Designing Air-Distribution Systems

To Maximize Comfort
By David A. John, P.E., Member ASHRAE This article attempts to define the

A
space comfort as defined by Standard
n air-distribution system that provides occupant thermal comfort can 55-2010, noting that this does not tell
a designer how to select or space air-
be a complicated system to predict and analyze. Providing comfort distribution devices. Using ADPI, a
designer can select, size, and space
depends on variables from the obvious thermal conditions in a space, which outlets but can only measure the ther-
mal mixing, not the level of occupant
include radiant temperature, air speed, air temperature and humidity, comfort.
to the less obvious occupant metabolic rate and even choice in clothing. Predicting and Quantifying Comfort
The purpose of Standard 55-2010
A system can be successfully designed by understanding what makes us is to indicate the combination of in-
comfortable and selecting the proper air-distribution products and layout. door thermal environmental factors
and personal factors that will produce
This article discusses how HVAC de- a space. Until recently, the air diffuser thermal environmental conditions ac-
signers can select, size, and place outlets performance index (ADPI) as outlined ceptable to a majority of space oc-
using methods described in the room in Standard 113, Appendix B, was a cupants. The variables that define
air-distribution chapters in the 2009 method to predict occupant comfort. comfort in the standard are: metabolic
ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals to The cognizant committee for ASHRAE rate, clothing insulation, air tempera-
maximize occupant thermal comfort as Standard 113-2009, Method of Testing ture, radiant temperature, air speed,
defined in ASHRAE Standard 55-2010, for Room Air Diffusion, changed the and humidity.
Thermal Environmental Conditions for language used in the ASHRAE Hand-
Human Occupancy. book to indicate ADPI is a measure of About the Author
Standard 55-2010 addresses fac- predicted room air thermal mixing, not David A. John, P.E., is general manager, vice pres-
tors that determine human comfort in a direct measure of occupant comfort. ident of A.D.E. Engineered Solutions of Florida, Inc.

