′ L′′
o Characteristic impedance 𝑍𝑤 = √ 𝐺 + jωC′ , 𝑓ü𝑟 𝐻𝑆 𝑍𝑤 = √ C ′
o Overhead line: Zw = 250 - 400 Ω
o Cable: Zw = 40 - 60 Ω

What influence does the line inductance have?

o conductor cable 4 m, surge arrester 3 m, steel structure → 10 μH

o di / dt = 10 kA / μs
 o Voltage increase by arrester and supply line: U = L * di / dt = 100 kV

What is the propagation speed on a cable?

o v = c / √εr ≈ 200 m / μs with dielectric constant εr ≈ 2.25 (VPE) (air: 300 m / μs)

Draw and explain the protection range of a surge arrester.

o Area protected by a surge arrester

o Overvoltage is applied to arrester
o As long as the voltage across the arrester below Up is insulating
o Borderline case: arrester becomes conductive at Up and ideally
short-circuited
o The arrester reflects the incoming wave, therefore double the
current in front of the arrester
o End of the protection zone: intersection of the voltage line with Uw
o Protection zone = section between intersection and arrester, defined
in front of the arrester according to the standard, lies behind it

Image 1

o Red wave comes in

o Voltage higher than Up, therefore arrester becomes conductive and voltage is cut off at Up
o Reflection factor for the voltage ru = -1, therefore negative
traveling wave with -ΔU in both directions
o Blue curve results

picture 2

o Traveling wave continues a little further

o Lp: Protected area in front of the arrester where the voltage load
through the reflected wave is below UW
o Calculable via the propagation speed of the wave
(Uw−Up)∗v
o 𝐿𝑝 = 2 ∗ du / dt
o Transformer must be behind the arrester within Lp,
recommendation:
o 10 m bei Um ≤ 52 kV
o 30 m bei Um ≤ 145 kV
o 60 m bei Um ≤ 420 kV
Why does not the transformer break down when a wave with a voltage of Up or 0.5 * UW comes in?

o Arrester already starts to conduct, when the incoming wave is 0.5 * UP, as the reflec- tion UP is
applied to the arrester then the returning wave cuts off
o For an incoming wave with Up already exists a negative wave with nearly UP
o Overall, the voltage at the transformer in the protected area of the active and functional
arrester can thus reach a maximum of Up
o "Backward traveling wave from transformer to surge voltage at surge arrestor before TW
reaches UP at surge arrester"

What changes in the voltage characteristic of the surge arrester, if there is still a cable behind it?

o Cable has less characteristic impedance, so broken wave is smaller than Up and almost nothing
is reflected back to the output conductor
o Propagation speed in the cable lower, 200 m / μs

Is a surge arrester required at the end of a long line?

o Voltage overshoot due to Ferranti effect

o Nevertheless, no surge arrester, as this would have to switch in each half-wave and would break
quickly

How does the voltage curve at the surge arrester behave at a "faster" surge current, eg 4/10? (?)

o At 4/10 surge current behind a steeper rise, higher voltage at the same current
o arrester has inductivities / supply line to the arrester has inductances, so that the voltage drop is
higher