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GATE
ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION
Analog Circuits
Vol 5 of 10
RK Kanodia
Ashish Murolia
Information contained in this book has been obtained by author, from sources believes to be reliable. However,
neither NODIA & COMPANY nor its author guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any information herein,
and NODIA & COMPANY nor its author shall be responsible for any error, omissions, or damages arising out of
use of this information. This book is published with the understanding that NODIA & COMPANY and its author
are supplying information but are not attempting to render engineering or other professional services.
MRP 660.00
Later, we perceived that many aspirants couldn’t develop a good problem solving approach in their B.E/B.Tech.
Some of them lacked the fundamentals of a subject and had difficulty understanding simple solutions. Now,
we have an idea to enhance our content and present two separate books for each subject: one for theory, which
contains brief theory, problem solving methods, fundamental concepts, and points-to-remember. The second book
is about problems, including a vast collection of problems with descriptive and step-by-step solutions that can
be understood by an average student. This was the origin of GATE Guide (the theory book) and GATE Cloud
(the problem bank) series: two books for each subject. GATE Guide and GATE Cloud were published in three
subjects only.
Thereafter we received an immense number of emails from our readers looking for a complete study package
for all subjects and a book that combines both GATE Guide and GATE Cloud. This encouraged us to present
GATE Study Package (a set of 10 books: one for each subject) for GATE Electronic and Communication
Engineering. Each book in this package is adequate for the purpose of qualifying GATE for an average student.
Each book contains brief theory, fundamental concepts, problem solving methodology, summary of formulae,
and a solved question bank. The question bank has three exercises for each chapter: 1) Theoretical MCQs, 2)
Numerical MCQs, and 3) Numerical Type Questions (based on the new GATE pattern). Solutions are presented
in a descriptive and step-by-step manner, which are easy to understand for all aspirants.
We believe that each book of GATE Study Package helps a student learn fundamental concepts and develop
problem solving skills for a subject, which are key essentials to crack GATE. Although we have put a vigorous
effort in preparing this book, some errors may have crept in. We shall appreciate and greatly acknowledge all
constructive comments, criticisms, and suggestions from the users of this book. You may write to us at rajkumar.
kanodia@gmail.com and ashish.murolia@gmail.com.
Acknowledgements
We would like to express our sincere thanks to all the co-authors, editors, and reviewers for their efforts in
making this project successful. We would also like to thank Team NODIA for providing professional support for
this project through all phases of its development. At last, we express our gratitude to God and our Family for
providing moral support and motivation.
Transistor biasing and stabilization. Small signal analysis. Power amplifiers. Frequency response. Wide banding
techniques. Feedback amplifiers. Tuned amplifiers. Oscillators. Rectifiers and power supplies. Op Amp, PLL, other
linear integrated circuits and applications. Pulse shaping circuits and waveform generators.
**********
1.2 DIODE 1
1.2.1 Operating Modes of a Diode 1
1.2.2 Current-Voltage Characteristics of a Diode 2
1.2.3 Current-Voltage Characteristics of an Ideal Diode 2
1.3 LOAD LINE ANALYSIS 3
EXERCISE 1.1 18
EXERCISE 1.2 36
EXERCISE 1.3 42
SOLUTIONS 1.1 47
SOLUTIONS 1.2 90
4.6 SOME STANDARD CONFIGURATIONS FOR ENHANCEMENT TYPE MOSFET CIRCUITS 331
4.6.1 Feedback Biasing Configuration 331
4.6.2 Voltage Divider Biasing Configuration 332
***********
CHAPTER 1
Page 15
Chap 1
Diode Circuits
DIODE CIRCUITS
1.1 INTRODUCTION
A general goal of this chapter is to develop the ability to use the piece wise
linear model and approximation techniques in the hand analysis and design
of various diode circuits. The chapter includes the following topics:
• Introduction to diode
in
• AC and DC analysis of diode.
o.
• Application of diodes to perform signal processing functions: rectification,
clipping and clamping.
•
a c
• Zener diode, which operates in the reverse breakdown region
.
Application of Zener diode in voltage regulators
1.2 DIODE
di
no
Diode is a two terminal device with nonlinear i -v (current-voltage)
w.
characteristics. Figure 1.1 shows the circuit symbol of a diode. In the diode
symbol, the triangular head denoting the allowable direction of current flow
and the vertical bar representing the blocking behaviour for currents in the
ww
opposite direction. The corresponding terminals are called the anode (or p
-terminal) and the cathode (or n -terminal) respectively.
Forward Bias
If the p-terminal of a diode is at higher voltage level than the n -terminal
(i.e. positive voltage applied across diode), a positive current flows through
the diode. The diode, operating in this mode, is said to be turned ON or
forward biased. Mathematically, we define the condition for a forward biased
diode as
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i. n
D
T
.c o
Thermal voltage at room temperature is VT = 0.026 V . The value of ideality factor is in the
a
range 1 # h # 2 . For germanium, h = 1, and for silicon, h = 2 .
i
1.2.3
d
Current-Voltage Characteristics of an Ideal Diode
o
The ideal diode may be considered as the most fundamental non-linear circuit
. n
element. Figure 1.2 (a) and (b) shows the current-voltage characteristics of
w
an ideal diode in the forward bias and reverse bias regions, respectively.
w
w
(a) Forward Biased Diode,
Figure 1.2: Current-Voltage Characteristic of (a) Forward Biased Diode, (b) Reverse Biased
Diode
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in
E = VD + ID R ...(1.2)
o.
a.c
di
no
w.
w (a) (b)
Figure 1.4: (a) A Simple Diode Circuit, (b) Load Line Characteristic for the Diode Circuit
w
Substituting VD = 0 in equation (1.2), we have
ID = E ...(1.3)
R V =0 D
The two variables (VD , ID ) are the same as the diode axis variable, so
we draw the load line and determine the point of intersection, as shown in
Figure 1.4 (b).
Figure 1.5 shows the piecewise linear model of a diode forward characteristic.
The exponential curve is approximated by two straight lines, line A with
zero slope and line B with a slope of rd . The straight line model or piecewise
linear model can be described as
ID = 0 , VD # Vg
V - Vg
ID = D , VD $ Vg
rd
where rd = Diode forward resistance
Vg = cut in voltage of diode
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Page 18
Chap 1
Diode Circuits
(a) (b)
Figure 1.5: (a) Piecewise Linear Model of the Diode Forward Characteristics, and (b) its
Equivalent Circuit Representation
When pn junction diode is used in a linear amplifier circuit, the time varying
or ac characteristics of the diode becomes important. For these circuits, we
i. n
define the small signal model of diode. For the small signal model analysis,
assume that the ac signal is small compared to the dc component, so that a
.c
VDQ + vd
where VDQ
iD . I e = I e
i a
S VT S VT
o
iD = I e eV
d
Since, the ac signal is small, i.e
VDQ
S VT
vd
T ...(1.4)
. n vd << VT
So,
w w ev /V . 1 + vd
d T
VT
Substituting the above expression to equation (1.4), we get
...(1.5)
w iD = _IS e V i a1 + VT k = IDQ a1 + vd k
=
V vd
DQ
IDQ
VT
+ IDQ vd
S
Quiescent diode current S
VT
AC current
(dc bias current)
(signal current)
VDQ
where IDQ . I e S VTis the quiescent diode current. Thus, the relationship
between the ac components of the diode voltage and current is
id = IDQ vd ...(1.6)
VT
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Figure 1.4 (a): Bias Model and (b): Small Signal Model of a Diode
In using the piecewise linear model to the diode, the first objective is to
determine the Linear region (forward bias or reverse bias) in which the
diode is operating To do this, we can :
Step 1: Find the input voltage conditions such that a diode is ‘ON’
(forward bias) then find the output signal for this condition.
.in
Step 2: Find the input voltage condition such that a diode is OFF
(Reverse bias) then find the output signal for this condition.
NOTE :
.co
Step 2 can be performed before step 1.
ia
od
METHODOLOGY: ANALYSIS OF MULTIPLE DIODE CIRCUIT
.n
Analyzing multidiode circuit requires determining if the individual
w
diodes are ON or OFF. In many cases, the choice is not obvious so we
must initially guess the state of each diode, then analyse the circuit to
w
determine if we have a solution consistent with our initial guess. To do
w
this, we may follow the steps given below.
Step 1: Assume the state of a diode. If a diode is assumed ON the voltage
across the diode is assumed to be Vg . If a diode is assumed to be
OFF the current through the diode is assumed to be zero.
Step 2: Analyse the linear circuit with the assumed states.
Step 3: Evaluate the resulting state of each diode. If the initial assumption
were that a diode is OFF and the analysis shows that ID = 0 or
VD # Vg then the assumption is correct if, however, the analysis
actually shows thatID > 0 or VD > Vg , then the initial assumption
is incorrect. Similarly, if the initial assumption were that a diode
is ON and the analysis shows that ID $ 0 or VD $ Vg , then the
initial assumption is correct. If, however, the analysis shows that
ID < 0 or VD < Vf , then the initial assumption is incorrect.
Step 4: If any initial assumption is proven incorrect then a new
assumption must be made and the new linear circuit must be
analysed. Step 3 must than be repeated.
NOTE :
For simplification at the initial step always assume that all the diodes are OFF then find
the voltage across diodes VD then follow step 3.
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1.6.1 Clippers
Clipper circuits, also called limiter circuits are used to eliminate portion
of a signal that are above or below a specified level without distorting
the remaining part of the alternating waveform. The simple form of diode
clipper-one resistor and diode depending on the orientation of the diode the
positive or negative region of the input signal is clipped OFF. There are two
general categories of clippers:
1. Series clipper
2. Parallel clipper.
1. Series Clipper
The series configuration is defined as one where the diode is in series
with the load. Table 1.1 summarizes the output waveform of various
i. n
biased and unbiased series clipper circuits for the input waveform shown
in Figure 1.5.
.c o
i a
o d
. n
w w
Figure 1.5: Sinusoidal Input Waveform
w Series Clippers
Unbiased Series
Clipper Using
Clipper Circuits Output Waveforms
Ideal Diode
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.in
.co
ia
od
.n
2. Parallel Clipper
The parallel clipper (or shunt clipper) has the diode in a branch parallel to
ww
the load. Table 1.2 summarizes the output waveform of various biased and
unbiased parallel clipper circuits for the input waveform shown in Figure
1.5.
w
Table 1.2: Parallel Clipper Circuits and its Output Waveform
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i. n
.c o
i a
o d
. n
w w
w
Following are some important points that must be remembered while
analysing a parallel clipper circuit:
1.6.2 Clampers
Clamping shifts the entire signal voltage by a dc level. In a steady state, the
output waveform is an exact replica of the input waveform, but the output
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(a) (b)
For the positive half cycle of input waveform, diode is short and the
output is zero, as shown in Figure 1.7 (a). The capacitor is charged in the
positive half cycle. In the negative cycle, the diode is open and the output is
vo =- V - V =- 2V
in
Thus, we get the output waveform of the clamper as shown in Figure 1.7 (c).
o.
a.c
di
no (a) (b)
w.
ww
(c)
Figure 1.7: Equivalent Clamping Circuit for (a) Positive Half Cycle, (b) Negative Half
Cycle of Input Waveform, (c) Output Waveform of Clamper Circuit
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Step 1: For positive voltage half cycle across the transformer secondary,
diode D1 conducts so capacitor C1 will be charged.
i. n
.c o
i a
o d
Step 2: For negative voltage half cycle across the transformer secondary,
. n
diode D2 will conduct and capacitor C2 will be charged.
w w
w
Step 3: Applying KVL in loop 1, we get
- Vm - Vm - vo = 0
vo =- 2Vm
Step 1: For the given voltage doubler circuit, we deduce that it includes
a negative clamper and a peak detector.
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conduct.
.in
capacitor C1 , C 3 , C2 will be charged. For negative half cycle D2 and D 4 will
.co
ia
od
.n
ww
w
Figure 1.9: Votage Tripler and Quadrupler
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Irms =
2p 0 ^ h
1 2p I 2 d wt
#
4. RMS load voltage: The rms load voltage of a rectifier is given by
Vrms = Irms RL
5. Ripple: The time dependent component present in the output of the
i. n
rectifier filter is known as ripple.
6.
r.f. =
.c o
Ripple factor: The ripple factor of a rectifier is obtained as
rms value of alternating component in output current
averge value of output current
=
i a
^Irms h2 - (Idc)
2
o
Idc
d
= b Irms l - 1
2
7.
. n Idc
Voltage regulation: The percentage voltage regulation for a rectifier is
w w defined as
%VR =
(Vdc) NL - (Vdc) FL
(Vdc) FL
w 8.
where (Vdc) FL is the full load dc voltage and (Vdc) NL is the null load
voltage. Ideally VR should be zero.
Rectifier efficiency: The rectifier efficiency is defined as
DC power delivered to the load
h = = Pdc
AC input power Pac
9. Peak inverse voltage: It is the maximum reverse bias voltage across the
diode where the diode withstand.
For a half wave rectifier, the output voltage appears only during the half
cycle of the input signal. Figure 1.11 shows a half wave rectifier, its input
waveform, and the corresponding output waveform.
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(a)
(b) (c)
Figure 1.11: (a) Half Wave Rectifier Circuit, (b) Input Waveform, and (c) Output Waveform
.in
Some important parameters for a half wave rectifier are described in the
following table.
.co
Table 1.3: Parameters of a Half Wave Rectifier Circuit
S.N.
ia
Parameters Expression
1.
d
DC load current
o
Idc = Im
p
2.
.n
DC load voltage Vdc =
pc
Vm
R f + RS
+ 1m
ww RL
where RL is load resistance, RS is second
transformer resistance, and R f is forward
^Vdc hNL = pm
V
Vrms = Vm
5. RMS load voltage
2
6. Ripple factor r.f. = 1.21
7. Voltage regulation Ideally VR should be zero, i.e. %VR = 0
8. Rectifier efficiency h . 40.6
9. Peak inverse voltage In half wave rectifier, the PIV rating of the
diode must equal or exceed the peak value of
the applied voltage, i.e. PIV $ Vm
10. Output frequency f , i.e. same as input frequency
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i. n
(a)
.c o
i a
o d
. n
w w (b) (c)
Figure 1.13: (a) Full Wave Rectifier, (b) Input Waveform, and (c) Output Waveform
w Some important parameters for a centre taped full wave rectifier are
summarized in the following table.
Table 1.4: Parameters of Centre Taped Full Wave Rectifier
Idc = 2Im
1. DC load current
p
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(a)
.in
(b)
.co (c)
Figure 1.14: (a) Bridge Rectifier, (b) Input Waveform, (c) Output Waveform
ia
Some important parameters for a bridge rectifier are summarized in the
table below.
S.N.
od
Parameters Expression
1.
.n
DC load current Idc = 2Im
p
3.
ww
Null load dc voltage ^Vdc hNL = p m
2V
4.
w RMS load current
if RL = 3, i.e. load terminal is open
Irms = Im
2
Vrms = Vm
5. RMS load voltage
2
6. Ripple factor r.f. = 0.48
8. Rectifier efficiency h . 81.2 %
9. Peak inverse voltage PIV = Vm
10. Output frequency 2f , where f is the input frequency.
1.11 FILTERS
A capacitor is added in parallel with the load resistor of a half wave rectifier
to form a simple filter circuit as shown in fig 1.15.
Conduction Interval
The diode only conducts for a short time TT during each cycle. This time
is called the conduction interval.
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(a) (b)
Figure 1.15: (a) Capacitor Filter Circuit, (b) Input and Output Waveform for the Filter
Ripple Voltage
i. n
The output voltage is no longer constant as in the ideal peak detector circuit
Vr = Vm - VL = Vm ^1 - e-Tl/RC h
Since, RC >> Tl, so we may write
i a
Vr . Vm b Tl l
o RC d
or
. n
Vr . Vm T
RC
(Tl . T )
or
w w Vr = Vm
fRC
( f = 1/T )
w
1.12 ZENER DIODE
(a) (b)
Figure 1.16: Equivalent Circuit Model for a Zener Diode for (a) ON State and (b) OFF
State
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The applied dc voltage is fixed, as is the load resistor. The zener regulator
can be analysed in the following steps.
Step 1: Remove the zener diode from the network.
.in
co
Step 2: Calculate the voltage across the resulting open circuit.
. RL v
ia V = VL =
R + RL i
od
Step 3: Determine the state of the zener diode by checking the obtained
value of voltage V for the following conditions
w 1.16(a) can be substituted, while for OFF state the open circuit
equivalence of Figure 1.16(b) is substituted.
Step 5: Solve the resulting equivalent circuit for the desired unknowns.
For example, assume that the equivalent circuit for the zener
regulator is as shown below.
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Page 32
Chap 1 EXERCISE 1.1
Diode Circuits
MCQ 1.1.1 Consider the given circuit and a waveform for the input voltage, shown in
figure below. The diode in circuit has cutin voltage Vg = 0 .
i. n
.c o
i a
o d
. n
MCQ 1.1.2
w
Consider the given circuit and a waveform for the input voltage, shown in
figure below. The diode in circuit has cutin voltage Vg = 0 .
w
w
The waveform of output voltage vo is
MCQ 1.1.3 Consider the given circuit and a waveform for the input voltage, shown in
figure below. The diode in circuit has cutin voltage Vg = 0 .
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.in
MCQ 1.1.4
.co
Consider the given circuit and a waveform for the input voltage. The diode
a
in circuit has cutin voltage Vg = 0 .
i
od
.n
ww
The waveform of output voltage vo is
MCQ 1.1.5 For the circuit shown below, let cut in voltage Vg = 0.7 V.
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Page 34
Chap 1
Diode Circuits
MCQ 1.1.6 For the circuit shown below the cutin voltage of diode is Vg = 0.7 V.
The vo for - 10 # vs # 10 V is
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MCQ 1.1.8 A symmetrical 5 kHz square wave whose output varies between + 10 V and
- 10 V is impressed upon the clipping shown in figure below
.in
.co
ia
d
If diode has rf = 0 and rr = 2 MW and Vg = 0 , the output waveform is
o
.n
ww
w
MCQ 1.1.9 In the circuit shown below, the three signals of fig are impressed on the
input terminals.
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Page 36
Chap 1
Diode Circuits
MCQ 1.1.10 For the circuit shown below the input voltage vi is as shown in figure.
i. n
Assume the RC time constant large and cutin voltage of diode Vg = 0 . The
output voltage vo is
.c o
i a
o d
. n
w w
w
MCQ 1.1.11 For the circuit shown below, the input voltage vi is as shown in figure.
Assume the RC time constant large and cutin voltage Vg = 0 . The output
voltage vo is
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MCQ 1.1.12 In the circuit I is DC current and capacitors are very large. Using small
signal model which of following is correct ?
hVT
(A) vo = vs (B) vo = vs
hVT + IRs
vs
in
(C) vo = (D) vo = 0
hVT + IRS
o.
Common Data For Q. 13 to 15 :
.c
Consider the circuit shown below. Assume diodes are ideal.
a
di
no
w.
MCQ 1.1.13
ww
If v1 = 10 V and v2 = 5 V, then output voltage vo is
(A) 9 V
(C) 0 V
(B) 9.474 V
(D) 8.943 V
MCQ 1.1.14 If v1 = v2 = 10 V, then output voltage vo is
(A) 9 V (B) 9.474 V
(C) 4 V (D) 8.943 V
MCQ 1.1.15 If v1 =- 5 V and v2 = 5 V then vo is
(A) 9.474 V (B) 8.943 V
(C) 4.5 V (D) 9 V
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i. n
MCQ 1.1.19 For the circuit shown below cutin voltage of diode is Vg = 0.7 . What is the
value of v and i ?
.c o
i a
o d
.
(C) 2 V, 0 mA n
(A) 2.3 V, 2.65 mA (B) 2.65 V, 2.3 mA
(D) 0 V, 2.3 mA
MCQ 1.1.20
w w
For the circuit shown below the value of v and i are (if the diode is ideal)
w
(A) + 5 V, 0 mA (B) + 1 V, 0.6 mA
(C) + 5 V, 0.4 mA (D) + 1 V, 0.4 mA
MCQ 1.1.21 For the circuit shown below each diode has Vg = 0.6 V and rf = 0 . Both
diode will be ON if
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co
(B) 0.25 (1 + 3 cos wt) V
.
(C) 0.5 (3 + 1 cos wt) V
ia
(D) 0.5 (2 + 3 cos wt) V
MCQ 1.1.24
od
The circuit inside the box in figure shown below contains only resistor and
diodes. The terminal voltage vo is connected to some point in the circuit
.n
inside the box.
ww
w
The largest and smallest possible value of vo most nearly to is respectively
(A) 15 V, 6 V
(B) 24 V, 0 V
(C) 24 V, 6 V
(D) 15 V, - 9 V
MCQ 1.1.25 The Q -point for the Zener diode shown below is
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.c o
The power rating required for the load resistor is
(A) 576 mW
(C) 480 mW
i a (B) 360 mW
(D) 75 mW
MCQ 1.1.29
o d
A clipper circuit is shown below.
. n
w w
w Assuming forward voltage drops of the diodes to be 0.7 V, the input-output
transfer characteristics of the circuit is
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.in
.co
ia
MCQ 1.1.31
od
In the voltage doubler circuit shown in the figure, the switch ‘S ’ is closed at
t = 0 . Assuming diodes D1 and D2 to be ideal, load resistance to be infinite
.n
and initial capacitor voltages to be zero. The steady state voltage across
capacitor C1 and C2 will be
ww
w
(A) Vc1 = 10 V,Vc2 = 5 V
(B) Vc1 = 10 V,Vc2 =- 5 V
(C) Vc1 = 5 V,Vc2 = 10 V
(D) Vc1 = 5 V,Vc2 =- 10 V
MCQ 1.1.32 What are the states of the three ideal diodes of the circuit shown in figure ?
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Page 42 MCQ 1.1.33 The equivalent circuit of a diode, during forward biased and reverse biased
Chap 1 conditions, are shown in the figure.
Diode Circuits
(I)
(II)
If such a diode is used in clipper circuit of figure given above, the output
voltage Vo of the circuit will be
i. n
.c o
i a
o d
. n
w w
w Assuming the diodes D1 and D2 of the circuit shown in figure to be ideal
MCQ 1.1.34
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(A) + 10 V and - 10 V
(B) + 4 V and - 4 V
(C) + 7 V and - 4 V
(D) + 4 V and - 7 V
MCQ 1.1.36 The forward resistance of the diode shown in Figure is 5 W and the remaining
parameters are same at those of an ideal diode. The dc component of the
source current is
.in
.co
ia
(A) Vm
50p
od (B) Vm
50p 2
(C) Vm
.
100p 2n (D) 2Vm
50p
MCQ 1.1.37
ww
The cut-in voltage of both zener diode DZ and diode D shown in Figure
is 0.7 V, while break-down voltage of DZ is 3.3 V and reverse break-down
w
voltage of D is 50 V. The other parameters can be assumed to be the same
as those of an ideal diode. The values of the peak output voltage (Vo) are
(A) 3.3 V in the positive half cycle and 1.4 V in the negative half cycle.
(B) 4 V in the positive half cycle and 5 V in the negative half cycle.
(C) 3.3 V in both positive and negative half cycles.
(D) 4 V in both positive and negative half cycle
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Page 44
Chap 1
Diode Circuits
i. n
.c o
i a
o d
. n
MCQ 1.1.40
JAEGER/120/3.9
w w
What is the value of ID1 , ID2 , ID3 respectively?
(A) 1.94 mA, - 0.94 mA , 1.86 mA (B) 1.47 mA, 0.94 mA, 0 mA
MCQ 1.1.41w
JAEGER/120/3.9
(C) 1.47 mA, 0 mA, 0.94 mA
The value of VD1 , VD2 , VD3 respectively is
(A) 0.6, - 4.10 , 0.6
(D) 1.94 mA, 0 mA, 0.94 mA
(A) 1.2 mA 0 mA 0 mA
(B) 0.5 mA 0.70 mA 0.103 mA
(C) 0.5 mA 0.60 mA 0.346 mA
(D) 0.5 mA 0.796 mA 0.215 mA
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MCQ 1.1.44 The diode circuit in figure shown below the biasing of the diode D1 , D2 is
.in
The diode circuit shown in figure. Assume that diode is ideal, what will be
the biasing modes of diode D1 , D2 and D 3 ? (FB " forward biased, RB "
reverse biased)
.co
ia
od
.n
ww
(A)
(B)
w
D1
FB
FB
D2
FB
FB
D3
FB
RB
(C) FB RB RB
(D) FB RB FB
MCQ 1.1.46 The diode in the circuit shown below have linear parameter of Vg = 0.7 (for
BOYL- Si), Vg = 0.3 (for Ge) and rf = 0 for both the diode. What is the biasing
STEAD/68/2.14
condition of diode D1 and D2 ?
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Page 46 MCQ 1.1.47 In the voltage regulator circuit below rating of zener diode is given, then the
Chap 1 range of values of vi that will maintain the zener diode in the ‘ON’ state is
Diode Circuits
i. n
.c o
If the diode has cut in voltage Vg = 0 , the output waveform of the circuit is
i a
o d
. n
w w
w
MCQ 1.1.49 Assume that the diode cut in voltage for the circuit shown below is Vg = 0.7V
BOYL- . Which of clamper circuit perform the function shown below ?
STEAD/112/41
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MCQ 1.1.50 Having lost his 2.4 V cellphone charger, an electrical engineering student
tries several stores but does not find adaptors with outputs less than 3 V. He
then decides to put his knowledge of electronics to work and constructs the
circuit shown in figure where three identical diodes in forward bias produce a
total voltage of Vout = 3VD - 2.4 V and resistor R1 sustain remaining voltage.
Neglect the current drawn by the cellphone and assume VThermal = 26 mV .
The reverse saturation current IS for the diode is
.in
(A) 6 mA
.co (B) 2.602 # 10-16 A
ia
(C) 8.672 # 10-14 A (D) 7.598 # 10-14 A
od
Common Data For Q. 25 to 27:
.n
The circuit diagram of a zener regulator is shown in figure below. The data
sheet specification for zener IN4742A provides following values
.
ww
Vz = 12 V at IzT = 21 mA , Rz = 9 (assume constant) IzM = 76 mA , Izk = 1 mA
w
MCQ 1.1.51 The values of zener diode voltages ^Vz hmax , ^Vz hmin respectively are
DESH-
PANDE/169/3.17 (A) 11.82 V, 12.5 V
(B) 12.5 V, 11.82 V
(C) 12.18 V, 11.82 V
(D) 12.5 V, 11.5 V
MCQ 1.1.52 The maximum value of load current over which the zener diode is in ON
state.
(A) 36.88 mA (B) 35.88 mA
(C) 36.36 mA (D) 35.36 mA
MCQ 1.1.53 The value of RL (Load resistance) corresponding to maximum load current is
(A) 329.43 W (B) 334.44 W
(C) 325.37 W (D) 320.49 W
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i. n
(C) 6.914 V (D) 6.700 V
MCQ 1.1.56 The diode circuit given below. Assume diode is ideal. The operating states
of diodes D1 , D2 are
.c o
i a
o d
. n
w
(A)w D1
ON,
D2
ON
w (B)
(C)
(D)
ON,
OFF,
OFF,
OFF
ON
OFF
MCQ 1.1.57 Consider the given circuit. The diode in circuit has cut in voltage Vg = 0.6 V
and zener diode voltage Vz = 9.4 V .
Plot vo versus vi is
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MCQ 1.1.58 Assume that the diodes in the circuit are ideal. What are the operating
states of diodes ?
D1
.in
D2
(A)
(B)
ON
ON
.coON
OFF
(C)
(D)
OFF
OFF
ia ON
OFF
MCQ 1.1.59
od
Assuming that the diodes are ideal in the given circuit.
.n
ww
w
Status of
(A) ON,
the diodes D1 , D2 and D 3 are respectively
OFF, OFF
(B) ON, OFF, ON
(C) ON, ON, OFF
(D) ON, ON, ON
MCQ 1.1.60 What is the value of voltage V and current I respectively ?
(A) 0 V, 0 Amp (B) 7.5 V, 7.5 mAmp
(C) 7.5 V, 0 Amp (D) 0 V, 7.5 mAmp
**********
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Page 50
Chap 1 EXERCISE 1.2
Diode Circuits
QUES 1.2.1 In the circuit shown below, D1 and D2 are ideal diodes. The current i2 is
_____ mA
QUES 1.2.2 Let cutin voltage Vg = 0.7 V for each diode in the circuit shown below.
i. n
.c o
i a
The voltage vo is _____ volts
QUES 1.2.3
o d
For the circuit in the figure below. The value of vD is _____volts.
. n
w w
w -
QUES 1.2.4 The cutin voltage for each diode in circuit shown below is Vg = 0.6 V. Each
diode current is 0.5 mA. The value of R 3 will be _____ kW.
QUES 1.2.5 The diodes in the circuit shown below has parameters Vg = 0.6 V and rf = 0
. The current iD is ____ mA.
2
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QUES 1.2.6
.co
If v1 = 10 V and v2 = 0 V, then vo is _____ volts.
QUES 1.2.7
ia
If v1 = 10 V and v2 = 5 V, then vo is_____ volts.