20 ASHRAE Journal a s h r a e . o r g September 2012

This article was published in ASHRAE Journal, September 2012. Copyright 2012 ASHRAE. Posted at www.ashrae.org. This article may not be copied
and/or distributed electronically or in paper form without permission of ASHRAE. For more information about ASHRAE Journal, visit www.ashrae.org.
+3 Hot
+2 Warm
+1 Slightly Warm
0 Neutral
–1 Slightly Cool
–2 Cool
–3 Cold
Figure 1: ASHRAE thermal sensation
scale from Standard 55-2010.
The thermal comfort chapter (Chapter 9) in the 2009
ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals details the science be-
hind comfort and describes these variables in detail. The com-
fort obtained in a space is most often determined by the outlets
selected, their size and how they are placed in that space. In
an overhead forced air system (most commonly specified in
U.S. office buildings), the outlet manufacturers’ catalog data
is used to properly select and space outlets. In most cases,
the outlet performance was tested per ASHRAE Standard 70-
2006, Method of Testing the Performance of Air Outlets and
Air Inlets.
To properly design an air-distribution system to maximize
comfort, the designer can use the outlet performance from the
catalog data to maximize mixing and minimize temperature
gradients in the occupied zone. A method that can be used to
predict mixing in the occupied zone is using the ratio of the
throw distance at 50 fpm (0.25 m/s) to the horizontal length of
the zone. This ratio is referred to as T50 /L and is documented
in the room air-distribution chapter of Handbook—Funda-
mentals. The T50 /L ration can be used to predict the result-
ing air-distribution performance index, giving the designer a
fairly good estimate of the mixing within a zone.
The test method to measure the ADPI for a space is Stan-
dard 113-2009. This is a method of test to measure air velocity
and temperature within the occupied zone.
Predict Occupant Comfort
Standard 55-2010 has been updated from the 2004 standard
with provisions that allow elevated air speed to broadly offset
the need to cool the air in warm conditions. This can be ap-
plied to natural ventilation applications, and to conventional
overhead (and other) air-distribution systems up to an air
speed of 150 fpm (0.8 m/s) with no local control, and up to
240 fpm (1.2 m/s) with local control.
Standard 55-2010 also includes graphical and computer
methods for determining comfort. The two methods include the
combination of air temperature and mean radiant temperature
as well as humidity, air speed, metabolic rate, and clothing in-
sulation. The ASHRAE Thermal Comfort Tool, Version 2, can
September 2012 ASHRAE Journal 21
Figure 2: Pre-
dicted percentage
dissatisfied based
on predicted mean
vote from Stan-
dard 55-2010.
be used to calculate comfort conditions and is available from
the ASHRAE bookstore. The graphical method can be used by
designers to meet the Standard 55-2010 definition of comfort. 
Predicted Mean Vote & Predicted Percent Dissatisfied
All the methods for predicting occupant comfort outlined in
Standard 55-2010 use the ASHRAE thermal sensation scale
that was developed to quantify people’s thermal sensations.
The predicted mean vote (PMV) index predicts the mean
response of a large group of people according to the ASHRAE
thermal sensation scale shown in Figure 1 (Figure 5.2.1.2
from Standard 55-2010). The PMV model predicts steady-
state comfort responses. The predicted mean vote/predicted
percent dissatisfied (PMV/PPD) model is widely used and
accepted for design and field assessment of comfort condi-
tions. ISO Standard 7730 includes computer code to calculate
PMV and PPD for a wide range of parameters. The equation
to manually obtain the predicted mean vote for a space was
developed by P. Ole Fanger (Chapter 9, Handbook—Funda-
mentals) and is fairly complex to solve. The equation includes
the following variables:
M = metabolic rate, met
Icl = cloth index, clo
v = air velocity, m/s
tr = mean radiant temperature, °C
ta = ambient air temperature, °C
Pw = vapor pressure of water in ambient air, Pa
A PPD of 10% corresponds to the PMV range of ±0.5, and
even with a PMV = 0, about 5% of the people are dissatisfied.
The PMV model defines comfort with +3, +2, –2 or –3 results,
which indicate discomfort (Figure 2).
Metabolic Rate
Also included in the Standard 55-2010 definition of comfort
is the metabolic rate for the occupants. In the standard, the unit
used to express the metabolic rate is the met, which is defined
as the metabolic rate of a sedentary person who is seated and
quiet (1 met = 58.1 W/m2).
Figure 3: Graphic comfort zone method from Standard 55-2010.
The metabolic rates ranging from 1.0 to 1.3 is typical of
an office worker in near sedentary physical activity such as
working at a desk in a seated position. More information on
metabolic rate can be found in the Standard 55-2010 Norma-
tive Appendix A activity levels. Also, a detailed discussion of
metabolic rate can be found in Chapter 9, Handbook—Fun-
damentals.
Clothing Insulation
Clothing insulation is measured in units of clo. As a refer-
ence, the 0.5 clo is typical for an office environment in the
summer and 1.0 clo is typical for the office environment in
the winter. The Normative Appendix B, Clothing Insulation,
in the standard is a good reference for calculating different clo
values for occupants. Clothing insulation is discussed in detail
in Chapter 9, Handbook—Fundamentals.
Radiant Temperature Asymmetry
Occupant comfort is also affected by the thermal radiation
field around the body, which can cause discomfort. The radi-
ant temperature asymmetry is caused by factors such as hot or
cold surfaces or direct sunlight. The radiant temperature may
22 ASHRAE Journal a s h r a e . o r g September 2012
differ from the dry-bulb temperature in a space. Standard 55-
2010 does include allowable radiant temperature asymmetry
for a space. Also, Chapter 9, Handbook—Fundamentals, is a
good reference.
Standard 55-2010 lists four methods for evaluating comfort:
1. Graphic Comfort Zone Method for Typical Indoor Envi-
ronments;
2. Computer Model Method for General Indoor Applica-
tions;
3. Graphical Elevated Air Speed Method; and
4. Standard Effective Temperature (SET) Model.
All four methods include human factors that determine
comfort such as metabolic rate and clothing insulation, and
thermal factors such as space temperature, air velocity, hu-
midity, and radiant temperature.
1. Graphic Comfort Zone Method
The graphical method for predicting comfort in Standard
55-2010 assumes the occupants’ metabolic rate is between
1.0 and 1.3 met and the clothing worn is between 0.5 and 1.0
clo (typical for an office). This method predicts comfort for
an acceptance level of 80%. This is based on a 10% PMV-
Figure 4 (left): Graphical elevated air speed method. Figure 5 (right): Standard effective temperature (SET) method.

