Section III: Understanding Culture, Society and Politics as

a Scientific Endeavor
Almost everyone in the modern world is acquainted with the term “science”. All educational
institutions starting from pre-school to college are offering subjects in the field of science such
as general science, biology, chemistry and environmental science.
The scientific method as the method of objectivity
Science has shaped the world as we know today. It is through science that the modern people
can and is actually experiencing luxurious way of life compared to the kind of lifestyle in the older
version of human civilization. Science paved the way for modern technological gadgets and other
implements. Science also attract the attention of many thinkers, philosophers, anthropologist
and sociologist alike. They wanted to know what’s with science that made it successful as a craft.
As philosophers studied science they came to a conclusion that what made science fruitfully its
method.
The scientific method is characterized by its exact and clear-cut way of inquiring Into the nature
of things. In short the scientific method is a kind of design that is precise that is used for
conducting research.
The methods of science can be generally capsulized into five steps:
1. Making OR Stablishing a hypothesis
2. Determining ways to test the hypothesis
3. Testing hypothesis
4. Analyzing the data gathered
5. Formalizing the conclusion inferred from the entire process

1. making or stablishing the hypothesis

All sorts of knowledge start with a curious mind. Making a hypothesis is a product of human
curiosity. When scientist start a particular study, an intelligent guess is needed. A hypothesis is
important because it serves as the guiding light that will direct the conduct of the scientific
inquiry.

2. determining ways to test the hypothesis

After making a hypothesis it is now imperative for a scientist to determine the different ways that
are possible to test a hypothesis. Establishing a hypothesis will be futile if a scientist will not be
able to determine ways to test the hypothesis.
 3. testing hypothesis
After determining the ways to test the hypothesis it is now the time to test the hypothesis
through observation and experimentation. Through this method most of the necessary data will
be gathered and the researcher will be able to tabulate it for easier references.

4. analyzing the data gathered

When the testing of the hypothesis is done the researcher will be able to gather the data for the
research. After all the data gathered it is now the time for the scientist to analyze the data in the
light of the different general standard principles used by researchers to analyze the data.

5. formalizing the conclusion inferred from the entire research process

Making the conclusion is the last stage of the research process. It is the stage when all is done
and nothing is left but to deduce the conclusion from the premises established. It is after this
stage is completed that a scientific breakthrough or a new finding will be discovered

Objectivity, Empiricism, and Deductivism

If there is one thing or word that can characterized science, it is none other than the word
objective or objectivity. Being objective can be generally defined as the mental state that only
adheres to the true nature of things through observation and not relying on interpretation.
Another way of characterizing it is that it is a means of searching for the truth simply by observing
or looking into a particular thing without a bias or prejudice.
Empiricism can be generally defined as the gathering of knowledge about the world through
sense perception In an empirical observation the observer uses his five senses in order to
perceive a particular phenomenon. The observer uses all of the five senses to gain knowledge or
idea about the world.
Deductivism is a term actually coined by the positivist philosopher Karl Popper(1934).
Deductivism was a term derived from a kind of reasoning called deduction. There are two Kind
of reasoning first is the deductive reasoning and the inductive reasoning. In order to fully
appreciate deduction, it is necessary to contrast it with its counterpart which is induction.
Deduction is a kind of reasoning that relies on the "a priori" knowledge that comes before
experience. A priori knowledge is a kind of knowledge that is present even before any kind of
sensory experience. Knowledge of logic and mathematics are examples of knowledge that comes
before experience. Inductive reasoning on the other hand pertains to a kind of reasoning that
adheres to a posteriori knowledge or knowledge after experience. Inductive reasoning is the
exact opposite of deductive reasoning. Inductive knowledge is gained after sensory experiences
and therefore a product of human perception through the use of the five senses. Induction is the
core of empiricism.
Science can be fully appreciated by understanding the co-mingling of both empiricism and
deductivism. Science is a product of observing empirical data that is derived from human sensory
experience. However, empiricism alone cannot underscore the entirety of science because the
empirical data must be critically analyzed through the use of deductive reasoning in order for it
to become fruitful. Empirical data must be analyzed through the use of logic and mathematics in
order for it to be considered scientific. This kind of science was shown by none other than the
hero of science in the 20th century, Albert Einstein. Einstein believed in the deductive character
of science and not merely relied on empirical data. He explained things that can be observed such
as black holes and supernovas. If science is limited to empiricism, then studying black holes and
other entities and heavenly bodies in the universe that cannot be observed are not scientific.
Hence, science is both a product of empiricism and deductivism.

Karl popper was known for his idea of objectivity in science highlighted by his criteria of
falsifiability. In his famous book the logic of scientific discovery that the criteria of falsifiability is
the delineating factor that divides scientific fields to non-scientific fields.