QUES 1.2.8
od
If v1 = v2 = 0 , then output voltage vo is _____ volts.
.n
Common Data For Q. 9 to 11 :
w
The diodes in the circuit shown below have linear parameters of Vg = 0.6
V and rf = 0 .
w
w
QUES 1.2.9 If v2 = 0 , then output voltage vo is_____ volts.
QUES 1.2.10 If v2 = 5 V, then vo is____volts.
QUES 1.2.11 If v2 = 10 V, then vo is_____ volts.
QUES 1.2.12 Ten diodes, each of them provides 0.7 V drop when the current through it
is 20 mA, connected in parallel operate at a total current of 0.1 A. What
current flows in each diode (in Amp) ?
QUES 1.2.13 In the voltage regulator circuit shown below the maximum load current iL
that can be drawn is _____ mA.
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Page 52 QUES 1.2.14 In the voltage regulator shown below the power dissipation in the Zener
Chap 1 diode is _____ watts.
Diode Circuits
QUES 1.2.15 In the voltage regulator circuit shown below the power rating of Zener diode
is 400 mW. The value of RL that will establish maximum power in Zener
diode is _____ kW.
QUES 1.2.16 The secondary transformer voltage of the rectifier circuit shown below is
i. n
vs = 60 sin 2p60t V. Each diode has a cut in voltage of Vg = 0.7 V. The
ripple voltage is to be no more than vrip = 2 V. The value of filter capacitor
will be _____ mF .
.c o
i a
o d
. n
QUES 1.2.17
w w
The input to full-wave rectifier shown below is vi = 120 sin 2p60t V. The
w diode cutin voltage is 0.7 V. If the output voltage cannot drop below 100 V,
the required value of the capacitor is _____ mF .
QUES 1.2.18 For the circuit shown below diode cutin voltage is vin = 0 . The ripple voltage
is to be no more than vrip = 4 V. The minimum load resistance, that can be
connected to the output is _____ kW.
QUES 1.2.19 Assuming that the diodes in the given circuit are ideal, the voltage Vo
is_____ volts.
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QUES 1.2.20 Assume that D1 and D2 in given figure are ideal diodes. The value of current
is _____ mA.
QUES 1.2.21
.in
The current through the Zener diode in figure is _____ mA.
.co
ia
od
.n
QUES 1.2.22
w
Assuming that in given circuit the diodes are ideal. The current in diode D1
is ____ mA.
w
w
Common Data For Q. 23 and 24 :
In the zener diode voltage regulator circuit shown in the figure below, the
zener diode has the following parameter.
Vz = 5 V , Rz = 0 W
QUES 1.2.23 What is the value of RL min (Minimum load resistance) for zener voltage
regulator circuit (in kW ) ?
QUES 1.2.24 The value of output voltage vo for RL = 1 kW is ____ volts.
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Page 54 QUES 1.2.25 If RL = 3, the value of power dissipation in the zener diode is ____ mW.
Chap 1
Diode Circuits
QUES 1.2.26 The value of the DC output voltage ^Vo,dch is _____ volts.
QUES 1.2.27 The value of ripple voltage is ____ volts.
i. n
QUES 1.2.28
.c o
Assume that in the given circuit diodes are ideal. The value of ID2 is __mA.
i a
o d
. n
w w
w
QUES 1.2.29 The diode in the circuit shown below have linear parameter of Vg = 0.7 V
and rf = 0 W . The value of the current ^ID2h in diode D2 is ____ mA.
QUES 1.2.30 Given that VThermal = 26 mV . A diode is biased with a current of 1 mA. What is
the value of the current change (in mA ), if VD (Diode voltage) changes by 1 mV?
QUES 1.2.31 A transformer convert the 110 V, 60 Hz line voltage to a peak to peak swing of 9
V. A half wave rectifier follows the transformer to supply the power to the laptop
computer of RL = 0.436 W. What is the minimum value of the filter capacitor
(in Farad) that maintains the ripple below 0.1 V ? (Assume VD, on = 0.8 V )
QUES 1.2.32 A full wave rectifier is driven by a sinusoidal input Vin = Vo cos wt , where
Vo = 3 V and w = 2p ^60 Hzh. Assuming VD, on = 800 mV , what is the value
of the ripple amplitude (in volt) with a 1000 mF smoothing capacitor and a
load resistance of 30 W.
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.in
.co
QUES 1.2.37
ia
Assume that the voltage drop across each of the diodes in the circuit shown
d
below is 0.7 V. The value of current through diode D1 , is ID1 = _____ mA
o
.n
ww
w
Common Data For Q. 38 and 39 :
The circuit shown below has R = 100 W , RC = 2 kW , RL = 2 kW . Also, assume
a constant diode voltage of 0.6 V and capacitors are very large using the
small signal model for VC = 1.6 V .
QUES 1.2.38 What is the Q-point value of the diode current (in mA) ?
vo ^ t h
QUES 1.2.39 The value of is _____
vin ^ t h
***********
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Page 56
Chap 1 EXERCISE 1.3
Diode Circuits
MCQ 1.3.1 Which of the following filter types is suitable only for large values of load
MAINI/585/2 resistance ?
(A) Capacitor filter (B) Inductor filter
(C) Choke-input filter (D) p-type CLC filter
MCQ 1.3.2 Which of the following filter types is suitable only for small values of load
resistance ?
(A) Capacitor filter (B) Inductor filter
(C) Choke-input filter (D) p-type CLC filter
MCQ 1.3.3 A rectifier is used to
(A) convert a.c. voltage to d.c. voltage
i. n
(B) convert d.c. voltage to a.c. voltage
(C) both (a) and (b)
MCQ 1.3.4
(D) convert voltage to current
.c o
The ripple factor of a inductor filter is
(A) RL w
2 3L
i a (B) RL
2 3L
(C) RL
3 2 wL
o d (D) RL
3 2wL
MCQ 1.3.5
. n
A bleeded resistor is used in a d.c. power supply because it
(A) keeps the supply OFF (B) keeps the supply ON
MCQ 1.3.6
w w
(C) improves filtering action (D) improves voltage regulation
A half wave diode rectifier and full wave diode bridge rectifier both have an
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(B) maintain the minimum current necessary for optimum inductor operation
(C) maintain maximum current through L
co
(D) Charge capacitor C to maximum value
.
MCQ 1.3.14
ia
The forward resistance of the diode shown in figure is 5 W and the remaining
parameters are same as those of an ideal diode. The dc component of the
d
source current is
o
.n
ww
w
(A) Vm
50p
V
(B) Vm
50p 2
(C) m
(D) 2Vm
100p 2 50p
MCQ 1.3.15 The relation between diode current, voltage and temperature is given by
(A) I = Io _1 - e hV i (B) I = Io _e hV - 1i
V V
T T
(C) I = Io _e + 1i
V V
hVT (D) I = Io e hVT
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i. n
(A) 23.7 mA
(C) 13.7 mA
.c o (B) 14.2 mA
(D) 24.2 mA
MCQ 1.3.22
i a
The circuit which converts undirectional flow to D.C. is called
(A) Rectifier circuit
o
(B) Converter circuit d
. n
(C) filter circuit
MCQ 1.3.23 w
(D) Eliminator
w
The value of current that flows through RL in a ‘p’ section filter circuit at
no load is
w
LAL KISHORE
198/4
(A) 3 (B) 0.1 mA
(C) 0 (D) few mA
MCQ 1.3.24 The voltage at V1 and V2 of the arrangement shown in Fig. will be respectively.
(Assume diode cut in voltage Vg = 0.6 V )
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(B) clips both half cycles of input signal
o.
(C) clips upper portion of the signal
(D) clips some part of the input signal
MCQ 1.3.27
a.c
The primary function of a clamper circuit is to
(A) suppress variations in signal voltage
di
(B) raise positive half-cycle of the signal
no
(C) lower negative half-cycle of the signal
(D) introduce a dc level into an ac signal
MCQ 1.3.28
w.
A zener diode has a dc power dissipation rating of 500 mW and a zener
voltage rating of 6.8 V. The value of IZM is
ww
(A) 70 mA
(B) 72 mA
(C) 73.5 mA
(D) 75 mA
MCQ 1.3.29 When the reverse current in a zener diode increases from 20 mA to 30 mA,
the zener voltage changes from 5.6 V to 5.65 V. The zener resistance is
(A) 2 W (B) 3 W
(C) 4 W (D) 5 W
MCQ 1.3.30 A 4.7 V zener has a resistance of 15 W. When a current 20 mA passes
through it, then the terminal voltage is
(A) 5 V
(B) 10 V
(C) 15 V
(D) 4.7 V
MCQ 1.3.31 In a full wave rectifier, the current in each of the diodes flows for
(A) the complete cycle of the input signal
(B) half cycle of the input signal
(C) for zero time
(D) more than half cycle of input signal
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i. n
secondary of the transformer, the maximum voltage coming across each
reverse-biased diode is
(A) Vm
(C) Vm /2
.c o (B) 2Vm
(D) Vm / 2
MCQ 1.3.36
i a
In a half wave rectifier, the peak value of the ac. voltage across the secondary
o d
of the transformer is 20 2 V . If no filter circuit is used, the maximum d.c.
voltage across the load will be
(A) 28.28 V
.
(C) 14.14 V n (B) 25 V
(D) 9 V
w w ***********
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Step 2: The voltage across the diode terminal is obtained as
.co v p = vi
vn = 5 V
at the p-terminal
at the n - terminal
a
Step 3: Now, we have the condition
i
od v p > vn
v p < vn
diode is ON
diode is OFF
.n
Applying these conditions, we determine the output voltage.
CASE I:
w
So, the output voltage is
vo = vi
CASE II:
If vi < 5 V , then diode is OFF. So equivalent circuit is
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Page 62
Chap 1
Diode Circuits
i. n
v p =- 2 V at the p-terminal
vn = vi at the n - terminal
Step 3: Now, we have the condition
v p > vn
.c o
diode is ON
i a
v p < vn diode is OFF
Applying these conditions, we determine the output voltage.
CASE I:
o d
. n
If vi < - 2 V , then diode is ON. So the equivalent circuit is,
w w
w
So, the output voltage is obtained as
vo = vi + 2
CASE II:
If vi > - 2 V , then diode is OFF. So, the equivalent circuit is,
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Step 2: The voltage across the diode terminal is obtained as
.
.co vp = 4 V
Vn = vi
Step 3: Now, we have the condition
at the p-terminal
at the n - terminal
ia v p > vn diode is ON
.n
CASE I:
w
So, the output voltage is,
vo = 4 V
CASE II:
If vi > 4 V , then diode is OFF. So equivalent circuit is
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i. n
.c o
Step 2: For the assumption, the voltage across diode D1 is obtained as
i a
v p1 = vi at the p-terminal
. n v p2 = 0 V at the p-terminal
w v p > vn
v p < vn
diode is ON
diode is OFF
Applying these conditions, we determine the output voltage.
CASE I:
If vi + 6 < 0 or vi < - 6 diode D1 is OFF and diode D2 is ON. So,
the equivalent circuit is
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.in
.covo = 8 V
Step 5: From the results obtained in the above step, we sketch the output
a
waveform as shown below.
i
od
.n
SOL 1.1.5
ww
Option (B) is correct.
w
For the given circuit, we first determine the linear region (forward bias or
reverse bias) in which the diode is operating, and then obtain the output.
Step 1: Assume that the diode is OFF, and replace it by open circuit. So,
the equivalent circuit is
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i. n
.c o
i a
o d
So, the output voltage is
. n vo = 3.33
Step 4: From the results obtained in the above step, we sketch the ransfer
w
SOL 1.1.6 Option (C) is correct.
For the given circuit, we first determine the linear region (forward bias or
reverse bias) in which the diode is operating, and then obtain the output.
Step 1: Assume that the diode is OFF, and replace it by open circuit. So,
the equivalent circuit is,
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vn = 1k 15 = 5 V
1k + 2k #
CASE I :
If vi # 5.7 V then Diode is OFF, we have the same circuit as shown
above. So, the output voltage is,
vo = vi
CASE II.
If vi $ 5.7 then Diode is ON and So, the equivalent circuit is,
.in
.co
By using super node technique
vo - 0.7 - 15 + vo - 0.7 + vo - vi = 0
ia2k 1k 1k
od
So, the output voltage is
vo = 0.4vi + 3.42
.n
Step 3 From the two results obtained in the above steps, we sketch the Transfer
w
characteristic is as shown below. So, the transfer characteristic is
w
w
SOL 1.1.7 Option (D) is correct.
For the given circuit, we first determine the linear region (forward bias or
reverse bias) in which the diodes are operating, and then obtain the output.
Step 1: Assume that the diodes are OFF, and replace it by open circuit
Step 2: Now, we have the condition
v p > vn diode is ON
v p < vn diode is OFF
Applying these conditions, we determine the output voltage
CASE I:
For positive part of vs ^0 # vs # 10 Vh: For vs > 0 V , when D1 is
OFF current through D2 is (D2 is ON). So, the equivalent circuit
stage is
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Page 68
Chap 1
Diode Circuits
I = 10 - 0.7 = 0.465 mA
10 + 10
So, the output voltage is
vo = 10k # 0.465 mA = 4.65 V
If vs > 4.65 then diode D 4 is always OFF. So, the equivalent circuit
is
i. n
.c o
i a
o d
. n
w w So, the output voltage is
w vo = 4.65 V
If 0 < vs < 4.65 , diode D 3 and D 4 is ON. So, the equivalent circuit
is,
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Current through D 4 is
- 0.7 - ^- 10h
I = = 0.465 mA
10 + 10
So, the output voltage is
vo =-^10k # 0.465h =- 4.65
If vs > - 4.65 then D1 & D2 is ON. So, the equivalent circuit is,
.in
.co
ia
od
.n
ww
w So, the output voltage is
vo = vs
If - 10 < vs < - 4.65 then D2 is OFF. So, the equivalent circuit is
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Page 70 Step 3: From the results obtained in the above steps, we sketch the Transfer
Chap 1 characteristic is as shown below.
Diode Circuits
i. n
.c o
i a
Step 2: Now, we have the condition
o dv p > vn
v p < vn
diode is ON
diode is OFF
. n
Applying these conditions, we determine the output voltage.
w w CASE I:
If vi < 2.5 V then diode is ON. So, the equivalent circuit is,
w
So, the output voltage is
vo = vi & vo =- 10 V
CASE II.
If vi > 2.5 V ,then diode is OFF, rr = 2 MW . So, the equivalent circuit
is
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.in
SOL 1.1.9
.co
Option (B) is correct.
For this circuit KVL gives,
v1 - v 2 = v D - v D ,
ia 1 2
v1 - v 3 = v D - v D
d
1 3
no
biased with vD = 0 and consequently vD < 0 and vD < 0 . Hence D2 and D 3
1 2 3
w.
input signal is passed as vo , while the remainder of the input signals are
blocked. If all input signals are negative, vo = 0 .
SOL 1.1.10
ww
Option (B) is correct.
This is a clamper circuit. Clamper circuit consists capacitor and a diode.
The capacitor is in series and the diode in shunt. In clamper circuit,
1. When the diode is in downward direction the total signal will be clamp
below the reference voltage.
2. When the diode is in upward direction the total signal will be clamp
above the reference voltage.
In the given circuit, the diode is in upward direction and the reference
voltage is zero then the total signal will be clamp above the 0 V. So, the
output voltage is
ALTERNATIVE METHOD :
For the given circuit, we consider the following two cases:
CASE I:
In negative cycle diode will be ON and Capacitor will be charged
So, the equivalent circuit is,
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Page 72
Chap 1
Diode Circuits
vo = 0
CASE II:
In positive half cycle diode will be OFF. So, the equivalent circuit is
o
Option (A) is correct. d
. n
This is a clamper circuit. In this circuit, the diode is in upward direction. So,
total signal will be clamp above the + 5 V . From the results obtained in the
w
above steps, we sketch the output waveform is as shown below.
w
w
ALTERNATIVE METHOD :
During - 20 V cycle of vi , diode is ON and capacitor will charge up
instantaneously to 25 V. Output is + 5 V during this cycle.
During the +10 V of vi , diode is OFF and capacitor will hold on this voltage
level, giving total output voltage +35 V.
SOL 1.1.12 Option (A) is correct.
In DC equivalent circuit capacitor is open. So, the equivalent circuit is
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For small signal response, open dc current source, short capacitor C1 and C2 ,
and replace diode with it small signal resistance rd . So, the output voltage is
hVT
vo = v s rd
= vs I
rd + Rs hVT
+ Rs
I
hVT hVT
= vs = vs
hVT + Rs hVT + IRs
SOL 1.1.13
.in
Option (A) is correct.
For the given circuit, we first determine the linear region (forward bias or
output.
.co
reverse bias) in which the two diodes are operating, and then obtain the
ia
Step 1: Assume that the two diodes are OFF, and replace it by open circuit.
So, the equivalent circuit is
od
.n
ww
w
Step 2: Now, we have the condition for both the diodes
v p > vn diode is ON
v p < vn diode is OFF
Applying these conditions, we determine the output voltage. So,
v pn1 = 10 - 0 = 10 V
v pn2 = 5 - 0 = 5 V
Step 3: Assume diode is D1 is ON and diode D2 is OFF.
iD1 = v1 - 0 = 10 - 0 = 1 Amp
1+9 1+9
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i. n
.c o
i a
d
Step 2: Now, we have the condition for both the diodes
o
. n v p > vn
v p < vn
diode is ON
diode is OFF
Nodal analysis
v 0 - 10 + vo - 10 + vo = 0
1 1 9
Step 4: From the two results obtained in the above steps, the output voltage
is,
vo = 20 # 9 = 9.474 V
19
In this case iD1 and iD2 both are positive. So, D1 and D2 are ON
(assumption is correct)
SOL 1.1.15 Option (C) is correct.
For the given circuit, we first determine the linear region (forward bias or
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.in
.co
ia
od
.n
Step 3: From the results obtained in the above steps, the output voltage is,
vo = 5 # 9 = 4.5 V
SOL 1.1.16
ww
Option (B) is correct.
10
For the given circuit, we first determine the linear region (forward bias or
w
reverse bias) in which the two diode are operating, and then obtain the
output.
Step 1: Assume that the two diodes are OFF, and replace it by open circuit.
So, the equivalent circuit is
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Page 76
Chap 1
Diode Circuits
i. n
reverse bias) in which the two diode are operating, and then obtain the
output.
.c o
Step 1: Assume that the two diodes are OFF, and replace it by open circuit
So, the equivalent circuit is,
i a
o d
. n
w w
w Step 2: Now, we have the condition for both the diodes
v p > vn diode is ON
v p < vn diode is OFF
Applying these conditions, we determine the output voltage.
Step 3: Diode D1 is OFF and D2 is ON. So, the equivalent circuit is
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in
v p > vn diode is ON
.c
Step 3: Both diodes are ON. So, the equivalent circuit is
a
di
no
w.
Using Nodal analysis at Node 1,
ww V - 4.8 + V + V - 4.4 = 0
12 18 6
V = 3.71 V
In this case, iD1 and iD2 are positive, so D1 and D2 are ON (assumption
is correct).
SOL 1.1.19 Option (A) is correct.
For the given circuit, we first determine the linear region (forward bias or
reverse bias) in which the two diodes are operating, and then obtain the
output.
Step 1: Assume that the two diodes are OFF, and replace it by open circuit
So, the equivalent circuit is,
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v = 3 - 0.7 = 2.3 V
This diode D1 is not conducting because of diode D2 is ON. (highly
forward biased).
2.3 - ^- 3h
i = = 2.65 mA
2
SOL 1.1.20 Option (A) is correct.
For the given circuit, we first determine the linear region (forward bias or
i. n
reverse bias) in which the two diode are operating, and then obtain the
output.
.c
So, the equivalent circuit is,o
Step 1: Assume that the two diodes are OFF, and replace it by open circuit
i a
o d
. n
w w
w Step 2: Now, we have the condition for both the diodes
v p > vn
v p < vn
diode is ON
diode is OFF
Applying these conditions, we obtain the required unknowns
Step 3: Diode D1 is OFF & D2 is ON. Since the equivalent circuit is
v =5V
i = 5-v
10 kW
= 5 - 5 = 0 mA
10k
SOL 1.1.21 Option (A) is correct.
The given circuit is,
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vs - v1 > 0.6
For both diode is ON when v1 > 0.6 . Using nodal analysis at node v1 ,
v1 + 0.6 - vs + v1 - vs + v1 + v1 - 0.6 = 0
5k 5k 500 500
v1 = 2vs + 5.4 > 0.6
22
vs > 3.9 V
SOL 1.1.22 Option (C) is correct.
The thevenin equivalent circuit for the network to the left of terminal ab is
shown below.
.in
.co
ia
od
.n vTH = 100 (2 + cos wt) = 1 + 0.5 cos wt V
200
w rf = 0.7 - 0.5 = 50 W ,
0.004
v - vf
iD = TH = 1 + 0.5 cos wt - 0.5
RTH + rf 50 + 50
= 5 (1 + cos wt) mA
SOL 1.1.23 Option (A) is correct.
The voltage, vD = rf iD + v f
= 50 # 5 (1 + cos wt) # 10-3 + 0.5
= 0.75 + 0.25 cos wt = 0.25 (3 + cos wt) V
SOL 1.1.24 Option (D) is correct.
The output voltage cannot exceed the positive power supply voltage and
cannot be lower than the negative power supply voltage.
SOL 1.1.25 Option (B) is correct.
For Zener diode
| Vpn | > Vz Zener diode is ON
| Vpn | < Vz Zener diode is OFF
Applying these conditions, we determine the Q-point of the zener diode.
If we assume that the Zener diode is off, then the voltage across resistor (the
diode) is given by
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Page 80
V = 3.6 20
Chap 1 11 + 3.6 #
Diode Circuits = 4.93
So, V > vz
Therefore, the zener diode is in ON State. In ON condition, the diode circuit
is
Iz = iR - iC = 20 - 4 - 4
11k 3. 6
= 0.343 mA
SOL 1.1.26 Option (B) is correct.
Given the current through the Zener diode,
w
So,w iL = iR - iz
iL^maxh = iR - iz (min) = 6.3 - 4.8 - 5 = 125 - 5
12
w and iL (min)
= 120 mA
= iR - iz (max) = 125 - 100
= 25 mA
Thus, 25 m # iL # 120 mA
SOL 1.1.27 Option (C) is correct.
In Previous Question, the range of iL is
25 # iL # 120 mA
So, 25 m # 4.8 # 120 mA
RL
or 40 # RL # 192 W
SOL 1.1.28 Option (A) is correct.
The power rating required for the load resistor is
pL = iL (max) vz = ^120h^4.8h = 576 mW
SOL 1.1.29 Option (C) is correct.
For the given circuit, we first determine the linear region (forward bias or
reverse bias) in which the two diodes are operating, and then obtain the
output.
Step 1: Assume that the two diodes are OFF, and replace it by open circuit.
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Step 2: Now, we have the condition for both the diodes are
For normal diode,
v p > vn diode is ON
v p < vn diode is OFF
For Zener diode,
| Vpn | > Vz Zener diode is ON
| Vpn | < Vz Zener diode is OFF
Applying these conditions, we obtain the required unknowns.
CASE I:
.in
If vi < - 0.7 , pn diode are OFF and zener diode behave as forward
.co
bias. So, the equivalent circuit is
ia
od
.n
wwCASE II:
vo =- 0.7
w - 0.7 # vi # 5.7 both zener and diode D will be off. So, the
equivalent circuit is,
vo = vi
CASE III:
5.7 < vi < 10 Diode D will be ON and zener will be OFF. So, the
equivalent circuit is
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i. n
.c o
as
i a
Step 1: We have the input waveform, vi = 5 sin wt . So, we draw the waveform
o d
. n
w w
w Step 2: For half part of the circuit. When positive half cycle of input is
applied, diode D1 is ON and D2 is OFF. So, capacitor C1 will charge
upto + 5 Volt
VC =+ 5 Volt
1
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So, it allows only peaks at the output. Thus, from the results obtained
in the above step, the output voltage is
VC =- 10 Volt
2
in
the equivalent circuit is,
o.
a.c
di
no
w.
Step 2: Now, we have the condition for both the diodes
v p > vn diode is ON
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Page 84 Step 1: Assume that the diode is OFF, and replace it by open circuit. The
Chap 1 equivalent circuit is
Diode Circuits
i. n
.c o
i a
SOL 1.1.34
o
Option (A) is correct.
d
. n
For the given circuit, we first determine the linear region (forward bias or
w
reverse bias) in which the two diodes are operating, and then obtain the
output.
w
Step 1: Assume that the two diodes are OFF, and replace it by open circuit.
CASE I:
If vi < 10 V D1 is OFF. Since,
vo = 10 V
So, D2 is OFF. Since the equivalent circuit is
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.in
.co
The output voltage is
vo = vi
ia
Step 3: In both cases diode D2 is always OFF. From the results obtained in
above steps, we get the transfer characteristic as
od
.n
ww
SOL 1.1.35 w
Option (D) is correct.
For the given input signal, we obtain the output in following steps:
Step 1: In the positive half cycle (when Vin > 4 V ), diode D2 conducts and
D1 will be off. So, the equivalent circuit is
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Page 86
Chap 1
Diode Circuits
Applying KVL,
Vin - 10kI + 4 - 10kI = 0
Vin + 4 = I
20k
Since, the minimum input voltage is Vin =- 10 V , so we obtain the
corresponding current as
I = - 10 + 4 =- 3 mA
20k 10
Thus, the minimum output voltage is obtained as
Vin - Vout = I
i. n
10
- 10 - Vout =- 3 m
10k 10
.c o
Vout =- (10 - 3)
=- 7 volt
SOL 1.1.36 Option (A) is correct.
i a
o d
This is a half-wave rectifier circuit. So, the dc voltage is given by,
Vdc = Vm
. n p
Equivalent circuit with forward resistance is
w w
w
So, the dc current in the circuit is
Vm
(Vm /p)
Idc = p = = Vm
rf + R (5 + 45) 50p
SOL 1.1.37 Option (B) is correct.
For the given input voltage, we consider the following two cases.
CASE I:
For positive half cycle ^vo < 4 Vh, the equivalent circuit is
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CASE II:
For negative value of input, the zener diode will be in OFF state. So, the
equivalent circuit is
.in
.co
ia
od
So, we get the output voltage as
vo =- 1k # 10 sin wt
1k + 1k
.n =- 5 sin wt
ww
Thus, we have the peak value
vo =- 5
Option (C) is correct.
w
SOL 1.1.38
When the switch is opened, current flows through capacitor and diode is ON
in this condition. So, the equivalent circuit during TOFF is
I = C dVc
dt
& Vc = I t + Vc (0)
C
Initially, Vc (0) = 0
Vc = I t
C
At t = Toff , Vc = I Toff
C
So, the duty cycle is
D = TON = TON
TON + TOFF T
TON = DT
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.c o
Vo = 1 ; #
d
T 0
ia
DT = T
ON I
b-C t l dt +
TOFF
#0 0 dtE
o
2 DT
=- 1 . I :t D
T C 2 0
. n 2 2
=- 1 . I . D T =- I D .T
T C 2 C 2
2
SOL 1.1.40
w w
Option (C) is correct.
For the given circuit, we first determine the linear region (forward bias or
w reverse bias) in which the three diodes are operating, and then obtain the
output.
Step 1: Assume that the three diodes are OFF, and replace it by open circuit.
So, equivalent circuit is
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VC = 0 - 0.6 =- 0.6 V
VB =- 0.6 + 0.6 = 0 V
VA = VB - 0.6 = 0 - 0.6 =- 0.6 V
So, current I1 is
I1 = 10 - VB = 10 - 0 = 1 mA
10 kW 10k
Current through diode D1 is
.in
ID1 =
VA - ^- 20h
10 kW
= - 0.6 + 20 = 1.94 mA
10k
. o
Also, current I2 is
c VC - ^- 10h
= - 0.6 + 10 = 0.94 mA
ia I2 =
10k 10k
od
Applying KCL at node VB ,
I 1 = I D1 + I D2
.n 1 mA = 1.94 mA + ID2
ID2 =- 0.94 mA 1 0
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i. n
So voltage drop at diode D1 is
VD1 = 0.6 V
Voltage drop across diode D 3 is
.c o
i a
VD3 = 0.6 V
o d
and voltage across the diode D2 is
VD2 = VP2 - Vn2
.
where
n Vn2 = 0 - 0.6 =- 0.6 V
and
w
So,
w VP2 = 10 - I1 R1 (Put I1 = 1.47 m )
= 10 - 1.47 m # 10 kW =- 4.70 V
VD2 = VP2 - Vn2
w
SOL 1.1.42 Option (D) is correct.
=- 4.70 - ^- 0.6h =- 4.10 V
Let us consider the given circuit for nominal and worst cases.
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.co RS max
RS min = 15 ^0.95h = 14.25 kW
= 10k ^1.05h = 10.5 kW
ia RL max
RL min = 10 ^0.95h = 9.5 kW
od Vz max
Vz max
= 9 ^1.05h = 9.45 V
= 9 ^0.95h = 8.55 V
.n Iz = IS - I L
ww
For Iz max
Iz = VS - Vz - Vz - 0
I zworst
max =
RS RL
VS max - Vz min - Vz min
w I zworst
max =
RS min
31.5 - 8.55 - 8.55
14.25k
RL max
10.5
= 1.610 mA - 0.814 m = 0.796 mA
For Iz min I zworst
min = VS min - Vz max - Vz max
RS max RL min
I zworst
min = 28.50 - 9.45 - 9.45
15.75k 9.5k
= 1.209 mA - 0.99 mA = 0.215 mA
SOL 1.1.43 Option (C) is correct.