PPD index plus an additional 10% dis- Diffuser Type Characteristic Length L
satisfaction that may occur from local High Sidewall Grille Distance to Wall Perpendicular to Jet
thermal discomfort. Air speeds are not
Circular Ceiling Pattern Diffuser Distance to Closest Wall or Intersecting Air Jet
greater than 40 fpm (0.20 m/s). The
method includes two areas of comfort: Sill Grille Length of Room in Direction of Jet Flow
one for clothing insulation of 0.5 clo Ceiling Slot Diffuser Distance to Wall or Midplane Between Outlets
and one for 1.0 clo (Figure 3).
Distance to Midplane Between Outlets Plus
Added to Standard 55-2010 is pre- Light Troffer Diffusers
Distance from Ceiling to Top of Occupied Zone
diction of comfort using elevated air
Cross-Flow Pattern Ceiling Diffusers Distance to Wall or Midplane Between Outlets
speeds. The graphical method includes
Figure 4 to calculate the required air Table 1: Characteristic room length for several diffusers from 2009 Handbook—
speed for applications with both mean Fundamentals.
and radiant temperatures. This figure
allows for elevated air speeds of more than 150 fpm (0.76 ASHRAE Thermal Comfort Tool
m/s). The ASHRAE Thermal Comfort Tool is a convenient method
to predict PMV/PPV for a space. The tool allows designers to
2. Computer Model Method predict PMV based on standard conditions, elevated air speeds,
The computer model method predicts the PMV and PPD for and adaptive method. The program allows users to input air tem-
a given space. The standard includes computer code (Norma- perature, air speed, humidity ratio, mean radiant temperature,
tive Appendix D) that assumes an average metabolic rate be- activity level (that converts to met) and clothing (that converts
tween 1.0 and 2.0 met, and where clo values of the occupants to clo). The program output shows PMV and PPD, as well as in-
are 1.5 or less. dicates whether the selection complies with Standard 55-2010.

3. Graphical Elevated Air Speed Method Selecting Outlets to Maximize Comfort

Included in Standard 55-2010 is the elevated air speed
method that allows for higher space temperatures and room
air velocities. The comfort level obtained depends on wheth-
er or not the occupants have local control of air speed. This
method applies to a lightly clothed person with clothing in-
sulation between 0.5 and 0.7 clo who is engaged in near sed-
entary physical activity with a metabolic rate between 1.0
and 1.3 met.
4. Standard Effective Temperature (SET) Model
This method in Standard 55-2010 uses a thermophysi-
ological simulation of the human body and skin heat loss
to predict the occupant’s comfort level. This model enables
air velocity effects on thermal comfort to be related across
a wide range of air temperatures, radiant temperatures, and
humidity ratios (Figure 5).
Standard 55-2010 can be used by designers to predict the
comfort level of a space based on PMV, but the standard does
not indicate to designers where to locate air-distribution de-
vices. For an overhead forced air system, the tools available
to the designer to maximize the occupant comfort level is the
manufacturers’ outlet performance obtained per Standard 70-
2006, and the T50/L ratio to predict the ADPI.
Method of Testing for Room Air Diffusion
A method to calculate the ADPI value in a space with over-
head mixing air distribution operating in cooling is outlined in
Standard 113-2009, which defines a repeatable method of testing
steady-state air diffusion performance of an air-distribution sys-
tem in occupied zones of building spaces. The standard is based
on air velocity and air temperature distributions at specified cool-
ing loads and operating conditions. The standard can be applied to