Science and the Modern World

Science brought modern technology within the grasp of human beings. Science also determines
the way we see the entire cosmos around us. Without science, the world where we live in right
now will be very different. From humble beginnings, science has materialized into something
great that even non-scientific fields recognize. When you look around, it is impossible to find
something that has no touch of science. The modern world is a world characterized by science.
Modernization was also brought by the scientific discoveries late in the 19th century. From the
industrial revolution to the present science is still revolutionizing the way we see the world.
Twenty years ago many phenomena featured in science fiction movies such as Star Trek are now
slowly turning into reality. Several decades ago black holes are just a matter of science fiction but
now it is already a legitimate object of research. Space-time travel before was a scientific taboo
but now scientists are exploring its possibilities and consequences. Genetic engineering today is
widely used to foster food production. These are just a few things science has sponsored in the
20th century scientific escapades. Up to this point science is still moving forward and is continuing
to perfect itself. We do not know how much it can grow or up to what extent is its potential to
help mankind. One thing is for sure, science will stand side by side man as it battles the test of
time.
Sociology as the Scientific Study of the Society
We have studied so far that the study of human society was inspired by the scientific method.
Sociologists in the 19th century such as Comte, Durkheim, Marx and Weber were almost
synonymous in their approach to sociology. Sociology studies patterns of behavior, human
nature, consequences of social movements and many other social endeavors. These topics speak
about one thing, and that is the complexity of human psychology and actions. Humans are so
unpredictable that sociologists find it very difficult to encapsulate humans into general laws that
will explain everything. The society is a dynamic organism that grows and evolves together with
the growth and evolution of humans. Humans can be very perilous to understand how much
more the entire society which is composed of several thousand humans.

Anthropology as the Scientific Study of Humanity

Just like sociology, anthropology belongs to the realm of the social sciences. However,
anthropology could be considered more scientific than sociology because anthropology studies
human evolution and artifacts that can only be understood through archeology. Just like all
sciences, anthropology involves observation of actual facts and even artifacts and its conclusion
could be verified or falsified. It is also inspired by the same scientific method that guides all kinds
of sciences. However just like the predicament in sociology, anthropology involves studying
unpredictable human beings. In this way, anthropology shares the dilemma in all social sciences.
That is the unpredictability of human nature. Political Science as the Scientific Study of the State
and its Consequences Political Science is a social science that deals and studies the state and all
its consequences. When it comes to its scope, it is actually diverse such as the case of sociology
and anthropology. Dealing with people's political behavior inside the state setting could be very
complicated and perplexing. Political scientists study politics inside the state in an objective
manner by employing standard research which is characterized as scientific and objective.

The Physical Sciences and the Social Sciences

Although science is a rather general field and is characterized merely because of its method. The
way science is conducted in the physical world is different from the way science is depicted in
the social world. Hence physical science is different from social science in certain aspects. The
physical sciences are basically the science of the physical or material world. It is the science of
the tangible world that we see and experience. Examples of the physical sciences are physics,
biology, chemistry, geology and astronomy. These kinds of sciences are categorized as exact
science This is so because the object of inquiry in these physical sciences is the physical world or
other natural phenomenon that are regularly occurring in this world. The general laws governing
the physical world are characterized with particularity and hence objective. The physical world
can be examined by thorough and guided observation and in effect general laws operating in
nature can be comprehended.
The social science cannot be commensurate with the physical science because their object of
inquiry is not the same. The social sciences study human behavior as it relates to the society and
its institutions. It deals with the intrinsic values underlying human nature. The object of social
science which is basically human nature can be measured in a scientific way that is by the
observance of the scientific method but cannot be measured in the same standard used in the
physical sciences. The general laws governing the physical world is more exact compared to the
general laws governing the social world.

Social Science as a Science

The social sciences are utilizing the scientific method as a mode of their inquiry but cannot
produce the same result as that of the physical sciences. This is due to the intrinsic difference
that divides the two bodies of knowledge. However, this does not mean that the knowledge
derived from the social sciences is not reliable. The social sciences are reliable because it is also
utilizing the scientific method or the method of objectivity but its conclusions are less reliable
compared to the conclusions found in the physical sciences. The social world is not as predictable
as the physical world where the general laws operating in it are more exact and more
quantifiable. Human nature and human behavior sometimes can be very elusive, more
complicated and less objective. Social scientists may try their best to be objective and scientific
but there will always be instances when the results of their findings will be compromised by a
little bias founded by human prejudice.

Thomas Kuhn was one of the scientist who contented against poppers concept of falsifiability.
He claimed that science is a product of scientific revolutions.