From the solution obtained in previous problem,
I znom = 0.50 mA
So, P znom = V znom ^Iz hnom
= 9 # 0.5 = 4.5 mW
In calculation of I zmax we use V zmin . So, P zmax is also calculated for the same
condition. Therefore, the maximum power dissipation is
P zmax = V zmin I zmax
= 8.55 # 0.796 m = 6.81 mW
Similarly, P zmin = V zmax I zmin
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i. n
v p > vn diode is ON
v p < vn diode is OFF
.c
D1 is ON and diode D2 is OFF. o
For these condition, we conclude from the above circuit that diode
as
i a
Step 3: For the result obtained in above step, we draw the equivalent circuit
o d
. n
w w
w
Thus, D1 is ON and D2 is OFF is correct option.
SOL 1.1.45 Option (D) is correct.
For the given circuit, we determine the linear region (forward bias or reverse
bias) in which the diode are operating.
Step 1: Assume that the diodes are OFF, and replace it by open circuit. So,
equivalent circuit is
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.in
Current I1 = 10 - 5 = 1.667 mA
3k
.co
Current I2 = 5 - 0 = 0.714 mA
7k
Applying KCL at vA node,
ia i 1 + i D2 = I 2
.n
So, diode D2 is OFF because iD2 1 0
Step 4: For diode D2 to be OFF, the modified circuit is
ww
w
Current i1 = 10 - 0 = 1 mA
3k + 7k
0 - ^- 5h
Current i 3 = = 2 mA
2.5k
Applying KCL at Node VB ,
i 1 + i D3 = i 3
iD3 = 2 m - 1 mA = 1 mA
ID3 2 0
So, diode D 3 is ON.
Step 5: Thus, from the above results, we have
D1 D2 D3
FB RB FB
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In this case, the voltage across the parallel arm is not same. So it does not
follow the KVL rule. When the supply is turned ON, it will increase from
0 to 15 V within milliseconds. During the rise in voltage across the diodes,
when 0.3 V is established across the germanium diode it will turn ‘ON’ and
maintain a level of 0.3 V. So, silicon diode always remains OFF. Therefore,
we get the equivalent circuit as
i. n
.c o
i a
o d
. n
SOL 1.1.47
w w
Option (C) is correct.
w For the given circuit, we first determine the region (ON or OFF region) in
which the zener diode is operating, and then obtain the output.
Step 1: Assume that the zener diode is OFF, and replace it by open circuit.
VA = RL v
R + RL # L
VA min = RL # vi min
R + RL
^R + RL h
vi min = # vA min
RL
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iL = Vz - 0 = 20 = 16.67 mA
1.2 k 1.2 k
Applying KCL at node VA ,
IR = Iz + IL
IR max = Iz max + IL
vi max - vz = 60m + 16.67 mA
R
vi max = 76.67m # 220 + vz
= 16.87 V + 20 V = 36.87 V
SOL 1.1.48 Option (D) is correct.
For the given input waveform, we obtain the output voltage waveform
considering the positive and negative half cycles.
CASE I:
.in
o
For positive half wave of the input, the diode D1 and D 3 will be forward
c
biased and diode D2 , D 4 will be reverse diode. So, equivalent circuit diagram
is
.
ia
od
.n
ww
w
Applying KVL in Loop 1,
vo + vi = 0
vo =- vi ...(1)
CASE II:
For negative half cycle of the input, the diode D 4 and D2 will be ON, and
D1 and D 3 will be OFF. So, the equivalent circuit is
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Page 96
Chap 1
Diode Circuits
i. n
.c o
i a
o d
. n
w w
So, the current flowing through resistor R1 is given by
I = Vad - Vout
w R1
= 3 - 2.4 = 6 mA
100
Since, no current is drawn by cellphone, so this current I flows through each
diode and hence diode current equation is
VD
I = IS eV T
or 6 m = IS e 800m
26m
or IS = 2.602 # 10-16 A
SOL 1.1.51 Option (B) is correct.
When there is no load ^RL = 3h, IL = 0 . Under this condition, maximum
current flows through the zener diode. So, maximum current passing through
zener is IzM , when load current is zero. This current is more than IzT , so
voltage across zener diode changes due to small zener resistance. Therefore,
the maximum zener voltage is
^Vz hmax = Vz + ^Iz max - IzT h Rz
= 12 + ^76m - 21mh 9
= 12 + 0.495 = 12.5 V
Similarly, we obtain the minimum Zener voltage as
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in
R
o. = 24 - 11.82 - 1 # 9 - 1m
330
SOL 1.1.53
a.c
Option (A) is correct.
= 36.88m - 1m = 35.88 mA
di
When load current is maximum, the load resistance will be
RL = Vz min
no IL max
= 11.82 = 329.43 W
SOL 1.1.54
w.
Option (A) is correct.
35.88m
For the given circuit, we first determine the region (ON or OFF region)
ww
in which the zener diode is operating, and the normal diode is forward or
reverse then obtain the output.
Step 1: Assume that the zener diode is OFF, and replace it by open circuit
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.c o
bias) in which the two diodes are operating.
Step 1: Assume that the two diodes are OFF, and replace it by open circuit.
a
So, the equivalent circuit is
i
o d
. n
w w
w Step 2: Now, we have the condition for both the diodes
v p > vn diode is ON
v p < vn diode is OFF
Applying these conditions, we conclude that the diodes D1, D2 are
ON.
Step 3: When both diodes are operating in ON state, we have the equivalent
network as
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From the above circuit, ID2 > 0 . Thus, diode D1 is OFF and Diode
D2 is ON.
.in
Option (B) is correct.
o
SOL 1.1.57
.c
For normal diode,
a
di v p > vn
v p < vn
diode is ON
diode is OFF
no
For Zener diode,
| Vpn | > Vz Zener diode is ON
ww
Step 1: For positive half cycle, the diode D2 , D 3 , D 4 are operating in OFF
state and diode D1 is in forward biased for Vi 2 0.6 . Now, consider
the following two cases for positive half cycle.
CASE I:
If 0 1 vi 1 10 V , then zener diode is in OFF state. So, it operates
as normal diode. In this case, the voltage across zener diode VPn 1 0
. So, it operates in reverse bias.
CASE II:
If vi 2 10 V , then voltage across zener diode is V 2 vz . So, zener
diode is in ON state.
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Page 100
Chap 1
Diode Circuits
CASE I:
When - 1.8 1 vin 1 0 , the equivalent circuit is
i. n
.c o
i a
So, the output voltage is
vo = vin
CASE II:
o d
. n
If vin 1- 1.8 V , then diode D2 , D 3 and D 4 is in ON state. So,
equivalent circuit is
w w
w
Therefore, the output voltage is
vo =- 0.6 - 0.6 - 0.6
=- 1.8 V
Step 3: From the above results, we sketch the plot between vin and vo as
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vP2 = 5k 15 = 5 V
5k + 10k #
So, voltage across diodes D1 and D2 are
vPn1 = 15 V and vPn2 = 5 V
Step 3: Now, we have the operating conditions for the diode
.in v p > vn
v p < vn
diode is ON
co diode is OFF
Applying these conditions, we conclude that both diodes are
.
operating in ON state. But, the n -terminals of diode are commonly
a
connected, so the result is incorrect.
i
d
Step 4: For the obtained voltage, we conclude that diode D1 approaches the
ON state first. So, we check for D1 ON and D2 OFF. The equivalent
o
circuit is
.n
ww
w
Step 5: By using voltage divider rule, we have
vP2 = 5k 15 = 5 V
5k + 10k #
vn2 = 10k # 15 = 10 V
5k + 10k
So, voltage across diode D2 is
vPn2 = 5 - 10
vPn2 =- 5
vPn2 1 0
i.e. diode D2 is OFF (assumption is correct). Thus, diode D1 is ON
and D2 is OFF.
SOL 1.1.59 Option (C) is correct.
For the given circuit, we determine the linear region (forward bias or reverse
bias) in which the diodes are operating.
Step 1: Assume that all the diodes are OFF, and replace it by open circuit.
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1k + 1k + 1k + 1k # ^
V1 = 1k 15 - ^- 15hh
V1 = 1 # 30 = 7.5 V
4
Voltage across diode D1 is
vPn1 = vP1 - vn1
= V1 - 0 = 7.5 V
vPn1 2 0
Step 3: Now, we have the condition for the diode
v p > vn
v p < vn i. n
diode is ON
diode is OFF
.c o
For these conditions, we conclude that diode D1 is ON.
Step 4: Now, we draw the equivalent circuit (for the diode D1 ON) for
a
checking the operating regions of diodes D2 and D 3 .
i
o d
. n
w w
Step 5: Using voltage divider rule,
w V2 =
1k + 1k + 1k ^
=- 5 V
1k - 15 Vh
V3 = 1 kW ^- 15h =- 7.5 V
1k + 1k
vPn3 = VP3 - Vn3
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Step 7: Thus, combining the all results obtained in above cases, we conclude
that diode D1 is ON, D2 is ON, and diode D 3 is OFF.
SOL 1.1.60 Option (C) is correct.
From the results obtained in previous problem, we have the equivalent
circuit as
in
= 0 - ^- 7.5 Vh
a.c I = V1 - V2
1 kW
di = 0 - 0 = 0 Amp
1k
no **********
w.
ww
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Page 104
Chap 1 SOLUTIONS 1.2
Diode Circuits
i a diode is OFF
Applying these conditions, we conclude that diode D1 is OFF and
D2 is ON.
o d
Step 3: For the result obtained in the above case, the equivalent circuit is
. n
w w
w
i1 = 0 mA , i2 = 5 - 3 = 4 mA
500
SOL 1.2.2 Correct answer is - 3.57 .
For the given circuit, we first determine the linear region (forward bias or
reverse bias) in which the diodes are operating, and then obtain the output.
Step 1: Assume that the diodes are OFF, and replace it by open circuit. So,
equivalent circuit is
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Step 3: When diode D1 is OFF, and diode D2 is ON, then equivalent circuit
is
10 - 0.7 - ^- 10h
I = = 1.287 mA
15k
V = 10 - ^1.287 mh # 10k =- 2.87 V
So, diode D1 is OFF (our assumption is correct).
Step 4: For the diode D1 OFF, we have
.in
iD1 = 0 mA
So,
.co vo =- 10 + ^5kh^1.287 mh
=- 3.57 V
SOL 1.2.3
ia
Correct answer is - 2 .
For the given circuit, we first determine the linear region (forward bias or
od
reverse bias) in which the diode is operating, and then obtain the output.
Step 1: Assume that the diode is OFF, and replace it by open circuit. So,
.n
equivalent circuit is
ww
w
Step 2: By using voltage divider rule,
vA = 10k 4=2V
10k + 10k #
vB = 10k 8=4V
10k + 10k #
Step 3: Now, we have the condition
v p > vn diode is ON
v p < vn diode is OFF
Applying these conditions, we conclude that diode is OFF.
Step 4: So, the voltage across diode is
vD = vA - vB = 2 - 4 =- 2 V
SOL 1.2.4 Correct answer is 2.93.
Each diode having a forward bias current or iD > 0 . So, each diode is
operating in ON state. Therefore, the equivalent circuit is
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Page 106
Chap 1
Diode Circuits
i. n
R2 =
1
= 5 kW
R3 =
- 0.6 - ^- 5h
1.5
.c o
i
= 2.93 kW
a
SOL 1.2.5 Correct answer is 7.6 .
If D 3 is ON, then
o d
.
In this case, n vo = 5 - 0.6 = 4.4
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.in
.co
ia
od
Using Nodal analysis, we obtain the output voltage as
vo - 10 + ^vo - 0.6h - 0 = 0
.n 9.5 0.5k
SOL 1.2.7
ww
Correct answer is 5.82 .
v 0 = 1.07 V
w
If v1 = 10 V , v2 = 5 V , then D2 is OFF and D2 is ON. In that case, the
equivalent circuit is
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Page 108
Chap 1
Diode Circuits
i. n
.c o
i a
d
By using nodal analysis at node vo ,
vo - 10 + ^vo - 0.6h - 0 + ^vo - 0.6h - 0 = 0
o
.
9.5k
n 0.5k 0.5k
vo = 0.842 V
SOL 1.2.9
w w
Correct answer is 8.93 .
For the given circuit, we first determine the linear region (forward bias or
w
reverse bias) in which the diodes are operating, and then obtain the output.
Step 1: Assume that the diodes are OFF, and replace it by open circuit. So,
the equivalent circuit is
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in
v2 = 8.93 + 0.60 = 9.53 V
o.
Since, for the given problem we have v2 = 5 V. So, the output in this case is
same as in previous.
SOL 1.2.11
Now, we have
a.c
Correct answer is 9.16.
di v2 = 10 V
which is greater than the required voltage to turn ON the diode D2 . So,
o
the diodes D1 and D2 both are ON for the given voltage. Therefore, the
n
.
equivalent circuit is
w
ww
Applying KCL at node vo ,
vo - 0 + ^vo + 0.6h - 10 + ^vo + 0.6h - 10 = 0
9.5k .5k .5k
or vo = 9.16 V
SOL 1.2.12 Correct answer is 0.01.
Since the diodes are connected in parallel, so each diode has the current
iD = 0.1 A = 0.01 A
10
SOL 1.2.13 Correct answer is 1.4.
The given circuit is
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According to KCL
iR = iz + iL
For iL (max) & iz (min) = 0
iR = iL (max)
iL (max) = 30 - 9 = 1.4 mA
15 kW
SOL 1.2.14 Correct answer is 0.5.
We have the given circuit,
i. n
.c o
i a
o d
Step 1: From the circuit, the voltage across Zener diode is obtained as
. n V = 75 # 50 = 16.66 V
225
w w
Step 2: For Zener diode, we have the condition
V > vz Zener diode is ON
Step 4: From the equivalent circuit, we obtain the current through Zener
diode as
iR = iz + iL
iz = iR - iL = 50 - 15 - 15
150 75
iz = 33.33 mA
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.in
.coiR = 20 - 10 = 45 mA
222
Step 3: For maximum power in zener diode, the value of RL is obtained as
ia iL (min) = iR - iz (max)
od 10 = 45 - 40
RL
RL = 10 = 2 kW
SOL 1.2.16
.n
Correct answer is 24.4.
5
ww
Given the secondary transformer voltage,
vs = 60 sin 2p60t V
w
So, the maximum voltage across capacitor is given by
Vmax = (vs) max - 2 # VD, on
= 60 - 1.4 = 58.6 V
Thus, the capacitance is given by
C = Vmax = 58.6 = 24.4 mF
2fRvrip 2 (60) 10 # 103 # 2
SOL 1.2.17 Correct answer is 20.6.
Given the input to full-wave rectifier,
vi = 120 sin 2p60t V
So, we have the voltage across both the secondary transformer as
vs = 120 sin 2p60t V
Therefore, the maximum voltage across the capacitor is
Vmax = (vs) max - VD, on
= 120 - 0.7 = 119.3 V
Since, the input cannot drop below 100 V, so we have
vrip = 119.3 - 100 = 19.3 V
Thus, the capacitance is obtained as
C = Vmax = 119.3 = 20.6 mF
2fRvrip 2 (60) 2.5 # 103 # 14.4
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i a
Checking the given circuit for these conditions, we conclude that D2
o d
is always OFF and D1 is ON.
Step 3: So, we draw the equivalent circuit for the obtained result as
. n
w w
w
Step 4: By to voltage divider rule, we obtain
vo = 10k 10
10k + 10k #
=5V
SOL 1.2.20 Correct answer is 0.
For the given circuit, we first determine the linear region (forward bias or
reverse bias) in which the diodes are operating, and then obtain the output.
Step 1: Assume that the diodes are OFF, and replace it by open circuit. So,
equivalent circuit is
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I =0
SOL 1.2.21
o.
Correct answer is 2.
We analyze the given circuit in following steps.
a.c
Step 1: Assume that Zener diode is OFF, and draw the equivalent circuit as
di
no
w.
, ww
Step 2: For Zener diode, the operating regions are defined as
V > Vz
V < Vz
Zener diode is ON
Zener diode is OFF
Checking the given circuit for the conditions, we have
V > vz
i.e. zener diode is ON and work as a voltage regulation.
Step 3: For the obtained result, we draw the equivalent circuit as
Iz = 3.5 - 3.3 = 2 mA
0.1k
SOL 1.2.22 Correct answer is 0.
For the given circuit, we first determine the linear region (forward bias or
reverse bias) in which the two diodes are operating, and then obtain the
output.
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Page 114 Step 1: Assume that the two diodes are OFF, and replace its by open circuit.
Chap 1 So, the equivalent circuit is
Diode Circuits
i. n
.c o
i a
o d
From the circuit, we have
5 - ^- 8h
. n
Current, I =
2k
= 6.5 mA
w
SOL 1.2.23 Correct answer is 1.66.
We have the regulator circuit as
For RL min the load current will be maximum. Since, by applying KCL at
Node A, we have
IS = IL + Iz
So, for IL max the value of Iz has to be minimum, i.e.
Iz min = 0 mA
or VS - Vz = 0 + IL max
R
or Vz = 20 - 5 Vz
:Put IL,max = RL min D
RL min 5k
Thus, RL min = 5 = 1.66 kW
3m
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.in
Correct answer is 12.6.
For RL = 3, the equivalent circuit is
.co
ia
od
.n
Now, we analyse the circuit in following steps.
Step 1: Assume zener diode in OFF state and draw the equivalent circuit.
ww
w
Step 2: From the circuit, we have
vo = 30 V
Since vz = 9 V , so we conclude that
vo 2 vz
i.e. Zener diode is operating in ON state (assumption is incorrect).
Step 3: For the obtained result, we draw the equivalent circuit as
Iz = 30 - 9 = 1.4 mA
15k
Step 5: Thus, the power dissipation in Zener diode is
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Page 116 Pz = vz Iz
Chap 1
= 9 # 1.4m = 12.6 mW
Diode Circuits
SOL 1.2.26 Correct answer is 16.82.
For the diode operating in ON state, simplified circuit is
i. n
.c o
i a
o d
From the circuit, the ripple voltage is
. n Vrip . Vm - Vo T
R C
w w
Given that f = 60 Hz . So,
= Idc T
C
V - Vo
;a Idc = m
R
E
w Therefore,
T = 1 = 1 sec
f
Vrip = 16.8 #
60
1/60
15 25 # 10-3
= 0.747 V
SOL 1.2.28 Correct answer is 0.
For the given circuit, we first determine the linear region (forward bias or
reverse bias) in which the diodes are operating, and then obtain the output.
Step 1: Assume that the diodes are OFF, and replace it by open circuit. So,
equivalent circuit is
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in
From the circuit, we obtain
o. ID2 =
15 - ^- 10h
5k + 10k
= 1.66 mA
i
Step 4: Since, we have assumed diode D1 ON, so
d
o Vp2 = 0 V
Therefore, the voltage across diode D2 is
n
w. Vpn2 1 0
i.e. D2 will be OFF due to D1 ON (assumption is incorrect).
ww
Step 5: Therefore, the total current from 15 V supply will go through diode
D1 and no current flow through diode D2 , i.e.
ID2 = 0
Step 6: Thus, the actual equivalent circuit is
ID1 = 15 - 0 = 3 mA
5kW
ID2 = 0
SOL 1.2.29 Correct answer is 1.55.
For the given circuit, we first determine the linear region (forward bias or
reverse bias) in which the diodes are operating, and then obtain the output.
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Page 118 Step 1: Assume that the diodes are OFF, and replace it by open circuit. So,
Chap 1 equivalent circuit is
Diode Circuits
Step 2: For the equivalent circuit, we may conclude that the applied voltage
forward biases the diodes. So, both the diodes are operating in ON
state. So equivalent Circuit is
i. n
.c o
Step 3: For the equivalent circuit, we obtain
I2 =
i a
0.7 = 0.11 mA
6.6 kW
o d
I 3 = VB - 0
R2
. n = 18.6 - 0 = 1.66 mA
11.2k
w w
Step 4: Again, applying KCL at node VB ,
I 3 = ID2 + I2
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.in RL = 0.436 W
.co T = 1 = 1 = 16.67 ms
f
Thus, the capacitance is obtained as
60
od
Correct answer is 0.389.
Full wave rectifier with smoothing capacitor and load resistance RL is
.n
ww
w
Ripple in full wave rectifier is
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2p 0 # # p
I
2p
i. n
= m 8^- cos wt h0p + ^cos wt h2ppB
= 2Im
p
Now, the rectifier circuit is
.c o ...(1)
i a
o d
. n
w w
From the circuit, we have
w Where
Im = Vm
RS + R f + R L
RS " Secondary winding resistance
...(2)
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p p ^RS + R f + RL h E RL ...(3)
3.14 ^5 + 2 + 50h
= 4.98 watt
SOL 1.2.34 Correct answer is 14.
In previous solution, we have obtained
Vdc = 2Vm RL
p ^RS + R f + RL h
For calculation of Null load voltage ^VNL h, we put RL " 3 in above
expression, i.e.
.in
.co VNL = lim
R "3 L
2Vm
R + Rf
p d1 + S
RL
n
ia = 2Vm = 18.01 V
p
od
Also, the full load voltage is obtained as
ww = 2 # 28.28 # 50
3.14 ^5 + 2 + 50h
= 15.80 V
w
Thus, the percentage load regulation is
% Load regulation = VNL - VFL # 100 %
VFL
= 18.01 - 15.80 # 100 = 14 %
15.80
SOL 1.2.35 Correct answer is 0.711.
The rectifier efficiency is defined as
Output dc power
h =
Input ac power
Now, we have the output dc power,
^Pdc ho = Vdc Idc = I dc2 RL
2
= b 2Im l RL
p
The input ac power is
^Pac hin = ^Vrms hi ^Irms hi = c m m c m m
V V
2 i 2 i
^Vm hi ^Im hi
=
2
= I m2
2 ^RS + R f + RL h
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= 82 RL
p ^RS + R f + RL h
= 82 50
p 5 + 2 + 50
= 0.711
SOL 1.2.36 Correct answer is 92.22.
We redraw the given the diode circuit as
i. n
.c o
i a
From circuit, we have the current through D2 as
Also, we have
o d VD2
T
V1
ID2 = IS 2 e hV = IS 2 e hV
T ...(1)
. n VD1 = V1 - V
w w
So, the current through diode D1 is
V1 - V
ID1 = IS1 e hV T ...(2)
Now, the reverse saturation current is directly proportional to junction area,
w i.e.
IS \ A
where A denotes the junction area. Since, D1 has 10 times the junction area
of D2 . So, we get
IS1 = 10
IS2
Applying KCL at node V1 ,
I 1 = I D1 + I D2
or 10m = ID2 + 2m
or ID2 = 8 mA
Dividing equation (2) by (1), we have
V1 - V
ID1 = IS1 e V T
I D2 V
IS2 eV
1
T
or 2m = 10e-VV
8m
T
Thus, V = VT ln ^40h
= 92.22 mV
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.co I2 = V2 - 0
1 kW
ia = 10.6 - 0 = 10.6 mA
1 kW
od
Applying KCL at node V2 , we get current through diode D2 as
ID2 = I2 + ID3
.n = 10.6m + 9.9m
ww = 20.5 mA
From the circuit, we have the current
w I1 = V1 - 0 = 11.3 = 11.3 mA
1 kW 1k
Thus, applying KCL at node V1 we obtain the current through diode D1 as
ID1 = I1 + ID2
= 11.3 mA + 20.5m = 31.8 mA
SOL 1.2.38 Correct answer is 0.5.
For DC analysis, coupling capacitor C1 and C2 is open circuited. So, equivalent
circuit is
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or
vo ^ t h
vi ^ t h
=
.c o
100 + 2k || 50 || 2k i
47.61
i a 100 + 47.61
= 0.33
o d
. n ***********
w w
w
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.in
inductor filter is suitable for small values of load-resistance.
SOL 1.3.3
co
Option (A) is correct.
The rectifier circuit is to convert a.c. voltage to d.c. voltage.
.
SOL 1.3.4
ia
Option (C) is correct.
The ripple factor of Inductor filter is,
od r = RL
3 2 ^wL h
SOL 1.3.5
.n
Option (D) is correct.
A bleeder resistance RB , is connected in parallel with the load resistance as
w
shown in figure
w
w
It improves voltage regulation of the supply by acting as the preload on the
supply.
SOL 1.3.6 Option (B) is correct.
For half wave rectifier,
The output frequency fo = fi
Where, fi = input frequency
fo = 50 Hz
For full wave bridge rectifier
fo = 2fi
= 2 # 50
= 100 Hz
SOL 1.3.7 Option (D) is correct.
The full wave bridge diode rectifier,
2R f
% Voltage regulation = 100%
RL #
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= 2 # 50 # 100%
Page 126
Chap 1 50
Diode Circuits = 200%
SOL 1.3.8 Option (C) is correct.
A voltage multiplier circuit is shown in figure
i. n
.c o
i a
o d
Vpn < 0 , So diode is actually OFF.
So the equivalent circuit is
. n
w w
w
Vo = 10 V
SOL 1.3.10 Option (B) is correct.
Zener diode can work in the breakdown region without getting damaged. So
a Zener diode is always used in Reverse biased.
SOL 1.3.11 Option (D) is correct.
Voltage regulation – it is defined as the % change in regulated output voltage
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in
in parallel with the load resistance as shown in Fig.
.
.co
ia
od
Therefore, a minimum current will always be present for optimum operation
SOL 1.3.14
.n
of the inductor.
Option (A) is correct.
w
The given circuit is half wave rectifier circuit so
w
DC current, Idc = Im =
p
Vm
^RL + RF h p
w =
^5
Vm
+ 45h p
= Vm
50p
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.c o
Zener diode is in OFF state. So, it work as voltage regulator.
So, equivalent circuit is,
i a
o d
. n
w w
w KCL at node A
IS = I L + I z
For maximum load current,
IS^maxh = IL^minh + Iz^minh
Vi^maxh - Vz
= IL^maxh + 0.5m
RS
IL^maxh = 30 - 5.8 - 0.5m
1000
= 24.2m - 0.5m = 23.7 mAmp
SOL 1.3.22 Option (C) is correct.
SOL 1.3.23 Option (C) is correct.
The p-section filter circuit is,
At no load, RL = 3
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.in
.co
ia
od
So,
.n V2 = 6 - 0.6
= 5.4 V
SOL 1.3.25
ww V1 = 6 V
Option (B) is correct.
w
The given circuit is,
This is a clamper circuit and the diode is in downward direction the total
signal will be clamp below the reference voltage.
SOL 1.3.26 Option (D) is correct.
Clipper circuits, also called limiter circuits are used to eliminate portion
of a signal that are above or below a specified level without distorting the
remaining part of the alternating waveform.
SOL 1.3.27 Option (D) is correct.
Clamper circuits shifts the entire signal voltage by a dc level.
SOL 1.3.28 Option (C) is correct.
-3
IZM = PZM = 500 # 10
VZ 6.8
= 73.5 # 10-3 A = 73.5 mA
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w w
w
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Eighth Edition
GATE
ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION
Communication Systems
Vol 9 of 10
Information contained in this book has been obtained by author, from sources believes to be reliable. However,
neither NODIA & COMPANY nor its author guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any information herein,
and NODIA & COMPANY nor its author shall be responsible for any error, omissions, or damages arising out of
use of this information. This book is published with the understanding that NODIA & COMPANY and its author
are supplying information but are not attempting to render engineering or other professional services.
MRP 490.00
Later, we perceived that many aspirants couldn’t develop a good problem solving approach in their B.E/B.Tech.
Some of them lacked the fundamentals of a subject and had difficulty understanding simple solutions. Now,
we have an idea to enhance our content and present two separate books for each subject: one for theory, which
contains brief theory, problem solving methods, fundamental concepts, and points-to-remember. The second book
is about problems, including a vast collection of problems with descriptive and step-by-step solutions that can
be understood by an average student. This was the origin of GATE Guide (the theory book) and GATE Cloud
(the problem bank) series: two books for each subject. GATE Guide and GATE Cloud were published in three
subjects only.
Thereafter we received an immense number of emails from our readers looking for a complete study package
for all subjects and a book that combines both GATE Guide and GATE Cloud. This encouraged us to present
GATE Study Package (a set of 10 books: one for each subject) for GATE Electronic and Communication
Engineering. Each book in this package is adequate for the purpose of qualifying GATE for an average student.
Each book contains brief theory, fundamental concepts, problem solving methodology, summary of formulae,
and a solved question bank. The question bank has three exercises for each chapter: 1) Theoretical MCQs, 2)
Numerical MCQs, and 3) Numerical Type Questions (based on the new GATE pattern). Solutions are presented
in a descriptive and step-by-step manner, which are easy to understand for all aspirants.
We believe that each book of GATE Study Package helps a student learn fundamental concepts and develop
problem solving skills for a subject, which are key essentials to crack GATE. Although we have put a vigorous
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constructive comments, criticisms, and suggestions from the users of this book. You may write to us at rajkumar.