24 ASHRAE Journal a s h r a e . o r g September 2012

furnished and unfurnished spaces, actual Room
T50/L for Maximum For ADPI Range of
or laboratory conditions, with or without Terminal Device Load,
Maximum ADPI ADPI Greater Than T50/L
occupants. The standard is not applicable Btu/h·ft2
to naturally ventilated building space. 80 1.8 68 — —
Appendix B of Standard 113-2009 60 1.8 72 70 1.5 to 2.2
states that the test procedures can be used High Sidewall
40 1.6 78 70 1.2 to 2.3
Grilles
to generate the air distribution perfor- 20 1.5 85 80 1.0 to 1.9
mance index for a space. The ADPI is a <10 1.4 90 80 0.7 to 2.1
single-number rating of the air diffusion
80 0.8 76 70 0.7 to 1.3
performance of a system of diffusers, as
60 0.8 83 80 0.7 to 1.2
installed in a defined space, for a specified Circular Ceiling
supply air delivery rate and space load. 40 0.8 88 80 0.5 to 1.5
Diffusers
ADPI is based only on air speed and effec- 20 0.8 93 80 0.4 to 1.7
tive draft temperature and is not directly <10 0.8 99 80 0.4 to 1.7
related to the wet-bulb temperature or rel- 80 1.7 61 60 1.5 to 1.7
ative humidity. Wet-bulb temperature, hu- Sill Grille, 60 1.7 72 70 1.4 to 1.7
midity, and similar effects (such as mean Straight Vanes
40 1.3 86 80 1.2 to 1.8
radiant temperature) should be accounted 20 0.9 95 90 0.8 to 1.3
for according to Standard 55-2010.
80 0.7 94 90 0.6 to 1.5
The ADPI method requires calculat- Sill Grille, 60 0.7 94 80 0.6 to 1.7
ing the effective draft temperature at Spread Vanes
40 0.7 94 — —
multiple points. The effective draft tem-
perature is: 20 0.7 94 — —
fn = tacn – tac – 0.07 (van – 30)°F Ceiling Slot
80 0.3 85 80 0.3 to 0.7
where Diffusers (for 60 0.3 88 80 0.3 to 0.8
fn = effective draft temperature at T100/L) 40 0.3 91 80 0.3 to 1.1
test point n 20 0.3 92 80 0.3 to 1.5
tacn = corrected temperature at test 60 2.5 86 80 <3.8
Light Troffer
point n Diffusers 40 1.0 92 90 <3.0
tac = average test zone temperature 20 1.0 95 90 <4.5
van = time-averaged speed at test
Cross-Flow 11 to 50 2.0 96 90 1.4 to 2.7
point n Pattern Diffusers 11 to 50 2.0 96 80 1.0 to 3.4
ADPI = Number of test points that meet Table 2: Air diffusion performance index (ADPI) selection guide from 2009 Hand-
effective draft temperature criteria book—Fundamentals.
(–3°F and +2°F) %
Total number of test points (this would not apply to naturally ven- Conclusion
tilated space, or high velocity, high Designers can select design condi-
ADPI is for traditional overhead air- temperature designs). This method tions using Standard 55-2010 based on
distribution systems under cooling op- can be used to select the type of out- clothing, metabolic rate, humidity, radi-
eration only. The results can be used as let, the size, and throw distance and ant temperature, and air speed. For an
an indicator of occupant comfort in a spacing to maximize the performance overhead forced air system, the outlet
space. A high percentage of people will of an outlet. T50 is the manufacturers’ can be selected, sized, and placed using
be comfortable under sedentary condi- cataloged throw data to 50 fpm (0.25 data obtained using the testing proce-
tions where the effective draft tempera- m/s) and L is the characteristic length dures as outline in Standard 70-2006 and
ture is between –3°F and +2°F with an of the space being evaluated. L is de- the T50 /L method prescribed in Chap-
air speed of less than or equal to 70 fpm fined per Table 1 (Page 24) dependent ter 20, Space Air Diffusion, in the 2009
(–1.7°C and +1.1°C with an air speed of the outlet type and layout. ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals, to
less than or equal to 0.35 m/s). The By determining the value of T 50 predict ADPI values. By selecting and
ADPI is the percent of test points that from a manufacturer’s catalog, and placing outlets to achieve ADPI values
meet these criteria. measuring the characteristic length of 80% or more, the design can predict a
L from the projects plans, the ratio well thermally mixed system. The result-
Using T50 /L to Select Outlets can be determined and the predicted ing level of comfort can be predicted and
A designer can use the ratio of T50 /L ADPI value can be estimated from measured using one of the four methods
to predict the level of mixing in a zone Table 2. prescribed in Standard 55-2010.

26 ASHRAE Journal a s h r a e . o r g September 2012