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Acknowledgements
We would like to express our sincere thanks to all the co-authors, editors, and reviewers for their efforts in
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this project through all phases of its development. At last, we express our gratitude to God and our Family for
providing moral support and motivation.
Random signals and noise: probability, random variables, probability density function, autocorrelation, power spectral density. Analog
communication systems: amplitude and angle modulation and demodulation systems, spectral analysis of these operations, superheterodyne
receivers; elements of hardware, realizations of analog communication systems; signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) calculations for amplitude
modulation (AM) and frequency modulation (FM) for low noise conditions. Fundamentals of information theory and channel capacity
theorem. Digital communication systems: pulse code modulation (PCM), differential pulse code modulation (DPCM), digital modulation
schemes: amplitude, phase and frequency shift keying schemes (ASK, PSK, FSK), matched filter receivers, bandwidth consideration and
probability of error calculations for these schemes. Basics of TDMA, FDMA and CDMA and GSM.
GATE Instrumentation
Signals, Systems and Communications: Periodic and aperiodic signals. Impulse response, transfer function and frequency response of first-
and second order systems. Convolution, correlation and characteristics of linear time invariant systems. Discrete time system, impulse
and frequency response. Pulse transfer function. IIR and FIR filters. Amplitude and frequency modulation and demodulation. Sampling
theorem, pulse code modulation. Frequency and time division multiplexing. Amplitude shift keying, frequency shift keying and pulse shift
keying for digital modulation.
Communication Systems: Basic information theory; Modulation and detection in analogue and digital systems;
Sampling and data reconstructions; Quantization & coding; Time division and frequency division multiplexing;
Equalization; Optical Communication: In free space & fiber optic; Propagation of signals at HF, VHF, UHF and
microwave frequency; Satellite Communication.
IES Electrical
Communication Systems Types of modulation; AM, FM and PM. Demodulators. Noise and bandwidth
considerations. Digital communication systems. Pulse code modulation and demodulation. Elements of sound
and vision broadcasting. Carrier communication. Frequency division and time division multiplexing, Telemetry
system in power engineering.
1.1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.2 PROBABILITY 1
1.2.1 Joint Probability 2
1.2.2 Conditional Probability 2
1.2.3 Statistical Independence 2
1.3 RANDOM VARIABLE 2
1.3.1 Discrete Random Variable 2
1.3.2 Continuous Random Variable 3
1.4 TRANSFORMATION OF RANDOM VARIABLES 4
1.5 MULTIPLE RANDOM VARIABLES 4
1.6 STATISTICAL AVERAGE OF RANDOM VARIABLE 5
1.6.1 Mean or Expected Value 5
1.6.2 Moments 6
1.6.3 Variance 6
1.6.4 Standard Deviation 6
1.6.5 Characteristic Function 6
1.6.6 Joint Moments 6
1.6.7 Covariance 6
1.6.8 Correlation Coefficient 7
1.7 SOME IMPORTANT PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTIONS 7
1.7.1 Binomial Distribution 8
1.7.2 Poisson Distribution 8
1.7.3 Gaussian Distribution 8
1.7.4 Rayleigh Distribution 10
EXERCISE 1.1 11
EXERCISE 1.2 26
EXERCISE 1.3 33
SOLUTIONS 1.1 34
SOLUTIONS 1.2 61
SOLUTIONS 1.3 81
2.1 INTRODUCTION 82
2.2 RANDOM PROCESS 82
2.2.1 Classification of Random Process 83
2.2.2 Probability Density Function of Random Process 83
2.2.3 Stationary Random Process 83
2.3 AVERAGES OF RANDOM PROCESS 84
2.3.1 Time Average of a Random Process 84
CHAPTER 3 NOISE
DIGITAL TRANSMISSION
6.1 INTRODUCTION
.co
Quantization, which represents an analog signal in discrete form in both
amplitude and time.
•
a
Pulse code modulation (PCM): standard method for the transmission
i
of an analog message signal by digital means.
•
d
Delta modulation (DM), which provides a staircase approximation to
o
the oversampled version of the message signal.
•
.n
Digital signaling, which provides the mathematical representation for a
• w
digital signal waveform.
Multiplexing, which enables the joint utilization of common channel by
w
a plurality of independent message sources without mutual interference
w
among them.
The sampling process is usually described in the time domain. In this process,
an analog signal is converted into a corresponding sequence of samples that
are usually spaced uniformly in time. Consider an arbitrary signal x ^ t h of
finite energy, which is specified for all time as shown in figure 6.1(a).
Suppose that we sample the signal x ^ t h instantaneously and at a uniform
rate, once every Ts seconds, as shown in figure 6.1(b). Consequently, we
obtain an infinite sequence of samples spaced Ts seconds apart and denoted
by "x ^nTs h, , where n takes on all possible integer values.
Thus, we define the following terms:
1. Sampling Period: The time interval between two consecutive samples is
referred as sampling period. In figure 6.1(b), Ts is the sampling period.
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Page 372
Chap 6
Digital Transmission
i. n
Figure 6.1: Illustration of Sampling Process: (a) Message Signal, (b) Sampled Signal
o d
signal from the sampled values and also gives a precise upper bound on the
sampling interval required for distortionless reconstruction. It states that
1. A band-limited signal of finite energy, which has no frequency components
. n
higher than W Hertz, is completely described by specifying the values of
6.2.2
w its samples taken at the rate of 2 W samples per second.
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.in
2. Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
3. Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)
.co
ia
od
.n
ww
w
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Page 374 In the following sections, we will discuss the various types of pulse
Chap 6 modulation in some more detail.
Digital Transmission
i. n
.c o
i a
o d
. n
w w
w
Figure 6.3: Illustration of Nautural Sampling Pulse Amplitude Modulation: (a) Message
Signal, (b) Pulse Waveform, (c) Resulting PAM Signal
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ms ^ t h = / m^kT hh^t - kT h
3
Page 375
s s
k =- 3 Chap 6
where h ^ t h denotes the sampling-pulse shape shown in Figure 6.4(b), and Digital Transmission
ms ^ t h is the resulting flat top PAM signal shown in Figure 6.4(c)
.in
.co
ia
od
.n
ww
Figure 6.3: Illustration of Flat-top Sampling Pulse Amplitude Modulation: (a) Message
w
Signal, (b) Sampling Pulse, (c) Resulting PAM Signal
POINT TO REMEMBER
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APPLICATION OF SAMPLING
6.5.2 Quantization
A quantizer rounds off the sample values to the nearest discrete value in
a set of q quantum levels. The resulting quantized samples mq ^kTs h are
i. n
discrete in time (by virtue of sampling) and discrete in amplitude (by virtue
of quantizing). Basically, quantizers can be of a uniform or nonuniform type.
.c o
i a
o d
. n
w w
w Figure 6.6: Representation of Relationship Between Sampled and Quantized Signal
Uniform Quantizer
A quantizer is called as a uniform quantizer if the step size remains constant
throughout the input range. To display the relationship between m ^kTs h and
mq ^kTs h, let the analog message be a voltage waveform normalized such that
m ^ t h # 1 V . Uniform quantization subdivides the 2 V peak-to-peak range
into q equal steps of height 2/q , as shown in Figure 6.6. The quantum levels
are then taken to be at ! 1/q , ! 3/q ,..., !^q - 1h /q in the usual case when
q is an even integer. A quantized value such as mq ^kTs h = 5/q corresponds
to any sample value in the range 4/q < x ^xTs h < 6/q .
Nonuniform Quantizer
Nonuniform quantization is required to be implemented to improve the signal
to quantization noise ratio of weak signals. It is equivalent to passing the
baseband signal through a compressor and then applying the compressed
signal to a uniform quantizer. A particular form of compression law that is
used in practice is the so called m-law, which is defined by
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positive constant.
6.5.3 Encoding
An encoder translates the quantized samples into digital code words. The
encoder works with M -ary digits and produces for each sample a code
word consisting of n digits in parallel. Since, there are M n possible M
-ary codewords with n digits per word, unique encoding of the q different
quantum levels requires that
Mn $ q
The parameters M , n , and q should be chosen to satisfy the equality, so
that
q = M n or n = log M q
Encoding in Binary PCM
in
For binary PCM, each digit may be either of two distinct values 0 or 1, i.e.
o.M =2
If the code word of binary PCM consists of n digits, then number of
a.c
quantization levels is defined as
q = 2n
or
di n = log 2 q
In general, we must remember the following characteristics of a PCM system:
no
CHARACTERISTICS OF PCM SYSTEM
w.
1. A sampled waveform is quantized into q quantization levels; where q
is an integer.
ww
2. If the message signal is defined in the range ^- m p, m p h, then the step
size of quantizer is
2m p
d =
q
3. For a binary PCM system with n digit codes, the number of
quantization level is defined as
q = 2n
4. If the message signal is sampled at the sampling rate fs , and encoded
to n number of bits per sample; then the bit rate (bits/sec) of the
PCM is defined as
Rb = nfs
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Page 378
Chap 6 Step 2: Deduce the number of bits per sample using the expression
Digital Transmission n = log 2 q
Step 3: Evaluate bit rate (bits/sec) for the PCM system by substituting
the obtained values in the expression
Rb = nfs
The bandwidth of (serial) binary PCM waveforms depends on the bit rate
and the waveform pulse shape used to represent the data. The dimensionality
theorem shows that the bandwidth of the binary encoded PCM waveform
is bounded by
BPCM $ 1 Rb = 1 nfs
2 2
where Rb is the bit rate, n is the number of bits in PCM word, and fs is the
sampling rate. Since, the required sampling rate for no aliasing is
i. n
fs $ 2W
where W is the bandwidth of the message signal (that is to be converted to
the PCM signal). Thus, the bandwidth of the PCM signal has a lower bound
given by
BPCM $ nW
.c o
POINT TO REMEMBER
i a
d
The minimum bandwidth of 12 R = 12 nfs is obtained only when ^sin x h /x
o
. n
type pulse shape is used to generate the PCM waveform. However, usually
a more rectangular type of pulse shape is used, and consequently, the
w w
bandwidth of the binary-encoded PCM waveform will be larger than this
minimum. Thus, for rectangular pulses, the first null bandwidth is
BPCM = R = nfs (first null bandwidth)
6.7
w
NOISE CONSIDERATION IN PCM
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in
bits per second ^n h.
o.
Step 5 : Obtain the bit rate by substituting the approximated integer
value of n in the expression
a.c
Rb = nfs
di
6.7.2
o
Signal to Quantization Noise Ratio
For PCM system, we have the message signal m ^ t h, and quantization error
n
.
e. So, we define the signal to quantization noise ratio as
w ^SNRhQ =
m2 ^ t h m2 ^ t h
= 2 ...(6.2)
ww d =
e2
2m p
d /12
where d is the step size of the quantized signal defined as
...(6.3)
q
Substituting equation (6.3) in equation (6.2), we get the expression for signal
to quantization noise ratio as
m2 ^ t h
^SNRhQ = 12
^2m p /q h2
m2 ^ t h
^SNRhQ = 3q 2 ...(6.4)
m p2
where m p is the peak amplitude of message signal m ^ t h, and q is the number
of quantization level. Let us obtain the more generalized form of SNR for
the following two cases:
Case I :
When m ^ t h is a sinusoidal signal, we have its mean square value
m2 ^ t h = 1
2
and the peak amplitude of sinusoidal message signal is
mp = 1
So, by substituting these values in equation (6.4), we get the signal to
quantization noise ratio for sinusoidal message signal as
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i. n
If a PCM signal is composed of the data that are transmitted over the
channel having bit error rate Pe , then peak signal to average quantization
noise ratio is defined as
^SNRhpeak =
3q 2
.c o
1 + 4 ^q 2 - 1h Pe
i a
Similarly, for the channel with bit error probability Pe , the average
^SNRhave =
d
signal to average quantization noise ratio is defined as
o q2
1 + 4 ^q 2 - 1h Pe
. n
w w
POINT TO REMEMBER
If the additive noise in the channel is so small that errors can be neglected,
6.7.4 Companding
Companding is nonuniform quantization. It is required to be implemented
to improve the signal to quantization noise ratio of weak signals. The signal
to quantization noise ratio for m-law companding is approximated as
3q 2
^SNRhQ =
6ln ^1 + mh@2
where q is the number of quantization level, and m is a positive constant.
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POINT TO REMEMBER
in
two levels, namely, !d , corresponding to positive and negative differences.
o.
Thus if the approximation falls below the signal at any sampling approach,
it is increased by d . If on the other hand, the approximation lies above the
a.c
signal, it is diminished by d .
di
no
w.
ww
Figure 6.7: Staircase Approximation in Delta Modulation
POINTS TO REMEMBER
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i. n
^d/2h2
d/2 2
d
^e hPCM = d
2 1
# 2
e de =
12
=
3
- d/2
quantizing noise as
^e2hDM = d3
2
o
Replacing d/2 of PCM by d for DM, we obtain the total granular
.c
i a
o
system is obtained as d
Thus, the power spectral density for granular noise in delta modulation
. n
SN ^ f h =
d 2 /3
2fs
= d
2
6fs
w w
where d is the step size, and fs is the sampling frequency.
POINT TO REMEMBER
w Granular noise occurs for any step size but is smaller for a small step
size. Thus we would like to have d as small as possible to minimize the
granular noise.
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6.10.1 Baud
Let a multilevel signaling scheme having the symbol duration Ts seconds. So,
we define the symbols per second transmitted for the system as
D = 1
.in Ts
where D is the symbol rate which is also called baud.
.co
ia
For a multilevel signaling scheme with M number of symbols (levels), we
define the bits per symbol as
od k = log 2 M
n
6.10.3 Relation Between Baud and Bit Rate
.
ww
For a multilevel signaling scheme, the bit rate and baud (symbols per second)
are related as
Rb = kD = D log 2 M ...(6.5)
w
where Rb is the bit rate, k = log 2 M is the bits per symbol, and D is the
baud (symbols per second).
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BT = D symbols/sec
Page 384
Chap 6 2
Digital Transmission
6.11 MULTIPLEXING
i. n
the modulated signals plus the sum of the guardbands, the empty spectral
bands between the channels necessary for filtering. This bandwidth is lower-
B =
N
/W
o
bounded by the sum of the bandwidths of the message signals, i.e.
.c
a
i
i
i=1
where Wi is the bandwidth of mi ^ t h, This bandwidth is achieved when all
d
baseband modulators are SSB and all guardbands have zero width.
n o
6.11.2 Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
w.
Time-division multiplexing provides the time sharing of a common channel
by a large number of users. Figure 6.8(a) illustrates a TDM system. The
w w
data sources are assumed to have been sampled at the Nyquist rate or
higher. The commutator then interlaces the samples to form the baseband
signal shown in Figure 6.8(b). At the channel output, the baseband signal
is demultiplexed by using a second commutator as illustrated. Proper
operation of this system depends on proper synchronization between the
two commutators.
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Figure 6.8: (a) Time Division Multiplexing System, (b) Resulting Baseband Signal
.in
, s 3 ^ t h, and s 4 ^ t h having the bandwidths respectively as W,W, 2W, 4W
. Then, it is easy to show that a permissible sequence of baseband
.co
samples is a periodic sequence, one period of which is ...s1 s 4 s 3 s 4 s2 s 4 ....
ia
The minimum sampling bandwidth of a TDM baseband signal is defined as
od B =
N
/W
i=1
i
n
where Wi is the bandwidth of the i th channel.
.
ww ***********
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Page 386
Chap 6 EXERCISE 6.1
Digital Transmission
MCQ 6.1.2
.c
The Nyquist sampling rate for y (t) is o
(A) 50 kHz
(C) 150 kHz
i a (B) 75 kHz
(D) 300 kHz
MCQ 6.1.3
o d
The Nyquist sampling rate for x2 (t) is
(A) 100 kHz
.
(C) 250 kHz n (B) 150 kHz
(D) 400 kHz
MCQ 6.1.4
w w
The Nyquist sampling rate for y3 (t) is
(A) 100 kHz (B) 300 kHz
MCQ 6.1.5
w (C) 900 kHz (D) 120 kHz
MCQ 6.1.6 x (t) would be recovered from the product x (t) c (t) by using an ideal LPF if
X (jw) = 0 for
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in
(A) 272.64 k bits/sec
o.
(B) 436.32 k bits/sec
(C) 936.32 k bits/sec
.c
(D) None of the above
a
MCQ 6.1.9
di
The minimum transmission bandwidth is
(A) 218.16 kHz (B) 468.32 kHz
no
(C) 136.32 kHz (D) None of the above
MCQ 6.1.10
w.
A binary channel with capacity 36 k bits/sec is available for PCM voice
transmission. If signal is band limited to 3.2 kHz, then the appropriate
values of quantizing level and the sampling frequency will be, respectively
ww
(A) 32, 3.6 kHz
(C) 64, 3.6 kHz
(B) 64, 7.2 kHz
(D) 32, 7.2 kHz
MCQ 6.1.11 The minimum value of the step size to avoid slope overload is
(A) 240 mV (B) 120 mV
(C) 670 mV (D) 78.5 mV
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MCQ 6.1.15 It was found that a sampling rate 20% above the rate would be adequate. So
the maximum SNR, that can be realized without increasing the transmission
bandwidth, would be
(A) 64.4 dB (B) 70.3 dB
(C) 50.1 dB (D) None of the above
MCQ 6.1.16 The input to a linear delta modulator having step-size d = 0.628 is a sine
wave with frequency fm and peak amplitude Am . If the sampling frequency
fs = 40 kHz, the combination of the sine wave frequency and the peak
i. n
amplitude, where slope overload will take place is
Am fm
(A)
(B)
0.3 V
1.5 V
.c o
8 kHz
4 kHz
(C)
(D)
1.5 V
3.0 V
d ia 2 kHz
1 kHz
MCQ 6.1.17
n o
A sinusoidal signal is sampled at 8 kHz and is quantized using 8 bit uniform
w.
quantizer. If SNRq be the quantization signal to noise ratio and R be the
bit rate of PCM signal, which of the following provides the correct values of
SNRq and R ?
w w
(A) R = 32 kbps, SNR q = 25.8 dB
(B) R = 64 kbps, SNR q = 49.8 dB
(C) R = 64 kbps, SNR q = 55.8 dB
(D) R = 32 kbps, SNR q = 49.8 dB
MCQ 6.1.18 A 1.0 kHz signal is flat-top sampled at the rate of 1800 samples/sec and the
samples are applied to an ideal rectangular LPF with cut-off frequency of
1100 Hz. The output of the filter contains
(A) only 800 Hz component
(B) 800 and 900 Hz component
(C) 800 Hz and 1000 Hz components
(D) 800 Hz, 900 and 1000 Hz components
MCQ 6.1.19 A signal x (t) = 100 cos (24p # 103) t is ideally sampled with a sampling
period of 50 m sec and then passed through an ideal lowpass filter with
cutoff frequency of 15 kHz. Which of the following frequencies is/are present
at the filter output
(A) 12 kHz only (B) 8 kHz only
(C) 12 kHz and 9 kHz (D) 12 kHz and 8 kHz
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MCQ 6.1.22 If the number of bits in a PCM system is increased from n to n + 1, the
signal-to-quantization noise ratio will increase by a factor.
in
(n + 1) (n + 1) 2
(A) (B)
(C) 2
n
o. (D) 4
n2
MCQ 6.1.23
.c
In PCM system, if the quantization levels are increased form 2 to 8, the
a
di
relative bandwidth requirement will.
(A) remain same
no
(B) be doubled
(C) be tripled
.
(D) become four times
w
ww
Common Data For Q. 24 to 26 :
A singer’s performance is to be recorded by sampling and storing the sample
values. Assume that the highest frequency tone to be recorded is 15800
hertz.
MCQ 6.1.24 What is the minimum sampling frequency that can be used ?
PROBLEM (A) 3.16 # 10 4 Hz (B) 15.8 # 10 4 Hz
SOLVER/597
/11.6 (C) 7.9 # 103 Hz (D) 6.32 # 10 4 Hz
MCQ 6.1.25 How many samples would be required to store a three minutes performance
PROBLEM ?
SOLVER/597
/11.6
(A) 1.053 # 10 4 samples
(B) 5.688 # 106 samples
(C) 1.756 # 106 samples
(D) 9.48 # 10 4 samples
MCQ 6.1.26 If each sample is quantized into 128 levels, how many binary digits (bits)
PROBLEM would be required to store the three minutes performance ?
SOLVER/597
/11.6
(A) 8.125 # 105 bits (B) 7.28 # 108 bits
(C) 3.98 # 107 bits (D) 5.688 # 106 bits
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MCQ 6.1.27 What will be the rms voltage at receiving end of the cable ?
PROBLEM (A) 1050 volt (B) 10-50 volt
SOLVER/597
/11.6 (C) 105 volt (D) 10-5 volt
MCQ 6.1.28 It is desired to obtain a 1 volt rms signal at the receiving end. This can be
PROBLEM accomplished by using repeaters. If the repeaters yield a maximum output of
SOLVER/597
/11.6
1 volt and have a voltage gain of 100, then the number of repeaters needed is
(A) 100 (B) 25
(C) 5 (D) 40
MCQ 6.1.29
0 otherwise
i. n
If the signal X ^ t h is quantized into 4 levels, what will be the step size of
PROBLEM
SOLVER/626
/12.2
each level ?
(A) 2 volt
.c o (B) 8 volt
(C) 32 volt
i a (D) 1 volt
MCQ 6.1.30
PROBLEM (A) 9.16 # 10-3
o d
What will be the value of constant k ?
(B) 0.4908
SOLVER/626
/12.2
.
(C) 27.29
n (D) 0.5093
MCQ 6.1.31
PROBLEM
SOLVER/626
w w
If the probability density function is not constant over each level, what will
be the variance of the quantization error ?
(A) 0.1869 (B) 0.5093
/12.2
w
MCQ 6.1.32
(C) 0.7341
MCQ 6.1.33 In a binary system, the quantizing noise is not to exceed ! x % of the peak-
COUCH/250 to-peak analog level. The minimum number of bits in each PCM words
/3.7
needs to be
(A) x/50 (B) 50/x
(C) log 2 b 50 l (D) log 2 a x k
x 50
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MCQ 6.1.34 What is the minimum sampling rate needed for the waveform ?
COUCH/250 (A) 102 Hz (B) 100 Hz
/3.8
(C) 200 Hz (D) 50 Hz
MCQ 6.1.35 What is the minimum absolute channel bandwidth required for transmission
COUCH/250 of this PCM ?
/3.8
(A) 1800 Hz (B) 900 Hz
(C) 450 Hz (D) 3600 Hz
MCQ 6.1.36 An 850 Mbyte hard disk is used to store PCM data. Suppose that a voice
COUCH/250 frequency signal is sampled at 8 k samples/sec and the encoded PCM is
/3.9
to have an average SNR of at least 30 dB. How many minutes of voice
in
frequency conversation can be stored on the hard disk ?
o
(C) 2833 minute.
(A) 2.833 minute (B) 170 # 103 minute
(D) 1700 minute
a.c
di
Common Data For Q. 37 and 38 :
An analog signal with a bandwidth of 4.2 MHz is to be converted into binary
no
PCM and transmitted over a channel. The peak signal quantizing noise ratio
must be at least 55 dB.
MCQ 6.1.37
w.
If there is no bit error and no inter symbol interferrence, what will be the
COUCH/250
/3.10
w
number of quantizing steps needed ?
(A) 512
w
(C) 4
(B) 9
(D) 256
MCQ 6.1.38 What will be the channel bandwidth required if rectangular pulse shapes
COUCH/250 are used ?
/3.10
(A) 75.6 MHz (B) 8.4 MHz
(C) 933.3 kHz (D) 17.4 MHz
MCQ 6.1.40 What will be the peak SNR for the signal ?
COUCH/250 (A) 9.50 dB (B) 10.1 dB
/3.11 (A,B)
(C) 95.08 dB (D) 101.1 dB
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MCQ 6.1.41 What is the minimum number of quantizing steps that can be used to
COUCH/251 encode the analog signal into a PCM signal ?
/3.14 (A,B)
(A) 32 (B) 16
(C) 64 (D) 8
MCQ 6.1.42 If the original analog signal had an absolute bandwidth of 2.7 kHz, what is
COUCH/251 the null bandwidth of the PCM signal ?
/3.14 (A,B)
(A) 27 kHz (B) 13.5 kHz
(C) 10.4 kHz (D) 5.4 kHz
i. n
over the channel every 0.8 ms.
o d
MCQ 6.1.44
COUCH/251
.
(A) 8 baud
n
What is the baud rate ?
w
/3.19
(B) 8000 baud
w w
(C) 1250 baud
(D) 1.25 baud
MCQ 6.1.46 What is the minimum bit rate of the PCM signal ?
COUCH/253 (A) 900 bits/sec
/3.34
(B) 32.4 k bits/sec
(C) 6 k bits/sec
(D) 1.11 k bits/sec
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MCQ 6.1.48 What is the minimum absolute channel bandwidth required for transmission
COUCH/253 of the PCM signal ?
/3.34
(A) 10.8 kHz
(B) 5.4 kHz
(C) 12.8 kHz
(D) 21.6 kHz
MCQ 6.1.49
.co
What is the baud rate of the multilevel signal ?
COUCH/253
/3.35(A,B)
ia
(A) 3 k symbol/sec
(B) 28.8 k symbol/sec
od
(C) 3.2 k symbol/sec
(D) 9.6 k symbol/sec
MCQ 6.1.50
.n
What is the roll off factor of the filter characteristic ?
COUCH/253
/3.35(A,B)
(A) 2
(C) 3
ww (B) 0.5
(D) 1
w
Common Data For Q. 51 and 52 :
An analog signal is to be converted into PCM signal that is a binary polar
NRZ line code. The signal is transmitted over a channel that is absolutely
bandlimited to 4 kHz. Assume that the PCM quantizer has 16 steps and
that the overall equivalent system transfer function is of the raised cosine
roll off type with roll off factor a = 0.5 .
MCQ 6.1.51 What is the maximum PCM bit rate that can be supported by this system
COUCH/254 without introducing ISI (intersymbol interference) ?
/3.45
(A) 5.33 k bits/sec
(B) 8 k bits/sec
(C) 12 k bits/sec
(D) 16 k bits/sec
MCQ 6.1.52 The maximum bandwidth that can be permitted for the analog signal is
COUCH/254 (A) 666 Hz
/3.45
(B) 2.22 kHz
(C) 333 Hz
(D) 1.33 kHz
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i. n
1 volt peak-to-peak, at the input. The signal is sampled at 10 times the
Nyquist rate.
MCQ 6.1.55
COUCH/255 (A) 0.157 volt
.c o
What is the minimum step size required to prevent slope overload ?
(B) 0.314 volt
/3.50
(C) 0.05 volt
i a (D) 0.1 volt
MCQ 6.1.56
COUCH/255
o
(A) 1.23 # 10-7 V2 /Hz d
What is the power spectral density for the granular noise ?
(B) 2.47 # 10-2 V2 /Hz
/3.50
. n
(C) 7.39 # 10-7 V2 /Hz (D) 2.06 # 10-8 V2 /Hz
MCQ 6.1.57
COUCH/255
w w
If the receiver input is band limited to 200 kHz, what is the average signal
quantizing noise power ratio ?
w
/3.50
(A) 11.8 dB (B) 1.18 dB
(C) 14.8 dB (D) 1.48 dB
***********
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QUES 6.2.1 Consider a set of 10 signals xi (t), i = 1, 2, 3, ...10 . Each signal is band limited
to 1 kHz. All 10 signals are to be time-division multiplexed after each is
multiplied by a carrier c (t) shown in figure.
.in
If the period Ts of c (t) is chosen that have the maximum allowable value, the
largest value of 3 would be _______ ms .
.co
a
A compact disc recording system samples a signal with a 16-bit analog-to-
QUES 6.2.2
di
digital convertor at 44.1 kHz. The CD can record an hour worth of music.
The approximate capacity of CD is _______ Mbytes.
no
QUES 6.2.3
.
An analog signal is sampled at 36 kHz and quantized into 256 levels. The
time duration of a bit of the binary coded signal is _______ ms .
w
QUES 6.2.4
ww
An analog signal is quantized and transmitted using a PCM system. The
tolerable error in sample amplitude is 0.5% of the peak-to-peak full scale
value. The minimum binary digits required to encode a sample is _______
QUES 6.2.5 A Television signal is sampled at a rate of 20% above the Nyquist rate. The
signal has a bandwidth of 6 MHz. The samples are quantized into 1024
levels. The minimum bandwidth required to transmit this signal would be
_______ Mbps.
QUES 6.2.6 A CD record audio signals digitally using PCM. The audio signal bandwidth
is 15 kHz. The Nyquist samples are quantized into 32678 levels and then
binary coded. What is the minimum bit rate (in kbps) required to encode
the audio signal ?
QUES 6.2.7 The American Standard Code for information interchange has 128 characters,
which are binary coded. If a certain computer generates 1,000,000 character
per second, the minimum bandwidth required to transmit this signal will be
_______ Mbps.
QUES 6.2.8 Figure given below shows a PCM signal in which amplitude level of + 1 volt
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Page 396 and - 1 volt are used to represent binary symbol 1 and 0 respectively. The
Chap 6 code word used consists of three bits. The sampled version of analog signal
Digital Transmission from which this PCM signal is derived is _______
QUES 6.2.9 A PCM system uses a uniform quantizer followed by a 8-bit encoder. The bit
rate of the system is equal to 108 bits/s. The maximum message bandwidth
for which the system operates satisfactorily is _______ MHz.
QUES 6.2.10 Twenty-four voice signals are sampled uniformly at a rate of 8 kHz and
then time-division multiplexed. The sampling process uses flat-top samples
i. n
with 1 ms duration. The multiplexing operation includes provision for
synchronization by adding an extra pulse of 1 ms duration. What is the
o
spacing (in ms ) between successive pulses of the multiplexed signal ?
.c
QUES 6.2.11
i a
A linear delta modulator is designed to operate on speech signals limited to
3.4 kHz. The sampling rate is 10 times the Nyquist rate of the speech signal.
o d
The step size d is 100 mV. The modulator is tested with a 1kHz sinusoidal
test signal. The maximum amplitude of the test signal required to avoid
n
slope overload is _______ mV.
.
QUES 6.2.12
w w
The output signal-to-quantization-noise ratio of a 10-bit PCM was found
to be 30 dB. The desired SNR is 42 dB. It can be increased by increasing
w the number of quantization level. In this way the percentage increase in the
transmission bandwidth would be _______ %. (Assume log 2 10 = 0.3 )
QUES 6.2.13 For a PCM signal the compression parameter m = 100 and the minimum
signal to quantization-noise ratio is 50 dB. The number of bits per sample
would be _______
QUES 6.2.14 A sinusoid massage signal m (t) is transmitted by binary PCM without
compression. If the signal to-quantization-noise ratio is required to be at
least 48 dB, the minimum number of bits per sample will be _______
QUES 6.2.15 A speech signal has a total duration of 20 sec. It is sampled at the rate of
8 kHz and then PCM encoded. The signal-to-quantization noise ratio is
required to be 40 dB. The minimum storage capacity needed to accommodate
this signal is _______ kbytes.
QUES 6.2.16 A sinusoidal signal with peak-to-peak amplitude of 1.536 V is quantized into
128 levels using a mid-rise uniform quantizer. The quantization-noise power
is _______ # 10-6 V2 .
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QUES 6.2.18 In a PCM system, if the code word length is increased form 6 to 8 bits, then
by what factor signal to quantization noise ratio improves ?
QUES 6.2.19 Four signals g1 (t), g2 (t), g 3 (t) and g 4 (t) are to be time division multiplexed
and transmitted. g1 (t) and g 4 (t) have a bandwidth of 4 kHz, and the
remaining two signals have bandwidth of 8 kHz. Each sample requires 8
bits for encoding. What is the minimum transmission bit rate (kbps) of the
system ?
QUES 6.2.20 Three analog signals, having bandwidths 1200 Hz, 600 Hz and 600 Hz, are
sampled at their respective Nyquist rates, encoded with 12 bit words, and
time division multiplexed. What is the bit rate (in kbps) for the multiplexed
signal ?
QUES 6.2.21
.in
Four signals each band limited to 5 kHz are sampled at twice the Nyquist
.co
rate. The resulting PAM samples are transmitted over a single channel
after time division multiplexing. The theoretical minimum transmission
a
bandwidth of the channel should be equal to _______ kHz.
i
QUES 6.2.22
od
Four independent messages have bandwidths of 100 Hz, 100 Hz, 200 Hz
and 400 Hz respectively. Each is sampled at the Nyquist rate, time division
.n
multiplexed and transmitted. The transmitted sample rate in Hz, is given
by _______
QUES 6.2.23
ww
The Nyquist sampling rate for the signal g (t) = 10 cos (50pt) cos2 (150pt)
QUES 6.2.24
w
where 't ' is in seconds, is _______ samples per second.
A TDM link has 20 signal channels and each channel is sampled 8000
times/sec. Each sample is represented by seven binary bits and contains an
additional bit for synchronization. The total bit rate for the TDM link is
_______ kbps.
QUES 6.2.25 The Nyquist sampling interval for the signal s (t) = sin c (350t) + sin c (250t)
is _______ second.
QUES 6.2.26 In a CD player, the sampling rate is 44.1 kHz and the samples are quantized
using a 16-bit/sample quantizer. The resulting number of Mega-bits for a
piece of music with a duration of 50 minutes is _______
QUES 6.2.27 Four voice signals, each limited to 4 kHz and sampled at Nyquist rate are
converted into binary PCM signal using 256 quantization levels. The bit
transmission rate for the time-division multiplexed signal will be _______
kbps.
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Page 398 QUES 6.2.28 Analog data having highest harmonic at 30 kHz generated by a sensor has
Chap 6 been digitized using 6 level PCM. What will be the rate (in kbps) of digital
Digital Transmission signal generated ?
QUES 6.2.29 In a PCM system, the number of quantization levels is 16 and the maximum
signal frequency is 4 kHz; the bit transmission rate is _______ kbps.
QUES 6.2.30 A speech signal occupying the bandwidth of 300 Hz to 3 kHz is converted
into PCM format for use in digital communication. If the sampling frequency
is 8 kHz and each sample is quantized into 256 levels, then the output bit
rate will be _______ kbps.
QUES 6.2.31 A PCM system is time division multiplexed with a data source, as shown in
PROBLEM figure below. The output of the time division multiplexer is fed into a PSK
SOLVER/643
/12.13
modulator after which the signal is transmitted over a channel of bandwidth
BT = 1 MHz with center frequency at 100 MHz. What is the maximum
number of quantization levels required in this system ?
i. n
.c o
i a
o d
. n
w w
w
QUES 6.2.32 A time division multiplexing system using PCM is used to multiplex
PROBLEM telephone conversations over a single communication channel. It is found
SOLVER/644
/12.14
that a minima interval of 1 ms must be allowed for reliable identification of
bits at the receiving end. If the allowable voice bandwidth for telephone line
transmission is 3 kHz and the quantization level is given as 16, what is the
approximate number of voice signals that can be multiplexed ?
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QUES 6.2.36 The voltage range of an A/D converter that uses 14 bit numbers is - 6 to
FRENZEL/222 + 6 V . What will be the resolution (in mV ) of digitization ?
/7.2
QUES 6.2.37 The input voltage of a compander with a maximum voltage range of 1 volt
in
FRENZEL/233 and m = 255 is 0.25 volt. What will be the voltage gain of compander ?
.
/7.4
QUES 6.2.38
COUCH/251
.co
A multilevel digital communication system is to operate at a data rate of
9600 bits/sec. If 4 bit words are encoded into each level for transmission
a
/3.20(A)
over the channel, what is the minimum required bandwidth (in Hz) for the
channel ?
di
QUES 6.2.39
no
An analog signal is to be converted into a PCM signal that is multilevel
COUCH/254
/3.46
w.
polar NRZ line code with four number of levels. The signal is transmitted
over a channel that is absolutely bandlimited to 4 kHz. Assume that the
PCM quantizer has 16 steps and that the overall equivalent system transfer
ww
function is of the raised cosine roll off type with roll off factor a = 0.5 . What
is the maximum bandwidth (in kHz) that can be permitted for the analog
signal ?
QUES 6.2.40 Assume that a PCM type system is to be designed such that an audio
COUCH/255 signal can be delivered at the receiver output. The audio signal is to have
/3.48(A)
a bandwidth of 3400 Hz and an SNR of at least 40 dB. What is the bit
rate requirement (in kbps) for a design that uses m = 255 companded PCM
signaling ?
QUES 6.2.41 A continuous data signal is quantized and transmitted using a PCM signal.
ZEIMER/192 If each data sample at the receiving end of the system must be known
/3.56
to within ! 0.5% of the peak-to-peak full scale value, how many binary
symbols must each transmitted digital word contain ?
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Page 400 QUES 6.2.43 A message signal has the following frequency components :
Chap 6 KENNELY/107 First component : A signal tone sine wave of 500 Hz.
Digital Transmission /5.2
Second component : A sound of frequency components with lowest value of
750 Hz and highest value of 1800 Hz.
What should be the minimum sampling frequency (in Hz) to sense the
information present in this signal according to the sampling theorem ?
QUES 6.2.44 Consider a signal with power spectral density shown in figure below.
GLOVER/171
/5.1
If the signal is sampled at 90% of its Nyquist rate and reconstruction filter
has an ideal rectangular amplitude response, what will be signal to distortion
ratio in decibel ?
i. n
***********
.c o
i a
o d
. n
w w
w
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MCQ 6.3.1 A signal that is mistakenly sampled when the sampling frequency is less
than twice the input frequency is a/an
(A) harmonic
(B) pseudo signal
(C) alias
(D) false wave
MCQ 6.3.2 The smallest increment of voltage that the D/A converter produces over its
output range is called the
(A) step
(B) resolution
(C) pixel
.in
(D) bit
.co
MCQ 6.3.3
ia
A circuit that converts an instantaneous value of analog voltage into a
binary number is the
od
(A) multiplexer
(B) half-adder
.n
(C) D/A converter
MCQ 6.3.4
ww
(D) A/D converter
In what type of multiplexing does each signal occupy the entire bandwidth
w
of the channel?
(A) frequency-division multiplexing
(B) time-division multiplexing
(C) pulse-width multiplexing
(D) phase-shift multiplexing
MCQ 6.3.5 Which of the following is a very popular form of multiplexing where multiple
channels of digital data are transmitted in serial form?
(A) frequency-division multiplexing
(B) phase-shift multiplexing
(C) pulse-amplitude modulated multiplexing
(D) pulse-code modulated multiplexing
MCQ 6.3.6 Which of the following is not a common type of media used in data
communication?
(A) wire cable (B) radio
(C) wave guide (D) coaxial cable
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Page 402 (C) needs simple circuitry (D) gives better S/N ratio
Chap 6
Digital Transmission MCQ 6.3.8 The PWM needs
R.P. SINGH (A) more power than PPM
/406/4
(B) more samples per second than PPM
(C) more bandwidth than PPM
(D) none of the above
i. n
/428/1
(C) signal power (D) none of the above
MCQ 6.3.12
R.P. SINGH
/428/2
(A) PAM
.c o
Which of the following modulation is digital in nature
(B) PPM
(C) DM
MCQ 6.3.13
R.P. SINGH (A) PCM
o d
Which of the following modulation is analog in nature
(B) DPCM
n
/428/3
(C) DM (D) none of these
MCQ 6.3.14
w.
Quantization noise occurs in
R.P. SINGH
/428/5
w
(A) PAM
(C) DM
w
(B) PWM
(D) none of the above
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in
/114/5
(B) varying width of pulses in the pulse train according to instantaneous
o.
variations of message signal
(C) performing duration modification of message signal and then multiplying
.c
the result width pulse train
a
(D) performing width modification of pulse train with message and then
i
subjecting the result to width modulation
d
MCQ 6.3.22
no
Pulse position modulation involves
(A) varying position of message signal components according to the position
.
G.KENNEDY
/114/6
of pulses in the pulse train
ww
(B) varying position of pulses in the pulse train according to the instantaneous
variations in the message signal
w
(C) varying position of pulses in the pulse train according to the message
components position
(D) performing position modification of pulse train with message and then
subjecting the result to position modification
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MCQ 6.3.29
A. K. GAUTAM (A) these signals cannot be sampled
i. n
Several signals can be time division multiplexed (TDM) because
/157/1
(B) be ideally sampled
.c o
(C) be sampled with any arbitrary sample shape
(D) none of the above
i a
MCQ 6.3.30 Aliasing occurs due to
o
(A) over sampling d
n
A. K. GAUTAM
.
/158/5
(B) under sampling
w w
(C) attenuation or amplification of signals
(D) none of the above
MCQ 6.3.31
w
A. K. GAUTAM
/158/9
A PAM signal is recovered by using
(A) low pass filter
(C) band pass filter
(B) high pass filter
(D) none of the above
MCQ 6.3.34 In a pulse position modulation system, the transmitted pulse have
A. K. GAUTAM (A) Constant amplitudes but varying widths
/158/14
(B) Constant amplitudes constant widths
(C) Constant width by varying amplitudes
(D) None of the above
MCQ 6.3.35
A. K. GAUTAM A “PWM” signal can be generated by
/159/15
(A) a monostable multivibrator
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MCQ 6.3.38 In pulse modulation systems, the number of samples required to ensure no
UPENA DALAL loss of information is given by
in
2/75/12
(A) Fourier transform (B) Nyquist theorem
o.
(C) Parseval’s theorem (D) Shannon’s Theorem
MCQ 6.3.39
UPENA DALAL
a.c
A PCM receiver can see
(A) Quantization nosie (B) Channel noise
3/142/3
i
(C) Interference noise
d
(D) All of the above
MCQ 6.3.40
given by
no
In PCM for q quantizing levels, the number of pulses p in a code group is
.
UPENA DALAL
3/142/4
(A) log 10 q (B) log 2 q
MCQ 6.3.41
ww
(C) ln q (D) 2 log 2 q
MCQ 6.3.44 Which of the following is unlikely to happen when the quantizing noise is
UPENA DALAL decreased in PCM?
3/143/9
(A) Increase in the bandwidth
(B) Increase in the number of standard levels
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MCQ 6.3.46 In which of the following methods of source coding, maximum compression
UPENA DALAL is achieved?
3/143/12
(A) A-law PCM (B) m -law PCM
(C) DM (D) ADPCM
MCQ 6.3.47 A sine wave carrier cannot be modified by the intelligence signal through
which of the following?
(A) amplitude modulation
(B) pulse modulation
(C) frequency modulation
(D) phase modulation
*********** i. n
.c o
i a
o d
. n
w w
w
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in
= 200 kHz
SOL 6.1.2
o.
Option (D) is correct.
From the Fourier spectrum of signal y ^ t h, we obtain the bandwidth of y ^ t h
as
a.c
di wy = 3p # 105
2pfy = 3p # 105
or,
no fy = 1.5 # 105 Hz
= 150 kHz
w.
So, the Nyquist sampling rate for y ^ t h is
fs = 2fy
ww = 2 # 150
= 300 kHz
= 2 # 105 Hz
So, the Nyquist sampling rate of x2 ^ t h is given by
fs = 2fx 2
= 2 # ^2 # 105h
= 4 # 105 Hz
= 400 kHz
= 3 # 1.5 # 105
= 4.5 # 105
So, the Nyquist sampling rate of y3 ^ t h is given by
fs = 2fy = 2 # ^4.5 # 105h
3
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i. n
frequency
fs = 1 = 1-3 = 103 Hz.
Ts 10
This sampling frequency must satisfy
.c o
The Nyquist critesion for sampling the signal x ^ t h i.e.,
i
fs > 2fx
a
2pfs > 2p ^2fx h
or
o
2p # 1000 > 2w d
or
. n w < 1000p
So, the signal X ^ jwh must be defined for the region w < 1000p. Therefore,
SOL 6.1.7
w w
we have X ^ jwh = 0 for w > 1000p
wFrom the shown rectangular pulse train, we have the time period of c ^ t h,
Ts = 10-3 sec
ON Time duration of pulse train is
3 = 0.25 ms = 0.25 # 10-3 sec
So, the duty cycle of pulse-train is given by
-3
D = 3 = 0.25 #-310 = 0.25
Ts 10
Now, the gain of LPF is A. To recover the signal x ^ t h, the overall gain of
the system must be 1. So, we have
D#A = 1
3A = 1
Ts
A = Ts = 1 = 4
3 0.25
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in
(1) and (2), we have
o. mp
q
# p
m
500
or,
or
a.c q $ 500
2n $ 500
di
where n is the number of bits used to encode the quantized signal. For
satisfying the above condition, the minimum number of bits is n = 9 bits.
o
Therefore, the bit rate of the sampled signal is given by,
n
w. Rb = nfs
= 9 # 4800
= 4.32 # 10 4 bits/sec
ww
since, ten signals are multiplexed, and framing and synchronising requires
an additional 1% extra bits. Therefore, the total data rate is given by
Data rate = 1.01 # 610 # Rb@
= 1.01 # 10 # ^4.32 # 10 4h
= 4.3632 # 105 bits/sec
= 436.32 kbits/sec
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.c o
Substituting it in equation (2), we get
or
7.2n # 36
n#5
i a
or
o d
2n # 2 5
or
. n q # 32
Thus, the appropriate values of quantizing level and sampling frequency are
SOL 6.1.11
w w
q = 32 and fs = 7.2 kHz
w Given the bandwidth of message signal for which delta modulator is designed
is
B = 3.5 kHz
the amplitude of test signal, Am = 1 volt
frequency of test signal, fm = 800 Hz
sampling frequency of the system, fs = 64 kHz
So, we have time duration of a sample as
Ts = 1 = 1.56 # 10-5 sec
64 # 103
Let the step size of the delta modulated signal be d . So, the condition to
avoid slope overload is
d $ max dm ^ t h
Ts dt
or d $ Am ^2pfm h
1.56 # 10-5
or, d $ ^1.56 # 10-5h # 1 # ^2p # 800h
or, d $ 7.84 # 10-2 volt
Thus, the minimum value of step size to avoid slope overload is
d = 78.5 mV
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.in
So, the signal power is given by
2
S = A m = 1 = 0.5 watt
co
Therefore, SNR is given by
. SNR = S =
2 2
0.5
ia N 1.12 # 10-4
= 4.46 # 103
SOL 6.1.14
od
Option (B) is correct.
Given, the number of quantization level q = 256
.n
For the m-law quantizer, we have m = 225
So, according to m-law companding, signal to quantization noise ratio is
w
given by
w So =
No
3q2
6ln ^m + 1h@2
w =
3 # ^256h2
6ln ^255 + 1h@2
= 6.39 # 103
In decibel, the SNR is
c o m = 10 log 10 ^6.39 # 103h
S
No db
= 38.06 dB
or n1 = 8 bits
This is the number of bits required to sample the signal in first case. So, the
transmission bandwidth for this case is
BT1 = n1 fs1 = 8 # 3 = 24 Mbits/sec
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Page 412 Now signal to be sampled at a rate 20% above the Nyquist rate (adequate
Chap 6 rate). So ,we have the sampling frequency for the second case as
Digital Transmission
fs2 = 1.2fN = 2.4 MHz
Again, the transmission bandwidth must be same as in previous case. So,
we have
BT 2 = BT 1 = 24 M bits/sec.
or, n2 fs 2 = 24
or, n2 = 24 = 10 bits
2.4
This is the number of bits required to encode the signal in second case. So,
we have the number of quantization level in the second case as
q2 = 2n = 210
2
3 # ^210h2 3 # 220
= 2 =
7ln ^1 + 255hA 7ln ^256hA
2
i. n
= 1.023 # 105
In decibel, the SNR is
No dB
= 50.1 dB
.c o
c o m = 10 log 10 ^1.023 # 105h
S
. n
The condition for slope overload in delta modulation is
d $ max dm ^ t h
w
or,
w Ts
dfs $ max
dt
dm ^ t h
dt
w or, max
dm ^ t h
dt
# ^0.628h # 40 # 103 = 2.512 # 10 4 ...(1)
Since, the input to delta modulator is sine wave with frequency fm and peak
amplitude Am . So, we have
dm ^ t h
max = Am ^2pfm h ...(2)
dt
Therefore, from equations (1) and (2), we have
Am ^2pfm h # 2.512 # 10 4
or, Am fm # 2.512 # 10 4 = 3.998 # 103
2p
This is the condition to avoid slope overload.
In the given options, (A), (C) and (D) satisfy this condition, where as option
(B) does not satisfy the condition. Therefore, the slope overload will take
place at
Am = 1.5 V , fm = 4 kHz
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in
Sampling frequency
o. fs = 1800 sample/sec
= 1800 Hz
.c
Since, from the Nyquist criterion, we know that the sampling rate must be
a
greater than the Nyquist rate given as
di fs $ fN = 2fm
So, for the sampling frequency fs = 1800 Hz , the message signal recovered
o
has the maximum frequency,
n
w. f
fm # s = 1800 = 900 Hz
2 2
Thus, for the applied message signal of bandwidth W = 1 kHz = 1000 Hz ,
SOL 6.1.19 ww
the recovered message signals are of the frequency less or equal to 900 Hz.
i.e. the output of the filter contains 800 Hz and 900 Hz components.
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Page 414 When these signal components are passed through low pass filter of cut-
Chap 6 off frequency fc = 15 kHz, we get the output with frequency components
Digital Transmission
fm = 12 kHz, fs - fm = 8 kHz
pt pt
For this signal, we have the maximum frequency
fm = 3 # 1000 = 3000 Hz
So, the minimum sampling frequency (Nyquist frequency) required to
reconstruct the signal is
fs = 2fm
= 2 # 3000 = 6000 Hz
= 6 # 103 Hz
i. n
m ^ t h = 12s 7u ^ t h - u ^t - 1hA + ^250 - 125t h7u ^t - 1h - u ^t - 2hA
Sampling frequency,
= 32 kHz
.c o
fs = 32 k samples/sec
i a
Now, condition to avoid the slope overload is given as
d $ max dm ^ t h
o
Ts
d dt
where d is the step size of the delta modulator and Ts is the sampling
.
interval.
n
For the given message signal, we obtain
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in
The transmission bandwidth of a channel for PCM system is given by
a.c
sampling frequency. Also, the quantization level are defined as
q = 2n
So, we have
di n = log 2 q
o
Substituting it in equation (1), we have
n
. BT = n log 2 q
So, for change in the quantization level from q1 = 2 to q2 = 8 , the change in
w
bandwidth is obtained as
ww BT
BT
1
2
=
n log 2 q1 n log 2 2
=
n log 2 q2 n log 2 8
3BT1 = BT 2
\
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i a
So, we have the total attenuation in the cable as
o d
al = 1000 dB
Thus, the rms voltage at receiving end is obtained as
. n
20 log 10 a vo k =- 1000 dB
vi
w w log 10 vo =- 50
vi
vo = vi 10-50 = 1 # 10-50 = 10-50 volt
w
SOL 6.1.28 Option (B) is correct.
Given, the voltage gain of repeater
G = 100 V/V
So, the gain in decide is obtained as
G = 20 log 10 100
= 40 dB
Since, the cable provides the attenuation of 1 dB/m. So, we need a repeater
for every 40 m of cable. Thus, the total number of repeater required along
the cable is
length of cable
no. of repeater =
40
= 1000 = 25
40
SOL 6.1.29 Option (A) is correct.
Given, number of quantization levels, q = 4 . Since, the random signal ranges
between
- 4 # X ^ t h # 4 volt
So, we have the peak-to-peak amplitude of the signal as
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-1 0
or
Thus,
o. 2k 6- e-4 + 1@ = 1
k = 0.5-4 = 0.5093
SOL 6.1.31
a.c
Option (D) is correct.
1-e
di
We have the four quantization levels in the range - 4 # X # 4 given by
x1 =- 3 volt
no x2 =- 1 volt
w. x 3 = 1 volt
x 4 = 3 volt
So, for any value between - 2 to - 4 , the quantized value is - 3 . So for any
ww
value x in the range - 2 < x < 4 , the quantization error is
e ^X h = ^- 3 - x h
Similar discussions can be made for other quantization levels. So, we get the
variance of quantization error is
var 6e ^X h@ = ^- 3 - x h2 ke- x dx + ^- 1 - x h2 ke -x dx
-2 0
#
-4
#
-2
^1 - x h2 ke- x dx + ^3 - x h2 ke- x dx
2 4
+ #
0
#
2
^1 - x h2 e-x dx + 2k # ^3 - x h2 e-x dx
2 4
= 2k #
0 2
= 2k 6e-x ^- 1 - x2 + 2x + 2 - 2x - 2h@20
+ 2k 6e-x ^- 9 - x2 + 6x + 6 - 2x - 2h@04
= 2k 6e-x ^- 1 - x2h@20 + 2k 6e-x ^- 5 - x2 + 4x h@24
e-4 ^- 5 - 16 + 16h
= 2k 6e-2 ^- 5h - ^- 1h@ + 2k > H
- e-2 ^- 5 - 4 + 8h
= 2 # 0.5093 61 - 5e-2 + e-2 - 5e-4@
= 0.3739
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i. n
Let the Binary PCM consists n bits per sample. So, we have the quantization
level,
n
q = 2 Levels
.c o
A quantized signal with peak-to-peak value 2m p is shown in figure below.
i a
o d
. n
w w
w From the figure, we have the step size
d =
2m p
q
So, the maximum quantization error is given by
m
error = d = p
2 q
Since, the quantizing noise is not to exceed ! x % of the peak-to-peak analog
level. So, we have
error # x ^2m p h
100
mp
or # x ^2m p h
q 100
or 1# x
q 50
or q = 2n $ 50
x
Thus, the required number of bits in each PCM word is
n $ log 2 b 50 l
x
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So, the minimum sampling rate (Nyquist rate) for the waveform is obtained as
fN = 2W = 2 # 100 = 200 Hz
in
or
q 100
or
o. q $ 500
or
or
a.c 2n $ 500
n $ log 2 500 = 8.96
di
i.e. the minimum number of bits per sample is 8.96. Approximating the
value, we consider
no n = 9 bits/samples
Thus, the minimum bit rate for the transmitted signal is
w. Rb = nfs
= ^9 bits/sampleh # ^200 samples/ sech
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= 5 # 8 = 40 k bits/ sec
Converting it into bytes/sec, we have
Rb = 40 k bytes/ sec = 5 k bytes/ sec
8
Since, an 820 Mbyte hard disk is used to store the PCM data, so the duration
of stored voice frequency conversation is
850 Mbyte
T =
5 k bytes/ sec
6
= 850 # 103 sec
5 # 10
= 170 # 103 # 1 minute
60
= 2.833 # 103 minute
= 2833 minute
.c o
a
2 5.5
3q = 10
q =
d i
105.5 = 3.247 102
3 #
. = 8.34
Since, we are solving for the least value of quantizing noise ratio, so we use
w n = 9 bits
w w
Therefore, the required number of quantizing steps is
q = 2n = 29 = 512
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sampling frequency
fs = 8fN = 8 # ^2W h
= 8 # ^2 # 20 # 103h
= 320 k samples/ sec
Thus, the null bandwidth of this PCM signal is given by
B null = Rb = nfs
= ^16 bits/sampleh # ^320 k samples/ sech
= 512 MHz
in
level for the PCM as
o. q = 2n - 1 = 216 - 1 = 215
Therefore, the peak SNR for the signal is given by
a.cS
bN l
peak
= 3q2
di
In decibel, we get
= 3 ^215h2 = 3 # 230
no S
bN l = 10 log 10 ^3 # 230h
.
peak
= 95.08 dB
SOL 6.1.41
ww
Option (A) is correct.
Given, the bit error rate due to channel noise (probability of bit error),
w Pe = 10-4
The peak signal to noise ratio on the recovered analog signal,
S
b N l $ 30 dB = 10 = 1000
3
...(1)
peak
Again, for a PCM signal we have the peak signal to noise ratio,
S 3q2
bN l =
1 + 4 ^q2 - 1h Pe
peak
= 3 # 22n ...(2)
1 + 4 ^22n - 1h 10-4
where n is number of bits per sample. Equations (1) and (2) can be solved
for the value of n by hit and trial method. Firstly, we put n = 4 in equation
(2)
S 3 # 22 # 4
bN l =
1 + 4 ^22 # 4 - 1h 10-4
peak
= 6.969 # 102
= 10 log 10 ^6.969 # 102h dB
= 28.4 dB
Again, for n = 5 in equation (2) we obtain
S 3 # 22 # 5
bN l =
1 + 4 ^22 # 5 - 1h 10-4
peak
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o d
k = log 2 M = log 2 16
= 4 bits/level
SOL 6.1.44
. n
Option (C) is correct.
w w
Given that the digital communication system sends one level over the channel
every 0.8 ms. so, we get the baud rate (symbol rate) of the signal as
D = 1 = 1
w Ts 0.8 # 10-3
= 1.25 # 103
= 1250 baud
= 1250 levels/ sec
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in
We have the minimum bit rate of PCM signal as
a.c
bits per level (symbol) as
k = log 2 M = log 2 8 = 3 bits/symbol
di
Therefore, we obtain the baud rate (symbol/sec) as
D = Rb
no k
32.4 k bits/ sec
w. =
3 bits/symbol
= 10.8 k symbol/ sec
SOL 6.1.48
ww
Option (B) is correct.
We have the baud rate of signal,
D = 10.8 k symbols/ sec
So, we obtain the minimum absolute channel bandwidth required for
transmission of PCM signal as
B = D = 10.8
2 2
= 5.4 kHz
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i a 1+a
where D is the baud rate (symbols/sec) and a is the roll off factor. So, we
get
o d
Rb = 2 # 4 kHz = 5.33 k bits/ sec
. n 1 + 0.5
This is the maximum PCM bit rate that can be supported by this system
SOL 6.1.52
w w
without introducing ISI.
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.in
B absolute = 1 ^1 + ah D
2
ia
Option (A) is correct.
d
SOL 6.1.55
o
Given, the frequency of message signal,
n
fm = 10 kHz
Peak-to-peak amplitude of the test signal, 2Am = 1 volt
w.
So, we have the Nyquist rate for the signal, fN = 2fm = 2 # 10 = 20 kHz
Since, the signal is sampled at 10 times the Nyquist rate, so we get the
ww
sampling frequency
fs = 10fN = 10 # 20 = 200 kHz
To avoid the slope overload, we have
dm ^ t h
dfs $ max
dt
d # 200 kHz $ 2pfm Am
2p # ^10 kHzh # b 1 l
2
d$
200 kHz
d $ 0.157 volt
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i. n
dB
= 11.81 dB
.c o
Given, the bandwidth of five message signals, respectively as
W , W , 2W , 4W , 4W
i a
Since, the bandwidths of message signals are harmonically related, so we
o d
have the minimum transmission bandwidth for TDM signal as
B = W + W + 2W + 4W + 4W
. n = 12W
w w ***********
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in
appear for time duration 3. So, for the largest value of 3, we must have
o.
10 3 = Ts
-3
3 = Ts = 0.5 # 10 = 5 # 10-5 s = 50 ms
SOL 6.2.2
a.c 10
Correct answer is 317.5.
10
di
Given the sampling rate of a signal,
fs = 44.1 kHz = 44.1 # 103 samples/sec
o
Since, recording system samples the signal with 16 bit analog to digital
n
w.
converter. Therefore, the rate of recording in bits/second is given by
fs = ^44.1 # 103h # 16 bits/sec
= 7.056 # 105 bits/sec
ww
As the CD can record an hour worth of music, the approximate capacity of
CD is given by
Memory capacity = fs # Time duration
= ^7.056 # 105h # ^3600 sech
= 2.54 # 109 bits
Converting it into bytes (1 byte = 8 bites ), we get
9
Memory capacity = 2.54 # 10 bytes
8
= 3.175 # 108 bytes
= 317.5 M bytes
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Page 428 Therefore, the time duration of a bit of the binary coded signal is obtained
Chap 6 as
Digital Transmission -5
Tb = Ts = 2.78 # 10
8 8
= 3.47 # 10-6 sec
= 3.47 ms
i. n
error = 0.5% of peak-peak full scale
= 0.5 # ^2m p h
100
= 0.01 m p
.c o ...(2)
i a
As the maximum quantization error of the signal must be less than the
tolerable error, so from equations (1) and (2), we have
o
mp
q d
# 0.01 m p
or,
. n q $ 100
Let the minimum number of binary digits required to encode the sample be
n.
w
Then, we have
w 2n $ 100
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in
Number of quantization levels, q = 32678
o.
So, we have the Nyquist sampling rate for the analog signal,
fs = 2fm
a.c = 2 # 15 = 30 kHz
Let n number of bits encode each sample, then we have
or,
di q = 2n = 32678
n = 15 bits
o
Therefore, the minimum bit rate for the analog signal is
n
w. Rb = nfs
= 15 # 30
SOL 6.2.7
ww
Correct answer is 7.
= 450 kbits/s
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In the figure, we have put 0 for level of - 1 volt and 1 for level of +1 volt.
Since, the code word used consists of 3 bits, so, we write the words for the
transmitted bits as
1st word " 001 " 1
2nd word " 010 " 2
3rd word " 011 " 3
4th word " 100 " 4
5th word " 101 " 5
i. n
Thus, the sampled version of analog signal from which this PCM signal is
driven is 12345
o d
Let the maximum message bandwidth be Wm . So, we have the sampling
frequency for this signal as fs = 2Wm .
. n
Therefore, the bit rate for the signal is obtained as
Rb = nfs
w w 108 = 8 # ^2Wm h
Wm = 10
8
w 16
= 6.25 # 106 Hz
= 6.25 MHz
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= 125 - 25
= 100 ms
Since, there are 25 pulses (24 voice signal pulses and 1 synchronization
pulse) in a sample. So, the spacing between successive pulses is given by
Tspacing = TOFF
25
= 100 = 4 ms
25
ALTERNATIVE METHOD :
Given, the sampling frequency fs = 8 kHz
So, we have the time duration of a sample,
Ts = 1
fs
= 1 = 1.25 # 10-4 sec
in
8 # 103
o. = 125 ms
Now, we have the 24 voice signals each sampled for 1 ms duration and one
.c
synchronization pulse of 1 ms duration. So, the total number of pulses in a
sample is 25. Therefore, the alloted time duration to each of the pulse is
a
di Ts,pulse = Ts = 125 = 5 ms
25 25
no
Since the width of each pulse is 1 ms . Therefore, the spacing between the
successive pulses is
SOL 6.2.11
ww = 4 ms
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No m p2
where m2 ^ t h is the power of message signal and m p is its peak value. So, we
can write
So ? q2
No
or, SNR = kq2
where k is a constant for the given message signal. Here, the message signal
for both the cases are same, so the value of k will be constant for both the
cases, whereas the value of q varies.Therefore, the ratio of SNR is
^SNRh1 q 12
= ...(1)
^SNRh2 q 22
1
i. n
Initially, the quantization level is q1 = 2n = 210
For the desired value of SNR, let the system require n2 bits. So, we have
q 2 = 2n 2
.c o
Substituting all the values in equation (1), we get
103 = 210
c nm
i a 2
10 4.2 2
d
2
o
4.2 - 3
10 2 = 2n - 10 2
. n
n2 - 10 = log 2 100.6
n2 = 10 + 0.6 log 2 10
w w
Thus, the increase in bits of PCM is
n2 - n1 = ^10 + 0.6 log 2 10h - 10
w = 0.6 log 2 10
Therefore, the percentage increase in the transmission bandwidth is given by
%BT = n2 - n1 # 100%
n1
0.6 log 2 10
= # 100%
10
= 20%
NOTE :
Since, the message signal (sampling frequency) for both the cases are same so,
the percentage increase in transmission bandwidth is same as the percentage
increase in number of encoding bits.
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So = 3 ^2n h2 5
2 > 10
No 7ln ^1 + 100hA
2n
3#2 5
2 > 10
7ln ^101hA
22n > 7.1 # 105
n > 1 log 2 ^7.1 # 105h
2
n > 9.72
Thus, the minimum number of bits per sample is
n = 10
.in
Now, the signal to quantization noise ratio for a PCM system is defined as
So = 3q2 m ^ t h
o
2
...(1)
.c No m p2
where m2 ^ t h is the power in the message signal m ^ t h and m p is its peak
a
di
value. Here, the message signal is sinusoid, so we have
m2 ^ t h = 1
2
and
no mp = 1
w.
Substituting it in equation (1), we have
1
So = 3q2 2
ww No
10 4.8 =
1
3q2
2
4.8
q2 = 2 # 10 ...(2)
3
Now, if the number of bits per sample of PCM be n , then we must have
q < 2n
Substituting it in equation (2), we get
4.8
^2n h2 > 2 #310
4.8
or, n > 1 log 2 c 2 # 10 m
2 3
or, n > 7.7
Thus, the minimum number of bits per sample is n = 8
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Page 434
So = 3q2 m ^ t h
2
Chap 6 No mp
Digital Transmission
1/2 3q2
= 3q2 =
1 2
If n be the minimum number of bits per sample so, we have
3q2
> 10 4
2
3 ^22n h2
or > 10 4
2
4
or, n > 1 log 2 c 2 # 10 m = 6.35
2 3
So, we have
n =7
Therefore, the data rate (bit rate) of the speech signal is given by
Rb = nfs
= 7 # 8 kHz
= 56 kbits/sec
So, the minimum storage capacity needed to accommodate the 20 sec
duration speech signal is
M = Rb # T i. n
= 1120 kbits
.c o
= ^56 kbits/ sech # ^20 sech
i a
Converting it into bytes (1 byte = 8 bits ), we get
o d
M = 1120 = 140 k bytes.
8
SOL 6.2.16
. n
Correct answer is 12.
Given, the peak to peak amplitude of the message signal m ^ t h,
w w 2m p = 1.536 V or m p = 0.768 V
number of quantization level, q = 128
So, the quantization noise power for the uniform mid rise quantized signal
w m ^ t h is given by
m2
No = p2
3q
^0.768h2
=
3 # ^128h2
= 1.2 # 10-5 V2 = 12 # 10-6 V2
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TN = 1 = 1 = 0.0014 sec.
fN 700
SOL 6.2.18 Correct answer is 16.
For a PCM system, the signal to quantization noise ratio is defined as
m2 ^ t h 2n m ^ t h
2
SNR = 3q2 = 3 # ^ 2 h
m p2 m p2
where n is the number of bits per sample, m2 ^ t h is the power in message
signal, and m p is the peak amplitude of m ^ t h.
When the code word length ^n h is changed from n1 = 6 to n2 = 8 bits the
signal to quantization noise ratio improves by the factor given as
^SNRh2 3 # ^2 h2n
2
3 # ^2 h2 # 8
= = = 16
^SNRh1 3 # ^2 h2n
1
3 # ^2 h2 # 6
SOL 6.2.19 Correct answer is 384.
Given, the bandwidth of signals g1 ^ t h and g 4 ^ t h
.in f1 = f4 = 4 kHz
Bandwidth of signals g2 ^ t h and g 3 ^ t h.
.co f2 = f3 = 8 kHz
Required number of bits for each sample, n = 8 bits
ia
For the given signals, we obtain the minimum sampling frequency (Nyquist
od
sampling rate) as
fs1 = fs 4 = 2 # 4 = 8 kHz
and
.n fs2 = fs3 = 2 # 8 = 16 kHz
So, total number of pulses (frequency) per second for the multiplexed signal
is
ww fs = fs1 + fs 2 + fs 3 + fs 4
w = 8 + 16 + 16 + 8
= 48 kHz
Therefore, the minimum transmission bit rate for the system is obtained as
Rb = nfs
= 8 # 48
= 384 k bits/sec
So, we get the frequency (total number of pulses per second) for the
multiplexed signal as
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Page 436 fs = fs + fs + fs
1 2 3
Chap 6
= 2400 + 1200 + 1200
Digital Transmission
= 4800 Hz
Therefore, the bit rate of the multiplexed signal is
Rb = nfs
= 12 # 4800
= 57.6 kbits/sec
.c o
Given, the bandwidths of four independent message signals.
i
f1 = 100 Hz
a
o d
f2 = 100 Hz
f3 = 200 Hz
. n f4 = 400 Hz
Since, these signals are sampled at their Nyquist rate so, we have the
w w
sampling frequencies of the four signals as
fs1 = 2f1 = 2 # 100 = 200 Hz
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.inn = 7 + 1 = 8 bits
.co
Therefore, the total bit rate of TDM link is given by
Rb = nfs
ia = 8 # 160 kHz
od = 1280 kbits/sec
w.
Given, the signal
s ^ t h = sin c ^350t h + sin c ^250t h
sin ^350pt h sin ^250pt h
ww =
pt
+
pt
= 1 7sin ^350pt h + sin ^250pt hA
pt
So, the signal is band limited to
fm = 350p = 175 Hz
2p
Therefore, the Nyquist sampling rate for the signal is
fN = 2fm = 2 # 175 = 350 Hz
So, the Nyquist sampling internal is given by
TN = 1 = 1 = 0.0029 sec
fN 350
SOL 6.2.26 Correct answer is 4233.6.
Given the sampling frequency, fs = 44.1 kHz
number of bits per sample, n = 16 bits
So, the resulting bit rate of the sampled signal is
Rb = nfs
= 16 # 44.1 kHz
= 705.6 kbits/sec
So, the resulting number of bits for the music with duration 50 minutes is
Number of bits = ^50 # 60h # Rb
= 3000 # 705.6 # 103
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i. n
Therefore, the number of pulses per second (frequency) of the multiplexed
signal is
fs = 4 # fs0
.c
= 4 # 8 = 32 kHz o
So, the bit transmission rate of the time division multiplexed signal is
Rb = nfs
i a ...(1)
o q = 2nd
where n is the number of bits per sample defined as
So,
. n n = log 2 256 = 8
Substituting it in equation (1), we get the bit rate as
w w Rb = 8 # 32 kHz
= 256 kbits/sec
w
SOL 6.2.28 Correct answer is 180.
Given, the maximum frequency of the analog data, fm = 30 kHz
The quantization level (digitization level), q = 6
So, the required number of bits per sample for digitization is given by
2n $ 6
or, n = 3 bits
Now, the sampling frequency for the analog data is given by Nyquist rate as
fs = 2fm
= 2 # 30
= 60 kHz
Therefore, the rate of generated digital signal is
Rb = nfs
= 3 # 60 kHz
= 180 kbits/sec
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= 2 # 4 = 8 kHz
Again, the number of bits per sample is obtained as
2n $ q
or, 2n $ 16
or n =4
Therefore, the bit transmission rate is given by
Rb = nfs
= 4#8
= 32 kbits/sec
in
So, the speech signal is band limited to fm = 3 kHz
o.
The sampling frequency of the signal must be greater than Nyquist rate
fs $ 2fm = 2 # 3 = 6 kHz
.c
Here, the sampling frequency is
a fs = 8 kHz
is
di
This satisfies the Nyquist criterion. Since, the number of quantization levels
no q = 256
w.
So, the number of bits per sample is
n = log 2 256 = 8
Therefore, the output bit rate is given by
SOL 6.2.31
ww Rb = nfs = 8 # 8 = 64 kbps
= 106 = 8 105 Hz
1 + 0.25 #
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i. n
Rb,max = 1 = 1 = 106 bits/ sec
Tbit 1 ms
Also, we get the number of bits per sample,
.c o
n = log 2 q = log 2 16 = 4 bits/sample
Now, let the number of voice signals that can be multiplexed be M so, we
i a
have over all sampling frequency for the communication channel as
o d
fs = MW = M # 3000
= 3000 N samples/sec
. n
Therefore, the bit rate at the receiving end is given by
Rb = nfs
w This bit rate must be less than the maximum bit rate, i.e.
Rb < Rb,max
12000M < 106
6
or M < 10 = 83.33
12000
or M . 83 signals
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.in
B = Rb
2
a
SOL 6.2.35
di
Given, the time period of transmitting signal,
T = 71.4 ms = 71.4 # 10-6 sec
no
So, we have frequency of the signal as
f = 1 = 1
w. T 71.4 # 10-6
= 1.4 # 10 4 Hz
Therefore, the 4 th harmonic of the signal is given by
ww f4 th = 4 # 1.4 # 10 4
harmonic
= 5.6 # 10 4 Hz
This must be the bandwidth of the signal, i.e.
W = f4 harmonic = 5.6 # 10 4 Hz
th
Thus, the minimum sampling rate (Nyquist rate) for the signal is
fs = 2W = 2 # ^5.6 # 10 4h
= 11.2 # 10 4 Hz = 112 kHz
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.c o
So, we obtain the baud rate for the system,
D = Rb =
9600 bits/ sec
k
i a 4 bits/level
o d
= 2400 levels/ sec
Therefore, the minimum required bandwidth for the channel is
. n B = D = 2400 = 1200 Hz
2 2
SOL 6.2.39
w w
Correct answer is 1.33.
Given, the number of levels for polar NRZ line code,M = 4
The bandwidth of channel, B = 4 kHz
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.in = 9 # ^2W h
.co = 9 # 2 # 3400
= 6.12 # 10 4 bits/ sec
SOL 6.2.41
od
Correct answer is 7.
Given the error at receiving end,
.n
So, we have
error # 0.5% of peak-to-peak full scale value
ww 1 2m p # 0.5
2 c 2n m 100 #
2n $ 100
2m p
or,
or, w n $ log 2 100 = 6.65
Therefore, the minimum number of bits per sample (word) is
n = 7 bits/word
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i. n
100
= 0.9 # 200 = 180 kHz
#
fS /2
.c
S ^ f h df o
Therefore, the signal to distortion ratio (SDR) is obtained as
#
90 # 103
^1 - 10-5 f h df
ia
SDR = 0
= 0
S ^ f h df
W
^1 - 10-5 f h df
105
# #
d fS /2 3
90 # 10
3
-5 2 90 # 10
n o =
;f -
10 f
2 E0
.
5
10-5 f 2 10
;f - 2 E
w w =
90 # 10
90 # 10 -
2
3
= 99 or 20 dB
2
10 5 2
- 90 # 103 +
2
ALTERNATIVE METHOD :
We have the sampling frequency,
fs = 180 kHz
If the message signal is sampled at this frequency, we get the frequency
spectrum of sampled waveform as shown below.
***********
.in
.co
ia
od
.n
ww
w
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Page 446
Chap 6 SOLUTIONS 6.3
Digital Transmission
i. n
SOL 6.3.5 Option (D) is correct.
o d
SOL 6.3.10
. n
Option (A) is correct.
In flat-top sampling, the aperture effect occurs due to application of
SOL 6.3.11
w w
rectangular pulse. It causes an amplitude distortion and time delay.
12
where d is the step size of the quantization given by
2m p
d =
q
where 2m p is the peak to peak amplitude and q is the number of quantization
level. Thus, the quantization noise depends on number of quantization levels.
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in
(ii) Pulse width modulation (PWM)
.
(iii) Pulse position modulation (PPM)
o
SOL 6.3.20
SOL 6.3.21
a.c
Option (C) is correct.
SOL 6.3.22
di
Option (B) is correct.
SOL 6.3.23
no
Option (C) is correct.
SOL 6.3.24
w.
Option (B) is correct.
SOL 6.3.25
SOL 6.3.26
ww
Option (C) is correct.
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.c o
SOL 6.3.44 Option (C) is correct.
i a
In a PCM system there are two error sources:
(i) Quantization noise
(ii) Channel noise
o d
. n
Channel noise in the system is independent of quantization noise. So, with
increase in quantization noise, channel noise will remain unaffected.
SOL 6.3.45
w w
Option (D) is correct.
w
SOL 6.3.46
SOL 6.3.47
Option (C) is correct.
************
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GATE
ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION
Vol 8 of 10
GATE
ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION
Control Systems
Vol 8 of 10
RK Kanodia
Ashish Murolia
Information contained in this book has been obtained by author, from sources believes to be reliable. However,
neither NODIA & COMPANY nor its author guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any information herein,
and NODIA & COMPANY nor its author shall be responsible for any error, omissions, or damages arising out of
use of this information. This book is published with the understanding that NODIA & COMPANY and its author
are supplying information but are not attempting to render engineering or other professional services.
MRP 540.00
Later, we perceived that many aspirants couldn’t develop a good problem solving approach in their B.E/B.Tech.
Some of them lacked the fundamentals of a subject and had difficulty understanding simple solutions. Now,
we have an idea to enhance our content and present two separate books for each subject: one for theory, which
contains brief theory, problem solving methods, fundamental concepts, and points-to-remember. The second book
is about problems, including a vast collection of problems with descriptive and step-by-step solutions that can
be understood by an average student. This was the origin of GATE Guide (the theory book) and GATE Cloud
(the problem bank) series: two books for each subject. GATE Guide and GATE Cloud were published in three
subjects only.
Thereafter we received an immense number of emails from our readers looking for a complete study package
for all subjects and a book that combines both GATE Guide and GATE Cloud. This encouraged us to present
GATE Study Package (a set of 10 books: one for each subject) for GATE Electronic and Communication
Engineering. Each book in this package is adequate for the purpose of qualifying GATE for an average student.
Each book contains brief theory, fundamental concepts, problem solving methodology, summary of formulae,
and a solved question bank. The question bank has three exercises for each chapter: 1) Theoretical MCQs, 2)
Numerical MCQs, and 3) Numerical Type Questions (based on the new GATE pattern). Solutions are presented
in a descriptive and step-by-step manner, which are easy to understand for all aspirants.
We believe that each book of GATE Study Package helps a student learn fundamental concepts and develop
problem solving skills for a subject, which are key essentials to crack GATE. Although we have put a vigorous
effort in preparing this book, some errors may have crept in. We shall appreciate and greatly acknowledge all
constructive comments, criticisms, and suggestions from the users of this book. You may write to us at rajkumar.
kanodia@gmail.com and ashish.murolia@gmail.com.
Acknowledgements
We would like to express our sincere thanks to all the co-authors, editors, and reviewers for their efforts in
making this project successful. We would also like to thank Team NODIA for providing professional support for
this project through all phases of its development. At last, we express our gratitude to God and our Family for
providing moral support and motivation.
GENERAL ABILITY
Verbal Ability : English grammar, sentence completion, verbal analogies, word groups, instructions, critical
reasoning and verbal deduction.
Numerical Ability : Numerical computation, numerical estimation, numerical reasoning and data interpretation.
Engineering Mathematics
Linear Algebra : Matrix Algebra, Systems of linear equations, Eigen values and eigen vectors.
Calculus : Mean value theorems, Theorems of integral calculus, Evaluation of definite and improper integrals, Partial
Derivatives, Maxima and minima, Multiple integrals, Fourier series. Vector identities, Directional derivatives, Line,
Surface and Volume integrals, Stokes, Gauss and Green’s theorems.
Differential equations : First order equation (linear and nonlinear), Higher order linear differential equations with
constant coefficients, Method of variation of parameters, Cauchy’s and Euler’s equations, Initial and boundary
value problems, Partial Differential Equations and variable separable method.
Complex variables : Analytic functions, Cauchy’s integral theorem and integral formula, Taylor’s and Laurent’
series, Residue theorem, solution integrals.
Probability and Statistics : Sampling theorems, Conditional probability, Mean, median, mode and standard
deviation, Random variables, Discrete and continuous distributions, Poisson, Normal and Binomial distribution,
Correlation and regression analysis.
Numerical Methods : Solutions of non-linear algebraic equations, single and multi-step methods for differential
equations.
Networks : Network graphs: matrices associated with graphs; incidence, fundamental cut set and fundamental
circuit matrices. Solution methods: nodal and mesh analysis. Network theorems: superposition, Thevenin and
Norton’s maximum power transfer, Wye-Delta transformation. Steady state sinusoidal analysis using phasors.
Linear constant coefficient differential equations; time domain analysis of simple RLC circuits, Solution of network
equations using Laplace transform: frequency domain analysis of RLC circuits. 2-port network parameters: driving
point and transfer functions. State equations for networks.
Electronic Devices : Energy bands in silicon, intrinsic and extrinsic silicon. Carrier transport in silicon: diffusion
current, drift current, mobility, and resistivity. Generation and recombination of carriers. p-n junction diode,
Zener diode, tunnel diode, BJT, JFET, MOS capacitor, MOSFET, LED, p-I-n and avalanche photo diode, Basics
of LASERs. Device technology: integrated circuits fabrication process, oxidation, diffusion, ion implantation,
photolithography, n-tub, p-tub and twin-tub CMOS process.
Digital circuits : Boolean algebra, minimization of Boolean functions; logic gates; digital IC families (DTL, TTL,
ECL, MOS, CMOS). Combinatorial circuits: arithmetic circuits, code converters, multiplexers, decoders, PROMs
and PLAs. Sequential circuits: latches and flip-flops, counters and shift-registers. Sample and hold circuits, ADCs,
DACs. Semiconductor memories. Microprocessor(8085): architecture, programming, memory and I/O interfacing.
Signals and Systems : Definitions and properties of Laplace transform, continuous-time and discrete-time Fourier
series, continuous-time and discrete-time Fourier Transform, DFT and FFT, z-transform. Sampling theorem.
Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) Systems: definitions and properties; causality, stability, impulse response, convolution,
poles and zeros, parallel and cascade structure, frequency response, group delay, phase delay. Signal transmission
through LTI systems.
Control Systems : Basic control system components; block diagrammatic description, reduction of block diagrams.
Open loop and closed loop (feedback) systems and stability analysis of these systems. Signal flow graphs and their
use in determining transfer functions of systems; transient and steady state analysis of LTI control systems and
frequency response. Tools and techniques for LTI control system analysis: root loci, Routh-Hurwitz criterion, Bode
and Nyquist plots. Control system compensators: elements of lead and lag compensation, elements of Proportional-
Integral-Derivative (PID) control. State variable representation and solution of state equation of LTI control
systems.
Communications : Random signals and noise: probability, random variables, probability density function,
autocorrelation, power spectral density. Analog communication systems: amplitude and angle modulation and
demodulation systems, spectral analysis of these operations, superheterodyne receivers; elements of hardware,
realizations of analog communication systems; signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) calculations for amplitude modulation
(AM) and frequency modulation (FM) for low noise conditions. Fundamentals of information theory and channel
capacity theorem. Digital communication systems: pulse code modulation (PCM), differential pulse code modulation
(DPCM), digital modulation schemes: amplitude, phase and frequency shift keying schemes (ASK, PSK, FSK),
matched filter receivers, bandwidth consideration and probability of error calculations for these schemes. Basics of
TDMA, FDMA and CDMA and GSM.
Electromagnetics : Elements of vector calculus: divergence and curl; Gauss’ and Stokes’ theorems, Maxwell’s
equations: differential and integral forms. Wave equation, Poynting vector. Plane waves: propagation through various
media; reflection and refraction; phase and group velocity; skin depth. Transmission lines: characteristic impedance;
impedance transformation; Smith chart; impedance matching; S parameters, pulse excitation. Waveguides: modes
in rectangular waveguides; boundary conditions; cut-off frequencies; dispersion relations. Basics of propagation in
dielectric waveguide and optical fibers. Basics of Antennas: Dipole antennas; radiation pattern; antenna gain.
**********
Basic control system components; block diagrammatic description, reduction of block diagrams. Open loop and
closed loop (feedback) systems and stability analysis of these systems. Signal flow graphs and their use in determining
transfer functions of systems; transient and steady state analysis of LTI control systems and frequency response.
Tools and techniques for LTI control system analysis: root loci, Routh-Hurwitz criterion, Bode and Nyquist plots.
Control system compensators: elements of lead and lag compensation, elements of Proportional-Integral-Derivative
(PID) control. State variable representation and solution of state equation of LTI control systems.
Transient and steady state response of control systems; Effect of feedback on stability and sensitivity; Root
locus techniques; Frequency response analysis. Concepts of gain and phase margins: Constant-M and Constant-N
Nichol’s Chart; Approximation of transient response from Constant-N Nichol’s Chart; Approximation of transient
response from closed loop frequency response; Design of Control Systems, Compensators; Industrial controllers.
Elements of control systems; block-diagram representations; open-loop & closed-loop systems; principles and
applications of feed-back. LTI systems : time domain and transform domain analysis. Stability : Routh Hurwitz
criterion, root-loci, Nyquist’s criterion. Bode-plots, Design of lead-lag compensators; Proportional, PI, PID
controllers.
**********
1.1 INTRODUCTION 1
EXERCISE 1.2 33
EXERCISE 1.3 37
SOLUTIONS 1.1 45
SOLUTIONS 1.2 86
SOLUTIONS 1.3 93
CHAPTER 2 STABILITY
2.1 INTRODUCTION 99
2.3 STABILITY 99
***********
CHAPTER 1
Page 17
Chap 1
Root Locus Technique
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The performance of a feedback system can be described in terms of the
location of the roots of the characteristic equation, graphically, in the s
-plane. This qualitative nature of the solution will be examined in this
chapter using the root-locus analysis. Following topics are included in the
chapter:
• Basic concept of the root locus method
in
• Useful rules for constructing the root loci
• Root sensitivity
o.
• Effect of adding poles and zeros to G (s) H (s)
a.c
di
A graph showing how the roots of the characteristic equation move around
the s -plane as a single parameter varies is known as a root locus plot.
1.2.1
no
The Root-Locus Concept
w.
The roots of the characteristic equation of a system provide a valuable
concerning the response of the system. To understand the root locus concept,
ww
consider the characteristics equation
q ^s h = 1 + G ^s h H ^s h = 0
Now, we rearrange the equation so that the parameter of interest, K , appears
as the multiplying factor in the form,
1 + KP ^s h = 0
For determining the locus of roots as K varies from 0 to 3, consider the
polynomial in the form of poles and zeros as
m
K % ^s + Z h i
1+ n
i
=0
% ^s + P h i
j
n m
or % ^s + Pj h + K % ^s + Z h = 0
i
j i
when K = 0 , the roots of the characteristic equation are the poles of P ^s h.
n
i.e. % ^s + P h = 0
j
j
when K = 3, the roots of the characteristic equation are the zeros of P _ s i .
m
i.e. % ^s + Z h = 0
i
i
Hence, we noted that the locus of the roots of the characteristic equation
1 + KP ^s h = 0 begins at the poles of P ^s h and ends at the zeros of P ^s h as
K increases from zero to infinity.
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G1 ^ s h H1 ^ s h = 1 ; -3 < K < 3
K
m
% ^s + Z h
i
G1 ^ s h H1 ^ s h = i=1
= 1 ; -3 < K < 3
n
K
% ^s + P h
j
j=1
i. n
G1 ^s h H1 ^s h = ^2k + 1h p ; where k = 0 , ! 1, ! 2 ,.......
= odd multiple of 180c
.c o for 0 # K < 3
G1 ^s h H1 ^s h = 2k p ; where k = 0 , ! 1, ! 2 ,.......
3.
o d for - 3 < K # 0
Once the root locus are constructed, the values of K along the loci can
be determined by
. n n
% ^s + P h
w w K = j=1
m
% ^s + Z h
j
w
i=1
The value of K at any point s1 on the root locus is obtained from above
equation by substituting value of s1 . Graphically, we write
POINTS TO REMEMBER
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in
Rule 4: Root Loci on the Real axis
o.
While sketching the root locus on real axis, we must note following points:
1. The entire real axis of the s -plane is occupied by the root locus for all
.
values of K .
a c
2. Root locus for K $ 0 are found in the section only if the total number
di
of poles and zeros of G ^s h H ^s h to the right of the section is odd. The
remaining sections of the real axis are occupied by the root locus for
K # 0.
no
3. Complex poles and zeros of G ^s h H ^s h do not affect the type of root
.
locus found on the real axis.
w
w
Rule 5: Angle of Asymptotes of the Root Locus
When n is the number of finite poles and m is the number of finite zeros of
w
G ^s h H ^s h, respectively. Then n - m branches of the root locus approaches
the infinity along straight line asymptotes whose angles are given by
^2q + 1h p
qa = ! ; for K $ 0
n-m
!^2q h p
and qa = ; for K # 0
n-m
where q = 0 , 1, 2,.......... ^n - m - 1h
Rule 6: Determination of Centroid
The asymptotes cross the real axis at a point known as centroid, which is
given by
sA =
/ Real parts of poles ofG^s hH^s h - / Real parts of zeros of G^s hH^s h
n-m
Rule 7: Angle of Departure
The angle of departure from an open loop pole is given by (for K $ 0 )
fD = !6^2q + 1h p + f@; q = 0 , 1, 2,........
where, f is the net angle contribution at this pole, of all other open loop
poles and zeros. For example, consider the plot shown in figure below.
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Page 20
Chap 1
Root Locus Technique
i. n
where f = net angle contribution at this zero, of all other open loop poles
and zeros. For example, consider the plot shown in figure below.
.c o
i a
o d
. n
w w
Figure 4.2: Illustration of Angle of Arrival
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In this section, the effect of adding poles and zeros to G ^s h H ^s h are described.
Addition of Poles to G ^s h H ^s h
Due to addition of poles to G ^s h H ^s h, the root locus is affected in following
manner:
1. Adding a pole to G ^s h H ^s h has the effect of pushing the root loci
towards the right half.
in
2. The complex path of the root loci bends to the right.
.
co
3. Angle of asymptotes reduces and centroid is shifted to the left.
4. The system stability will be reduced.
.
ia
Addition of Zeros to G ^s h H ^s h
Due to addition of zeros to G ^s h H ^s h, the root locus is affected in following
manner:
od
1. Adding left half plane zero to the function G ^s h H ^s h, generally has the
.n
effect of moving or pushing the root loci towards the left half.
w
2. The complex path of the root loci bends to the left.
3. Centroid shifted to the right.
w
4. The relative stability of the system is improved.
1.5
w
ROOT SENSITIVITY
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Page 22
Chap 1 EXERCISE 1.1
Root Locus Technique
MCQ 1.1.1 Form the given sketch the root locus can be
i. n
.c o
MCQ 1.1.2
i a
Consider the sketch shown below.
o d
. n
w w
w
The root locus can be
(A) (1) and (3) (B) (2) and (3)
(C) (2) and (4) (D) (1) and (4)
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.in
.co
ia
od
.n
MCQ 1.1.5
ww
An open-loop pole-zero plot is shown below
w
The general shape of the root locus is
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i. n
.c o
i a
o d
. n
MCQ 1.1.7
w w
An open-loop pole-zero plot is shown below.
w
The general shape of the root locus is
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.in
.co
MCQ 1.1.9
ia
The forward-path open-loop transfer function of a ufb system is
od G (s) =
K (s2 + 4)
(s2 + 1)
For this system, root locus is
.n
ww
w
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Page 26
Chap 1
Root Locus Technique
i. n
.c o
i a
MCQ 1.1.11
o d
The transfer function of this system is
(A)
. n
K (s2 + 2s + 2)
(s + 3) (s + 2)
(B)
K (s + 3) (s + 2)
(s3 + 2s + 2)
w
(C)wK (s2 - 2s + 2)
(s + 3) (s + 2)
(D)
K (s + 3) (s + 2)
(s2 - 2s + 2)
w
MCQ 1.1.12 The break point is
(A) break away at s =- 1.29
(B) break in at s =- 2.43
(C) break away at s =- 2.43
(D) break in at s =- 1.29
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.in
MCQ 1.1.15
.co
For a ufb system, forward-path transfer function is
ia G (s) =
K (s + 6)
(s + 3) (s + 5)
o
(A) 3, 4.27d
The breakaway point and break-in points are located respectively at
(B) 7.73, 4.27
.n
(C) 4.27, 3 (D) 4.27, 7.73
MCQ 1.1.16
ww
The open loop transfer function of a system is given by
K
w G (s) H (s) =
s (s + 1) (s + 2)
The root locus plot of above system is
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MCQ 1.1.18 For the ufb system shown below, consider two points
s1 =- 2 + j 3 and s2 =- 2 + j 1
2
i. n
.c o
i a
o d
. n
Which of the above points lie on root locus ?
(A) Both s1 and s2 (B) s1 but not s2
w w
(C) s2 but not s1 (D) neither s1 nor s2
w
MCQ 1.1.19 A ufb system has open-loop transfer function,
G (s) = 2
K (s + a)
s (s + b)
,b > a > 0
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-plane at
(A) (- 9.5, 0)
(B) (- 5.5, 0)
(C) (- 7.5, 0)
(D) None of the above
MCQ 1.1.21 The root locus of the system having the loop transfer function,
G (s) H (s) = K has
s (s + 4) (s2 + 4s + 5)
(A) 3 break-away points
(B) 3 break-in points
(C) 2 break-in and 1 break-away point
in
(D) 2 break-away and 1 break-in point
o.
MCQ 1.1.22
a.c
Consider the ufb system shown below.
di
no
w.
The root-loci, as a is varied, will be
ww
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i. n
.c o
i a
o d
. n
w w
w
K (s + 6)
MCQ 1.1.25 For the system G (s) H (s) = , consider the following characteristic
(s + 2) (s + 4)
of the root locus :
1. It has one asymptote.
2. It has intersection with jw-axis.
3. It has two real axis intersections.
4. It has two zeros at infinity.
The root locus have characteristics
(A) 1 and 2 (B) 1 and 3
(C) 3 and 4 (D) 2 and 4
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MCQ 1.1.27 Match List-I with List-II in respect of the open loop transfer function
K (s + 10) (s2 + 20s + 500)
G (s) H (s) =
s (s + 20) (s + 50) (s2 + 4s + 5)
and choose the correct option.
List I (Types of Loci) List II (Numbers)
P. Separate Loci 1. One
Q. Loci on the real axis 2. Two
R. Asymptotes 3. Three
S. Break away points 4. Five
P Q R S
(A) 4 3 1 1
(B)
(C)
4
3
3
4
.in 2
1
1
1
(D) 3
.
4
co 1 2
MCQ 1.1.28
ia
The root-locus of a ufb system is shown below.
od
.n
ww
(A)
w
The open loop transfer function is
K
s (s + 1) (s + 3)
(B)
K (s + 3)
s (s + 1)
K (s + 1) Ks
(C) (D)
s (s + 3) (s + 1) (s + 3)
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Page 32 K (1 - s)
MCQ 1.1.30 An unity feedback system is given as G (s) = . Which of the following
Chap 1 s (s + 3)
Root Locus Technique
is the correct root locus diagram ?
MCQ 1.1.31 The open loop transfer function G (s) of a ufb system is given as
K ^s + 23 h
G (s) = 2
i. n
s (s + 2)
From the root locus, it can be inferred that when K tends to positive
infinity,
o
(A) three roots with nearly equal real parts exist on the left half of the s
-plane
.c
i a
(B) one real root is found on the right half of the s -plane
o d
(C) the root loci cross the jw axis for a finite value of K; K ! 0
(D) three real roots are found on the right half of the s -plane
. n
MCQ 1.1.32
w w
The characteristic equation of a closed-loop system is
s (s + 1) (s + 3) + K (s + 2) = 0, K > 0
Which of the following statements is true ?
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MCQ 1.1.34 Figure shows the root locus plot (location of poles not given) of a third order
system whose open loop transfer function is
.in
.co
ia
od
(A) K3
s
.n (B) 2
K
s (s + 1)
(C)
w K
s (s2 + 1)
w
(D) K
s (s2 - 1)
MCQ 1.1.35
w
A unity feedback system has an open loop transfer function, G (s) = K2 . The
root locus plot is s
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MCQ 1.1.39 For the characteristic equation s3 + 2s2 + Ks + K = 0 , the root locus of the
system as K varies from zero to infinity is
i. n
.c o
i a
o d
. n
w w
w
MCQ 1.1.40 The open loop transfer function of a ufb system and root locus plot for the
ANAND K./357 system is shown below.
/6.5
G ^s h H ^s h = K
s ^s + 2h^s + 4h
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The range of K for which the system has damped oscillatory response is
(A) 0 < K < 48 (B) K > 3.08
(C) 3.08 < K < 48 (D) K > 48
MCQ 1.1.41 The root locus plot for a control system is shown below.
ANAND K./363
/6.7
.in
.co
ia
od
.n
w
Consider the following statements regarding the system.
1. System is stable for all positive value of K .
w
2. System has real and repeated poles for 0.573 < K < 7.464 .
w
3. System has damped oscillatory response for all values of K greater than
0.573.
4. System is overdamped for 0 < K < 0.573 and K > 7.464 .
Which of the following is correct ?
(A) 1, 2 and 3 (B) 1 and 4
(C) 2 and 3 (D) all
s ^s + 2h
/6.12
For low frequencies, consider the following statements regarding the system.
1. s = 2.73 is break-away point.
2. s =- 0.73 is break-away point.
3. s =- 0.73 is break-in point.
4. s = 2.73 is break-in point.
Which of the following is correct ?
(A) 1 and 2 (B) 3 and 4
(C) 1 and 3 (D) 2 and 4
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Page 36 MCQ 1.1.43 The open loop transfer function of a ufb system is
Chap 1
G ^s h H ^s h = K
ANAND K./385
Root Locus Technique /6.16
s ^s + 4h^s2 + 4s + 20h
The root locus of the system has
(A) 3 real break point.
(B) 1 real and 2 complex break point.
(C) only one real break point.
(D) No one break point.
MCQ 1.1.44 The open loop transfer function of a control system is given below.
G ^s h H ^s h = 2 Ks
DORSEY/115
/5.3.7
^s - s + 4.25h
The system gain K as a function of s along real axis is shown below.
i. n
.c o
i a
In the root locus plot, point s , corresponding to gain plot, is
(A) s =- 2.06 ; Break in point (B) s =- 1.25 ; Break in point
o d
(C) s =- 2.06 ; Break away point (D) s =- 4.25 ; Break away point
. n
Common Data For Q. 45 and 46
w w
The open loop transfer function of a system is
G ^s h H ^s h =
K ^s - 1h
^s + 1h^s + 2h
w
MCQ 1.1.45
DORSEY/134
What is the gain K for which the closed loop system has a pole at s = 0 ?
(A) K = 0 (B) K = 2
/5.8.2.3
(C) K = 10 (D) K = 3
MCQ 1.1.46 Based on the above result, other pole of the system is
DORSEY/134 (A) s =- 3 + j0 (B) s =- 5 + j0
/5.8.2.3
(C) s =- 13 + j0 (D) None
MCQ 1.1.47 What is the value of gain K for which the closed loop system has two poles
DORSEY/136 with real part - 2 ?
/5.8.6.4
(A) K = 0 (B) K = 30
(C) K = 84.24 (D) K = 3
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MCQ 1.1.50 Consider the system with delay time ^tD h shown below.
M.GOPAL/402
/8.7
Suppose delay time tD = 1 sec . In root locus plot of the system, the break-
(A) 0, 4.83
.in
away and break-in points are respectively
(B) 4.83, 0
.co
(C) - 0.83 , 4.83
ia
(D) 4.83, - 0.83
MCQ 1.1.51
od
Variation of system gain K along the real axis of s -plane for the root locus
NISE/388/-
.n
of a system is shown below.
ww
w
Which of the following options is correct for the root locus plot of the
system?
(A) ^- s1h is break in and s2 is break away point.
(B) ^- s1h is break away and s2 is break in point.
(C) Both ^- s1h and s2 are break away points.
(D) Both ^- s1h and s2 are break in points.
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MCQ 1.1.53 What will be the change in pole ^s =- 9.47h location for a 10% change in
NISE/409/8.10 K ?
(A) Pole moves to left by 0.056
(B) Pole moves to right by 0.056
(C) Pole moves to left by 0.029
(D) Pole moves to right by 0.029
s ^s - 1h
/8.4
Root locus for the system is a circle. Centre and radius of the circle are
respectively
(A) ^0, 0h, 2 (B) ^0, 0h, 2
(C) ^- 1, 0h, 2
i. n
(D) ^- 1, 0h, 2
MCQ 1.1.55
.c o
The open loop transfer function of a system is
K ^s + 3h
S.CHAND/307
/8.5 G ^s h H ^s h =
i a
s ^s + 2h
o
(A) ^s + 4h2 + w2 = 4 d
The root locus of the system is a circle. The equation of circle is
(B) ^s - 3h2 + w2 = 3
. n
(C) ^s + 3h2 + w2 = ^ 3 h
2
(D) ^s - 4h2 + w2 = ^2 h2
MCQ 1.1.56
w w
Consider the open loop transfer function of a system given below.
G ^s h H ^s h = 2 K
w
S.CHAND/332
/5
^s + 2s + 2h^s2 + 6s + 10h
The break-away point in root locus plot for the system is/are
(A) 3 real
(B) only real
(C) 1 real, 2 complex
(D) None
MCQ 1.1.57 The open loop transfer function of a ufb system is given below.
G ^s h H ^s h = K
D.ROY/281/6.4
s ^s + 4h^s + 5h
Consider the following statements for the system.
1. Root locus plot cross jw-axis at s = ! j2 5
2. Gain margin for K = 18 is 20 dB.
3. Gain margin for K = 1800 is - 20 dB
4. Gain K at breakaway point is 13.128
Which of the following is correct ?
(A) 1 and 2 (B) 1, 2 and 3
(C) 2, 3 and 4 (D) All
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s ^s - 1h^s2 + 4s + 16h
/6.16
Root Locus Technique
Consider the following statements for the system
1. Root locus of the system cross jw-axis for K = 35.7
2. Root locus of the system cross jw-axis for K = 23.3
3. Break away point is s = 0.45
4. Break in point is s =- 2.26
Which of the following statement is correct ?
(A) 1, 3 and 4 (B) 2, 3 and 4
(C) 3 and 4 (D) all
*************
.in
.co
ia
od
.n
ww
w
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Page 40
Chap 1 EXERCISE 1.2
Root Locus Technique
i. n
QUES 1.2.1
.c o
The breakaway point for the root locus of system is ______
QUES 1.2.2
i a
At break-away point, the value of gain K is ______
o d
n
The forward-path transfer function of a ufb system is
QUES 1.2.3
w. G (s) =
K (s + 2)
(s + 3) (s2 + 2s + 2)
The angle of departure from the complex poles is !f D ; where f D =
w w
______ degree.
QUES 1.2.4 The root locus crosses the imaginary axis at ! ja ; where a = _______
QUES 1.2.5 The value of gain for which the closed-loop transfer function will have a pole
on the real axis at - 5 , will be _______
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QUES 1.2.8 A unity feedback control system has an open-loop transfer function
G (s) = K
2
s (s + 7s + 12)
The gain K for which s =- 1 + j1 will lie on the root locus of this system
is ______
.in
The open loop transfer function of a control system is
K ^s2 + 2s + 10h
.co
G ^s h H ^s h = 2
^s + 6s + 10h
QUES 1.2.9
ia
The angle of departure at the complex poles will be !f D ; where f D =
ANAND K./364
/6.8
od
______ degree.
QUES 1.2.10
.n
The angle of arrival at complex zeros is !f A ; where f A = _______
ANAND K./364
/6.8
ww
degrees.
QUES 1.2.11
DORSEY/162
/6.8.4.2(B)
w
The open loop transfer function of a unity feedback system is shown below.
G ^s h H ^s h = 10K
^s + 2h^s + 10h
What is the value of K for which the root locus cross the line of constant
damping x = 1 ?
2
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Page 42 QUES 1.2.13 A unity feedback control system has open loop transfer function,
Chap 1
G ^s h H ^s h = K
C.KUO/348
Root Locus Technique /8.8(A)
s ^s + 10h^s + 20h
The value of K at the breakaway point is _______
s ^s + 2h
/7.24.9
i. n
.c o
i a
o d
. n
QUES 1.2.16
w w
Damping ratio for K = 12.2 is x = ______
MANKE/347/-
QUES 1.2.17
w Peak over shoot of the system response for K = 12.2 is MP = ______
MANKE/347/-
QUES 1.2.18 The root locus of the system is plotted as the value of parameter a is varied.
MANKE/352 The break away point is s = _______
/7.25.1
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s ^s + 9h
/E7.8
***********
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od
.n
ww
w
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Page 44
Chap 1 EXERCISE 1.3
Root Locus Technique
MCQ 1.3.1 If the gain ^K h of a system becomes zero, the roots will
GHOSH/516/3 (A) move away from zeros (B) move away from the poles
CHA. 4
(C) coincide with the zeros (D) coincide with the poles
MCQ 1.3.2 The root locus plot is symmetrical about the real axis because
GHOSH/516/5 (A) roots occur simultaneously in LH and RH planes
CHA. 4
(B) complex roots occur in conjugate pairs
(C) all roots occur in pairs
(D) none of these
MCQ 1.3.3
GHOSH/516/6 (A) imaginary axis
i. n
The break away points of the root locus occur at
CHA. 4
(B) real axis
.c o
(C) multiple roots of characteristic equation
(D) either (A) or (B)
i a
MCQ 1.3.4
o d
The algebraic sum of the angles of the vectors from all poles and zeros to the
GHOSH/516/10
CHA. 4
(A) 180c n
point on any root locus segment is
.
w w
(B) 150c
(C) 180c or its odd multiple
MCQ 1.3.5
w (D) 80c or its odd multiple
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.in
(A) open-loop poles
(B) closed-loop poles
.co
(C) both open-loop and closed-loop poles
(D) none of these
ia
MCQ 1.3.12
ANAND/400/8
od
An open-loop transfer function has 4 poles and 1 zero. The number of
branches of root locus is
(A) 4
(C) 5
.n (B) 1
(D) 3
MCQ 1.3.13
ww
The open-loop transfer function of a control system has 5 poles and 3 zeros.
ANAND/401/10
w
The number of asymptotes is equal to
(A) 5
(C) 2
(B) 3
(D) 8
MCQ 1.3.14 Angles of asymptotes are measured at the centroid with respect to
ANAND/401/12 (A) negative real axis (B) positive real axis
(C) imaginary axis (D) none of these
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MCQ 1.3.19 Root locus plot of a feedback system as gain K is varied, is shown in below.
i. n
GOPAL/409/8.5 The system response to step input is non-oscillatory for
.c o
i a
o d
. n
w
(A)
w 0 < K < 0. 4
w (B)
(C)
(D)
0.4 < K < 6
6<K<3
None of the answers in (A), (B) and (C) is correct
(P) Adding a zero between s =- 1 and s =- 2 would move the root locus
to the left.
(Q) Adding a pole at s = 0 would move the root locus to the right.
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MCQ 1.3.21 Consider the root locus plot of unity-feedback system with open-loop transfer
GOPAL/409/8.7 function,
K ^s + 5h
G ^s h =
s ^s + 2h^s + 4h^s2 + 2s + 2h
The meeting point of the asymptotes on the real axis occurs at
(A) - 1.2
(B) - 0.85
(C) - 1.05
(D) - 0.75
MCQ 1.3.22
.in
The root locus plot of the characteristic equation 1 + KF ^s h = 0 is given in
GOPAL/409/8.4
.co
below. The value of K at s = ! j1 is
ia
od
.n
ww
(A)
(B)
w
4
1
(C) 10
(D) None of the answers in (A), (B), and (C) is correct.
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.c o
MCQ 1.3.26
GK/98-17/90
1+ K
i a
If the characteristic equation of a closed-loop system is
=0
o d
s ^s + 1h^s + 2h
the centroid of the asymptotes in root-locus will be
(A) zero
.
(C) - 1 n (B) 2
(D) - 2
MCQ 1.3.27
w w
Assertion (A) : The number of separate loci or poles of the closed loop
K ^s + 4h
/4
w
IES-EE-2001/174
system corresponding to G ^s h H ^s h =
s ^s + 1h^s + 3h
is three.
Reason (R) : Number of separate loci is equal to number of finite poles of
G ^s h H ^s h if the latter is more than the number of finite zeros of G ^s h H ^s h.
(A) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
(B) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A.
(C) A is true but R is false
(D) A is false but R is true
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zeros.
(C) The breakaway points are determined from dk/ds = 0 .
(D) Segments of the real axis are part of the root locus, if and only if, the
total number of real poles and zeros to their right is odd.
MCQ 1.3.30 The addition of open loop zero pulls the root-loci towards :
IES-EC-2010/74 (A) The left and therefore system becomes more stable
/12/ARIHANT
(B) The right and therefore system becomes unstable
(C) Imaginary axis and therefore system becomes marginally stable
(D) The left and therefore system becomes unstable
in
IES-EC-2008/78 The root locus is the path of the roots of the characteristic equation traced
.
/55/ARIHANT
out in the s -plane
o
(A) as the input of the system is changed
c
(B) as the output of the system is changed
.
(C) as a system parameter is changed
ia
(D) as the sensitivity is changed
od
.n ***********
ww
w
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Page 50
Chap 1 SOLUTIONS 1.1
Root Locus Technique
i. n
This is symmetric about real axis and every point of locus satisfy the
condition that number of poles and zeros in right of any point on locus be
for a system.
.c o
odd. Thus, the sketch given in option (D) can be considered as root locus
i a
SOL 1.1.2 Correct option is (D).
o d
Here, option (2) and option (3) both are not symmetric about real axis. So,
n
both can not be root locus.
.
SOL 1.1.3
w w
Correct option is (A).
Here, pole-zero location is given as
The angle of departure of the root locus branch from a complex pole is given by
fD = !6180c + f@
where f is net angle contribution at this pole due to all other poles and
zeros, as shown in figure below.
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fD = !6180c - 180c@ = ! 0c
Therefore, the departure angle for pole P0 is 0c. Thus, root locus branch will
depart at 0c. Only option (A) satisfies this condition.
.in
From the given plot, we have
.co
Number of poles, P = 2
Number of zeros, Z = 1
ia
Since, the number of branches of root locus is equal to number of poles, so
we have
od
Number of branches = 2
.n
Thus (B) and (D) are not correct.
Again, the branch of root locus always starts from open loop pole and
w
ends either at an open loop zero (or) infinite. Thus, (C) is incorrect and
remaining Correct option is (A).
w
SOL 1.1.5
w
Correct option is (C).
Root locus plot starts from poles and ends at zeros (or) infinite. Only option
(C) satisfies this condition. No need to check further.
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i. n
Root locus always starts from open loop poles and ends at open loop zeros
.c o
or infinite along with asymptotes. So, the options (C) and (D) are wrong.
Again, a point on the real axis lies on the root locus if the total number of
i a
poles and zeros to the right of this point is odd. This is not satisfied by (B).
Thus, the remaining Correct option is (A).
SOL 1.1.8
o
Correct option is (C). d
. n
Forward path open loop transfer function of given ufb system is
K ^s + 2h^s + 6h
w w G ^s h = 2
s + 8s + 25
So, we have the characteristic equation as
w
or
s2 + 8s + 25 = 0
s = - 8 ! 64 - 100 =- 4 ! j3
2
or s =- 4 + j3 ; s =- 4 - j3
i.e. poles of the system are
s =- 4 + j3 ; s =- 4 - j3
Also, from the given transfer function, we have zeros of the system as
s =- 2 ; s =- 6
Thus, we get the pole-zero plot as shown below.
Also, we have the condition that root locus starts from poles and ends with
zeros. Only option (C) satisfies this condition.
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.in
.co
Since, we have the condition that root locus starts from poles and ends with
a
zeros. Thus, Correct option is (B).
i
SOL 1.1.10
od
Correct option is (A).
.n
Forward path open loop transfer function of given ufb system is
G ^s h =
K ^s2 + 1h
ww s2
So, we obtain the zeros of the system as
s2 + 1 = 0
or
w s = ! j1
Also, the poles of the system are
s = 0; s = 0
So, we have the pole-zero plot for the system as
Hence, option (B) and (D) may not be correct option. A point on the real
axis lies on the root locus if the total number of poles and zeros to the right
of this point is odd. This is not satisfied by (C) because at origin there are
double pole. Thus, remaining Correct option is (A).
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Page 54
Chap 1
Root Locus Technique
i. n
K ^s2 - 2s + 2h
or G ^s h =
^s + 2h^s + 3h
.c o
Root locus lies on real axis where number of poles and zeros are odd in
i
number from that right side.
a
Hence, for the given pole-zero plot, root locus lies between poles ^- 2h and
d
^- 3h on real axis. From the given option, we have two points
o
. n s =- 1.29 , s =- 2.43
Since, s =- 1.29 does not lie on root locus, so it can not be a break point.
w w
Therefore, the possible break point is s =- 2.43 which lies between - 2 and
- 3 . Now, we check wether the point is break away or break in.
On root locus, it may be seen easily that s =- 2.43 lies on root locus and
w locus start from poles ^- 2h and ^- 3h. Therefore, at s =- 2.43 it must break
apart. Thus, this point is break away point, i.e. the break point is
Break away at s =- 2.43
ALTERNATIVE METHOD :
Gain K will be maximum at break away point and minimum at break
in point. We can also check maxima and minima for gain K . The point,
at which multiple roots are present, are known as break point. These are
obtained from
dK = 0 ...(1)
ds
Now, we have the characteristic equation as
1 + G ^s h H ^s h = 0
K ^s2 - 2s + 2h
or 1+ =0
^s + 2h^s + 3h
-^s + 2h^s + 3h
So, K =
^s2 - 2s + 2h
-^s2 + 5s + 6h
= 2 ...(2)
s - 2s + 2
Differentiating equation (2) w.r.t. s and applying it to equation (1), we have
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.in
or ^s2 + 11s + 30h + K ^s2 + 3s + 2h = 0
^s2 + 11s + 30h
or
.co K =- 2
s + 3s + 2
...(1)
Differentiating above equation with respect to s and equating to zero, we
get
or
od ds
8s2 + 56s + 68 = 0
^s2 + 3s + 2h
2
or
.n s =- 5.437 and s =- 1.563
w
Now, we have the pole-zero plot for the given system as shown below.
w
w
From the diagram, we note that root locus lies on real axis from - 6 to - 5
and from - 2 to - 1 because of odd number of pole and zero constrain.
Now, we further note that locus starts from - 6 and - 5 (poles of the system).
Thus, locus must break apart at s =- 5.437 , i.e. it is break away point.
Again, the locus end at - 2 and - 1 (zeros of the system), thus there must
be a break in at s =- 1.563 .
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Page 56 We redraw the block diagram after moving take off point as shown below.
Chap 1
Root Locus Technique
G ^s h =
K ^s + 6h
.c
^s + 3h^s + 5h
o
i a
So, the characteristic equation for closed loop transfer function is
1 + G ^s h H ^s h = 0
or
o1+ d
K ^s + 6h
^s + 3h^s + 5h
=0
or . n K =
-^s2 + 8s + 15h
w w ^s + 6h
Differentiating the above expression with respect to s and equating it to
zero, we have
w or
dK = -^s + 6h^2s + 8h + ^s + 8s + 15h = 0
ds
s2 + 12s + 33 = 0
^s + 6h2
2
Observing the root locus, we can easily say that s =- 4.27 is break away
point and s =- 7.73 is break in point.
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s3 1 2
2
s 3 K
1
s 6-K
3
s0 K
in
At K = 6 , s1 row is zero, thus using auxiliary equation, we get
or
o.
3s2 + 6 = 0
s =! j 2
.c
Root locus cut on jw axis at s = ! j 2 for K = 6 . Since, the root locus
a
given in option (D) does not cut jw axis. So, it is not the root locus for given
i
system. Therefore, the remaining Correct option is (B).
d
SOL 1.1.17
no
Correct option is (D).
w.
For given ufb system, forward transfer function is
G ^s h = K2
s
ww
Angle of departure or angle of asymptote for multiple poles is
fa =
^2q + 1h 180c
r
;
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i. n
.c o
We check the point for the phase condition. At s = s1 =- 2 + j3 , we have
i a
G ^s h H ^s h s = s = f 1
o
1
d= q1 + q2 + q3 + q4
= tan-1 3 + tan-1 3 - 90c - tan-1 b 3 l
. n 2 1 -1
= tan-1 3 + tan-1 3 - 90c - ^180c - tan-1 3h
w w 2
= 56.30 + 71.56 - 270c + 71.56
w or f1 =- 70.56 ! ! 180c
Hence, point s1 does not lie on root locus. Again, we consider the point
s2 =- 2 + j 1 as shown in the diagram below.
2
2 2 2 2
f2 =- 180c
i.e. phase condition is satisfied. Hence, point s2 lies on root locus.
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s3 1
in
K
s2
s1
b
b-a
o. Ka
c
b
s0 Ka
ia.
Here, for any value of K , s1 row of Routh array will not be zero. Thus,
od
system is stable for all positive value of K , and hence root locus does not
cross jw axis. Therefore, root locus completely lies in left half of s -plane.
.n
Based on these results we say that Correct option is (A).
SOL 1.1.20
ww
Correct option is (C).
Characteristic equation of given feedback control system is
or
w ^s2 + 4s + 4h^s2 + 11s + 30h + Ks2 + 4K = 0
1+ 2
K ^s2 + 4h
^s + 4s + 4h^s2 + 11s + 30h
=0 ...(1)
Since, the characteristic equation of a system is defined as
1 + G ^s h H ^s h = 0 ...(2)
Comparing equations (1) and (2), we get open loop transfer function as
K ^s2 + 4h
G ^s h H ^s h = 2
^s + 4s + 4h^s2 + 11s + 30h
K ^s2 + 4h
=
(s + 2) (s + 2) (s + 5) (s + 6)
So, the open loop poles and zeros of the system are
Poles: s =- 2, - 2 and s =- 6 , - 5
Zeros: s = ! j2
The point at which asymptotes meet (centroid) is given by
Sum of Re 6P @ - Sum of Re 6Z @
sA =
^P - Z h
^- 2 - 2 - 5 - 6h - 0
= = - 15 =- 7.5
4-2 2
This is the point on real axis. So, the asymptotes meet at ^- 7.5, 0h
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i. n
minimum, then that point will be break in point. Again, differentiating
equation (2) with respect to s , we get
ds2
6^
.c o
d 2 K =- 2s2 + 8s + 5 + s + 2 4s + 8
=-^6s + 24s + 21h
2
h ^ h^ h@
i a
For s =- 0.775 and s =- 3.225 , we have
o ds2 d
d 2 K =- 6.0 < 0
. n
So, the points s =- 0.775 and - 3.225 are maxima points. Hence, s =- 0.775
and s =- 3.225 are break away points. Again, for s =- 2 , we have
w w d 2 K =+ 3 > 0
ds2
So, the point s =- 2 is minima points. Hence, s =- 2 is break in point.
w Thus, there is two break away points ^s =- .0775, - 3.225h and one break
in point (s =- 2).
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ALTERNATIVE METHOD :
The closed loop transfer function for the system is
G ^s h
T ^s h = = 1
1 + G ^ s h H ^ s h s 2 + as + 1
1
So,
.in
G ^s h
1 + G ^s h H ^s h
2
= s +1
1 + 2as
or
.co
G ^s h H ^s h = 2as
s +1
s +1
ia
Now, we sketch the root locus by following the steps described in previous
method.
od
SOL 1.1.23
.n
Correct option is (A).
Forward path transfer function of given ufb system is
ww G ^s h =
K ^s + ah^s + 3h
s ^s2 - 1h
K ^s + 5h^s + 3h
; a = 5 and K > 0
or
w G ^s h =
s ^s2 - 1h
So, we have the open loop poles and zeros for the system as
Zeros : s =- 5 , s =- 3
Poles : s = 0 , s = 1, s =- 1
Locus branches start from poles and ends on zeros or infinite along asymptote.
Here, number of asymptotes is
P-Z = 3-2 = 1
Observing all the given options, we conclude that only option (A) has one
asymptote. Now, the angle of asymptotes is given as
^2q + 1h 180c
fa = ; q = 0 , 1, 2, ...., ^P - Z - 1h
^P - Z h
^0 + 1h 180c
= = 180c
1
Only option (A) satisfies these conditions.
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s3 1 29 + 10a
i. n
s2
s1
10
29 + 7a
30a
.c o
s0 30a
i a
o d
For a > 0 , s1 row can not be zero. Hence, root locus does not intersect jw
n
axis for a > 0 . Only option (C) satisfies these conditions.
.
SOL 1.1.25
w w
Correct option is (B).
Given the open loop transfer function,
w G ^s h H ^s h =
K ^s + 6h
^s + 2h^s + 4h
So, we have the open loop poles and zeros as
Poles : s =- 2 and s =- 4
Zeros : s =- 6
Therefore, the number of asymptotes is
P-Z = 2-1 = 1
So, the characteristic (1) is correct.
Now, we have the characteristic equation for the system
^s + 2h^s + 4h + K ^s + 6h = 0
or s2 + ^6 + K h s + 8 + 6K = 0
For the characteristic equation, we form the Routh’s array as
s2 1 8 + 6K
s1 6+K
s0 8 + 6K
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in
Forward path transfer function of given ufb system is
K ^s + 3h
o.
G ^s h =
s ^s + 1h^s + 2h^s + 4h
a c
So, the open loop poles and zeros are
. zero: s =- 3 (i.e. Z = 1)
and
di poles: s = 0 , s =- 1, s =- 2 , s =- 4
So, we obtain the angle of asymptotes as
(i.e. P = 4 )
no fa =
^2q + 1h 180c
^P - Z h
; q = 0 , 1, 2,..... ^P - Z - 1h
w. =
^0 + 1h 180c 180
^4 - 1h
^2 + 1h 180c
=
3
= 60c; q = 0
ww =
=
^4 - 1h
^4 + 1h 180c
= 180c; q = 1
= 300c; q = 2
^4 - 1h
Z60c = p ; q=0
] 3
Thus, fa = [180c= p; q = 1
]300c= 5p ; q = 2
3
\
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Page 64 poles: s = 0 , s =- 20 , s =- 50 , s =- 2 ! j1
Chap 1 So, we have the pole zero plot as shown below.
Root Locus Technique
i. n
fa = ; P - Z = 2, q = 0, 1
P-Z
^0 + 1h 180c
=
=
2
^2 + 1h 180c
.c o
= 90c; q = 0
= 270c; q = 1
i
2
a
Therefore, we get the root locus for the system as
o d
. n
w w
w
Here, root locus lies only in the region on real axis that is in left of an odd
count of real poles and real zeros.
Hence, root locus lies between - 20 and - 50 and break away point will also
be in this region. Thus, there will be only one break away point.
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in
=
s ^s + 3h s ^s + 3h
o.
So, we have the open loop poles and zeros as
poles: s = 0 , s =- 3
a.c
zeros: s = 1
di
Here, gain K is negative, so root locus will be complementary root locus
and is found to the left of an even count of real poles and real zeros of GH .
no
Hence, option (A) and option (D) are incorrect. Option (B) is also incorrect
because it does not satisfy this condition. Thus, option (C) gives the correct
.
root locus diagram.
w
SOL 1.1.31
w
Correct option is (A).
Open loop transfer function of the given system is
w K ^s + 23 h
G ^s h = 2
s (s + 2)
So, we have the open loop poles and zeros as
poles: s = 0 , s = 0 , s =- 2
zero: s =- 23
Therefore, the number of asymptotes is given as
P - Z = Number of OLP – Number of OLZ
= 3-1 = 2
So, we obtain the angle of asymptotes
^2q + 1h 180c
fa = ; P - Z = 2, q = 0, 1
P-Z
^0 + 1h 180c
or fa = = 90c for q = 0
2
^2 + 1h 180c
and fa = = 270c for q = 1
2
The centroid is obtained as
Sum of Re 6P @ - Sum of Re 6Z @
sA =
P-Z
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^0 - 2h - b- 23 l
Page 66
=- 2
Chap 1
=
Root Locus Technique 3-1 3
Also, we obtain the angle of departure at double pole (at origin) as
^2q + 1h 180c
fD = ; r = 2, q = 0, 1
r
= 90c, 270c
Thus, from above analysis, we sketch the root locus as
From root locus, it can be observed easily that for all values of gain K (
i. n
K = 0 to 3) root locus lie only in left half of s -plane.
.c o
Characteristic equation of the given closed loop system is
i a
s ^s + 1h^s + 3h + K ^s + 2h = 0 ; K > 0
K ^s + 2h
or
o
1+
d
s ^s + 1h^s + 3h
=0
. n
So, the open loop transfer function is given as
G ^s h H ^s h =
K ^s + 2h
w w s ^s + 1h^s + 3h
Therefore, we have the open loop poles and zeros as
poles: s = 0 , s =- 1, s =- 3
w zero: s =- 2
So, we obtain the pole zero plot for the system as
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.
SOL 1.1.33
.co
Correct option is (B).
For closed loop system, given characteristic equation is
ia
^s2 - 4h^s + 1h + K ^s - 1h = 0 ...(1)
or
od 1+ 2
K ^s - 1h
^s - 4h^s + 1h
=0 ...(2)
.n
Since, we define the characteristic equation as
1 + G ^s h H ^s h = 0
w
So, the open loop transfer function of the system is obtained as
w G ^s h H ^s h = 2
K ^s - 1h
^s - 4h^s + 1h
w
For the given system, we have the open loop poles and zeros as
poles: s = 2 , s =- 2 , s =- 1
zeros: s = 1
So, we obtain the following characteristic for root locus
Number of branches of loci: P = number of OLP
=3
Number of asymptotes: P - Z = number of OLP – number of OLZ
= 3-1 = 2
^2q + 1h 180c
Angle of asymptotes: fa = ; P - Z = 2, q = 0, 1
P-Z
^0 + 1h 180c
fa = = 90c for q = 0
2
^2 + 1h 180c
fa = = 270c for q = 1
2
Sum of Re 6P @ - Sum of Re 6Z @
Centroid: sA =
P-Z
^- 1 - 2 + 2h - ^1 h
= =- 2
3-1 2
=- 1
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Page 68 Root locus on the real axis is found to the left of an odd count of real poles
Chap 1 and zeros of GH . From equation (2), we have
^s2 - 4h^s + 1h
Root Locus Technique
K =-
^s - 1h
Now, we obtain the break-away point (point of maxima) as
dK = 0
ds
-^s - 1h6^s2 - 4h + ^s + 1h^2s h@ + ^s2 - 4h^s + 1h
or =0
^s - 1h2
or s =- 1.5
This is a break away point. From above analysis, we sketch the root locus as
i. n
.c o
SOL 1.1.34 Correct option is (A).
Given root locus plot,
i a
o d
. n
w w
w
From given plot, we can observe that centroid (point where asymptotes
intersect on real axis) is origin and all three root locus branches also start
from origin and goes to infinite along with asymptotes. Therefore, there is
no any zero and three poles are at origin.
So, option (A) must be correct.
G ^s h = K3
s
Now, we verify the above result as follows. Using phase condition, we have
G ^s h H ^s h s = s0
= ! 180c
From given plot, for a given point on root locus, we have
y
G ^s h H ^s h s = 1, 3 =- 3 tan-1 a k
^ h x
=- 3 tan-1 c 3
1 m
=- 3 # 60c =- 180c
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G ^s h = K2
Root Locus Technique
s
So, we have the open loop poles s = 0, 0 ; i.e.
Number of poles, P =2
Number of zeros, Z =0
Therefore, root loci starts ^K = 0h from s = 0 and s = 0 . Since, there is no
open loop zero, root loci terminate ^K = 3h at infinity. Now, we obtain the
characteristics of root locus as
Angle of asymptotes:
^2q + 1h 180c
fa = ; P - Z = 2 - 0 = 2, q = 0, 1
P-Z
^0 + 1h 180c
= = 90c for q = 0
2
^2 + 1h 180c
= = 270c for q = 1
2
Centroid:
.in
sA =
Sum of Re 6P @ - Sum of Re 6Z @
P-Z
= 0-0 = 0
2
.co
Break-away point:
1 + K2 = 0
or
ia s
K =- s2
So,
od dK =- 2s = 0
ds
.n s =0
Thus, from the above analysis, we have the root locus plot as
ww
w
SOL 1.1.36 Correct option is (B).
Open loop transfer function of given ufb system is
2 ^s + ah
G ^s h =
s ^s + 2h^s + 10h
So, we have the characteristic equation as
2 ^s + ah
1+ =0
s ^s + 2h^s + 10h
or s ^s + 2h^s + 10h + 2s + 2a = 0
or s3 + 12s2 + 22s + 2a = 0
or 1+ 3 2a =0
s + 2s2 + 22s
Therefore, we get the open loop transfer function as a varies,
G ^s h H ^s h = 3 2a
s + 12s2 + 22s
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Page 70 So, the number of open loop poles and zeros are
Chap 1
Number of poles, P =3
Root Locus Technique
Number of zeros, Z =0
Also, we obtain the angle of asymptotes as
^2q + 1h 180c
fa = ; P - Z = 3 ; q = 0 , 1, 2
P-Z
^0 + 1h 180c
= = 60c for q = 0
3
^2 + 1h 180c
= = 180c for q = 1
3
^4 + 1h 180c
= = 300c for q = 2
3
fa = 60c, 180c, 300c
i. n
P-Z
Since, we have the open loop poles and zeros as
Therefore, we get
i a
^0 - 2 - 10h - 0
o
sA =
d 3-0
=- 4
SOL 1.1.38
. n
Correct option is (C).
w w
For the given system, we have the open loop transfer function
G ^s h H ^s h = 3 2a
s + 12s2 + 22s
K =
-^s3 + 12s2 + 22s h
2
For break-away point (maxima point), we have
dK = 0
ds
-^3s2 + 24s + 22h
=0
2
or - 3s2 - 24s - 22 = 0
So, s =- 1.056 , - 6.943
Thus, the break-away points are
s =- 1.056 and - 6.943
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.in ^2 + 1h 180c
=
2
= 270c; q = 1
. o
Intercept point (centroid) of asymptotes on real axis:
c sA =
Sum of Re 6P @ - Sum of Re 6Z @
ia P-Z
^0 + 0 - 2h - ^- 1h
=- 1 =- 0.5
od =
3-1
So, we get the root locus for the system as
2
.n
ww
w
SOL 1.1.40 Correct option is (C).
From the root locus plot, we can observe that the difference between the
values of K at the break point and at the point of intersection of the root
locus with the imaginary axis gives the range of K . Since, the poles are
complex conjugate in this region, so the system has damped oscillatory
response. Hence, we first find value of K for the point of intersection with
imaginary axis and then determine value of K at the break away point. For
the given system, we have the Routh’s array as
s3 1 8
s2 6 K
s1 48 - K
6
s0 K
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K =
i a
P ^Phasor lengths from s 0 to the OLP h
P ^Phasor lengths form s 0 to the OLZ h
d
Here, no single zero in the system, hence
o
. n K = 0.85 # 1.15 # 3.15 = 3.08
Therefore, the range of K for damped oscillatory system is
w
SOL 1.1.41 Correct option is (B).
1. From given root locus plot, we can see that for all positive values of K
( K = 0 to 3) system poles lie in left half of s -plane, hence system is
stable for all positive values of K .
2. Only for K = 7.464 and K = 0.573 , poles of the system are real and
repeated. For range of K : 0.573 < K < 7.464 poles of the system are
complex conjugate in LH of s -plane.
3. System has damped oscillatory response for complex conjugate poles in
left half which is possible only for 0.573 < K < 7.464 .
4. When the system has real and distinct poles, then response is overdamped.
Hence, from root locus plot, real and distinct poles are possible for
0 < K < 0.573 and also for K > 7.464 .
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or ^1 - s h^2s + 2h - s ^s + 2h^- 1h = 0
or s2 - 2s - 2 = 0
Therefore, the break points are
s = +2 ! 4 + 8 = 1 ! 3
2
= 2.73, - 0.73 or - 0.73
Since, G ^s h H ^s h is negative, so the root locus will be complementary root
locus and will exist at any point on the real axis, if the total number of poles
in
and zeros to the right of that point is even.
.
.co
ia
od
Root locus will exist on real axis between s =- 2 and 0 and also for s > + 1
.
s =+ 2.73n
. Hence, break away point will be s =- 0.73 and break in point will be
ww
w
So, G ^s h H ^s h = K =1
s ^s + 4h^s2 + 4s + 20h
or K = s ^s + 4h^s2 + 4s + 20h
The break points are given by the solution of
dK = 0
ds
or -^4s3 + 24s2 + 72s + 80h = 0
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i. n
if
then, we check -a x =c
Here, if
2 #
.c o
x # 5 & 3 real break point
and if
i a
x > 5 & 1 real and 2 complex
For given problem, we have
o dG ^s h H ^s h = K
s ^s + a h^s2 + bs + c h
. n = K
s ^s + 4h^s + 4s + 20h
w
2
Here, we have a = 4 , b = 4 , c = 20
w w
So, - a =- 2 = - b
2
Hence, there are three break points.
2
and -a # x = c
2
or ^- 2h # x = 20 & x = 10 > 5
Thus, there are 1 real and 2 complex break points.
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in
It is required that one pole should lie at s = 0 . Let another pole lies at
o.
s =- P , then required equation is
^s + 0h^s + P h = 0
or
a.c s2 + Ps = 0
On comparing equations (1) and (2), we get
...(2)
or
di 2-K = 0
K =2
no
SOL 1.1.46
w.
Correct option is (B).
Substituting K = 2 in equation (1) in previous solution, we have
w s2 + 5s = 0 ...(1)
It is required that one pole at s = 0 and other pole at s =- P . So, the
w
required equation is
s ^s + P h = 0
s2 + Ps = 0 ...(2)
Comparing equations (1) and (2), we get
P =5
Hence, other pole is located at ^- 5, 0h.
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i. n
SOL 1.1.48 Correct option is (C).
From previous solution, we have third pole at
Since,
s =- P
P = 27
.c o
s =- 27
i a
Hence, third pole of closed loop system is at
o d
SOL 1.1.49
. n
Correct option is (C).
From previous solution, we have
w
andw P = 27
K = 2106
25
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So, the root locus (complementary) for the given system will exist on real
axis in the region
- 2 < s < 0 and s > 2
The break points of the system are given by solution of
dK = 0 ...(2)
ds
in
From equation (1), we have
s ^s + 2h
o. K =
^s - 2h
a c
Substituting it in equation (2), we get
. d s ^s + 2h = 0
ds > ^s - 2h H
or
di
^s - 2h^2s + 2h - s ^s + 2h = 0
or
no 2s2 - 2s - 4 - s2 - 2s = 0
s2 - 4s - 4 = 0
or
So,
w. s = 4 ! 5.657 = 4.83, - 0.83
2
SOL 1.1.51
ww
Hence, break away point is s =- 0.83 and beak in point is s = 4.83 .
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i a
zero: s =- 1
1+
o
s ^s - 1h
d
So, we have the characteristic equation
K ^s + 1h
=0
or
. n K =-
s ^s - 1h
s+1
w w
The break points are given by solution of
dK = 0
ds
w So, d - s ^s - 1h = 0
ds ; s + 1 E
or ^s + 1h^2s - 1h - s ^s - 1h = 0
or 2s2 - s + 2s - 1 - s2 + s = 0
or s2 + 2s - 1 = 0
or s = - 2 ! 2.828
2
=- 1 ! 1.414 ...(1)
The root locus for the system is given below.
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or s + 3 s = s+2
o. 1 +a w w
s + 3 ka s k
1 - ^0 ha w k
s+2
or
a.c - 3w
s ^s + 3h + w 2 = s+2
w
- 3 ^s + 2h = s ^s + 3h + w2
or
or
di ^s2 + 6s + 9h + w2 =- 6 + 9
or
no ^s + 3h2 + w2 = ^ 3 h
2
.
This is the equation of circle.
w
SOL 1.1.56
w
Correct option is (D).
Given open loop transfer function of the system,
w G ^s h H ^s h = K
^s + 1 + j h^s + 1 - j h^s + 3 + j h^s + 3 - j h
The root locus starts from
s1 =- 1 + j
s2 =- 1 - j
s 3 =- 3 - j
s 4 =- 3 + j
Since, there is no zero, all root loci end at infinity. So, we have
Number of open loop poles, P=4
Number of open loop zeros, Z=0
Therefore, number of asymptotes is 4 with angles of
fA = 45c, 135c, 225c, 315c
= ! 45c, ! 135c
Also, the point of intersection (centroid) of asymptotes with real axis is
S Re 6P @ - S Re 6Z @
sA =
P-Z
^- 1h + ^- 1h + ^- 3h + ^- 3h - 0
= =- 2
4-0
So, we get the root locus of the system as shown below.
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Page 80
Chap 1
Root Locus Technique
i. n
or s3 + 9s2 + 20s + K = 0 ...(1)
Intersection of root loci with jw axis is determined using Routh’s array. For
s3 1 20 o
the given system, we form the Routh’s array as
.c
s2 9 K
i a
s1 180 - K
9
o d
s0
. K
n
w w
The critical gain before the closed loop system goes to instability is Kc = 180
and the auxiliary equation is
w or
or
9s2 + 180 = 0
s2 =- 20
s = ! j2 5
Hence, root loci intersect with jw-axis at s = ! j2 5 . The gain margin for
K = 18 is given by,
GM (in dB) = 20 log 10 b Kc l
K
= 20 log 10 180 = 20 dB
18
The gain margin for K = 1800 is given by
GM (in dB) = 20 log 10 b 180 l =- 20 dB
1800
The break away point is given by solution of
dK = 0
ds
From equation (1), we have
K =-^s3 + 9s2 + 20s h
So, ^ h
dK =- 3s2 + 18s + 20 = 0
ds
or s = - 18 ! 9.165
6
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K = s ^s + 4h^s + 5h
= 13.128 (s =- 1.4725 )
s4 1 12 K
s 3
3 K - 16
s2 52 - K
3
.in K
s 1 2
52 - K
.co
- K + 59K - 832
s0
iaK
od
The root locus cross the jw-axis, if s1 row is completely zero, i.e.
- K2 + 59K - 832 = 0
or
.n
K2 - 59K + 832 = 0
or
w
solution of
dK = 0
ds
Also, we can directly check option using pole-zero plot.
So, break away point will lie on real axis from s = 0 to 1 and break in point
will lie on real axis for s < - 1. Hence,
s = 0.45 is break away point
and s =- 2.26 is break in point
***********
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Page 82
Chap 1 SOLUTIONS 1.2
Root Locus Technique
i. n
Here, root locus branches meet between - 1 and - 2 and go apart. Hence,
break-away point will lie between - 1 and - 2 . For this system, the open
loop poles and zeros are
.c
zeros: s = 3 and s = 5 ;o
i a
poles: s =- 1 and s =- 2
So, the transfer function of given system will be
G ^s h =
o dK ^s - 3h^s - 5h
^s + 1h^s + 2h
. n
Therefore, the characteristic equation is obtained as
1 + G ^s h H ^s h = 0
w
or w 1+
K ^s - 3h^s - 5h
^s + 1h^s + 2h
=0
w
or K = 2
-^s2 + 3s + 2h
^s - 8s + 15h
...(1)
Differentiating equation (1) with respect to s and equating to zero, we have
dK = -^s - 8s + 15h^2s + 3h + ^s + 3s + 2h^2s - 8h = 0
2 2
ds ^s2 - 8s + 15h
2
or 11s2 - 26s - 61 = 0
or s =+ 3.9 and s =- 1.45
Thus, s =- 1.45 is break-away point and s =+ 3.9 is break-in point.
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.in
.co
Angle of departure at pole P1 is given by
ia fD = !6180c + f@
od
where f is net angle contribution at pole P1 due to all other poles and zeros.
f = fZ - fP
So,
ww f = tan-1 1 - :90c + tan-1 1 D
2
2
w
Therefore, we obtain the departure angle as
fD = !6180c + f@
= !:180c + tan-1 1 - 90c - tan-1 1 D
2
= !6180 + 45 - 90 - 26.56@
fD = ! 108.4c
Hence, departure angle for pole P1 is + 108.4c and departure angle for pole
P2 is- 108.4c because P1 and P2 are complex conjugate.
It does not have any zero and have poles at s =- 4 and s =- 1 ! j1. So, the
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s3 1 10
s2 6 8+K
52 - K
i. n
s1
6
s0 8+K
.c o
Root locus will cut imaginary axis, if element in s1 is zero, i.e.
i a
52 - K = 0 & K = 52
o
6
d
So, we have the auxiliary equation
6s2 + ^8 + 52h = 0
or
. n s2 =- 60 =- 10
w
or w 6
s = ! j3.162
SOL 1.2.5
w
Correct answer is 17.
For the given system, we have the pole-zero plot as shown below.
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K s =- 10 =
p ^Phasors drawn from OLP at s =- 10h
p ^Phasors drawn from OLZ at s =- 10h
.co =
^PP1h # ^PP2h # ^PP3h # ^PP4h
^PZ h
ia = 10 # 6 # 2 # 10 = 600
2
SOL 1.2.7
od
Correct answer is - 1.
.n
Characteristic equation of given closed loop system is
s ^s + 1h^s + 2h + K = 0
or
ww 1+ K
s ^s + 1h^s + 2h
=0
Since, the characteristic equation for a system is defined as
w 1 + G ^s h H ^s h = 0
So, we get open loop transfer function of the system as
G ^s h H ^s h = K
s ^s + 1h^s + 2h
Therefore, we have
Poles: s = 0 , s =- 1, s =- 2
Zeros: No zero
Thus, the centroid is obtained as
Sum of Re 6P @ - Sum of Re 6Z @
sA =
P-Z
^0 - 1 - 2h - ^0 h
= =- 3 =- 1
3-0 3
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Page 86
or 1+ K =0
Chap 1 s ^s + 7s + 12h
2
i. n
.c o
i a
o d
. n
w w
Angle of departure at complex pole is given by
w fD = !6180c + f@
where f is the net angle contribution at this pole due to all other poles and
zeros. So, we have
f = fZ + fZ - fP
1 2
where
f Z =-^90c + qh
1
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where
in
f = fZ - fP - fP
.
1 2
.co
fZ = 90c
fP = tan-1 2 = 45c
a 2
1
di
fP = tan-1 4 = 63.43c
2
2
Hence,
. =- 18.43c
Thus, we obtain the angle of arrival as
w fA = !6180c - f@
ww = !6180c + 18.43c@
= !6198.43c@
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i. n
From the root locus plot, we have
x = 1 = cos q
.c o
and
2
q = 45c
i a
o d
Root locus will cross constant x = 12 line at point p. The intersection point
p is ^- 6, jwh. At the point p, angle of function is
. n
which is given by
q1 = 135c
w w 135c = tan-1 a w k
-6
135c = 180c - tan-1 w
w or
or tan-1 45c = w
6
6
w =6
Hence, point p will be ^- 6 + j6h. So, the gain K at point p is
s + 2 s + 10
K =
10 s =- 6 + j6
- 4 + j6 4 + j6
= = 5.2
10
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or G ^s h H ^s h = K =1
s ^s + 10h^s + 20h
or K = s ^s + 10h^s + 20h
The break points of the system are given by solution of
dK = 0
ds
ds 6 @
or d s3 + 30s2 + 200s = 0
.in
.co
ia
od
Hence, break away point is
s =- 4.226
.n
The value of K at point s 0 is given by
G ^s h H ^s h = 1 at s = s 0
or
w K
s s + 10 s + 20 s = s
w
=1
0
s s + 10 s + 20
So,
w K =
1
where s 0 =- 4.226 is break away point, given as
s=s
= 384.9 . 385
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i. n
The break points of the root locus are given by solution of
dK = 0
.c ods
-8^s2 + 4h^2s + 2h - ^s2 + 2s h^2s hB
or
a
^s2 + 4h
i
2 =0
or
or
o d 2s2 - 8s - 8 = 0
s2 - 4s - 4 = 0
So,
. n s = 4.82 , - 0.82
The root locus will be on real axis at any point, if total number of poles and
w
zeros are odd to the right of that point.
w
w
Hence, breakaway point should lie between s = 0 and - 2 . So, breakaway
point is s =- 0.82 . Now, the open loop transfer function is
K ^s2 + 4h
G ^s h H ^s h =
s ^s + 2h
So, we obtain the value of K at break-away point as
G ^s h H ^s h = 1 at s =- 0.82
K ^- 0.82h2 + 4
or =1
^- 0.82h ^- 0.82 + 2h
or K = 0.82 # 1.18 = 0.2
4.67
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= cos ^61.69h
o. = 0.47
SOL 1.2.17
a.c
Correct answer is 0.187.
The peak overshoot ^MP h is defined as
di - xp
MP = e 1 - x 2
no
For K = 12.2 , damping ratio is x = 0.47 . So, we have
-0.47p
. MP = e 1 - ^0.47h 2
= 0.187
SOL 1.2.18
ww
Correct answer is - 1.
w
The overall transfer function of the system is
C ^s h
=
1
s ^s + 1h
R ^s h 1+ 1
^as + 1h
s ^s + 1h
= 2 1
s + ^a + 1h s + 1
So, we have the characteristic equation as
s2 + ^a + 1h s + 1 = 0
or s 2 + s + 1 + as = 0
or 1 + 2 as =0
s +s+1
Comparing it to 1 + G ^s h H ^s h = 0 , we have the open loop transfer function
G ^ s h H ^ s h = 2 as
s +s+1
Also, we have
-^s2 + s + 1h
a =
s
The break points are given by solution of
da = 0
ds
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i. n
or 2 =1
s + s + 1 s =- 1
^- 1h2 + ^- 1h + 1
a =
^- 1h
.c o =1
i a
The root locus plot gives the location of the closed loop poles for different
o K ^s + 1h d
values of parameter gain K . So, we have the characteristic equation as
or . n
1+ 2
s ^s + 9h
s3 + 9s2 + Ks + K = 0
=0
...(1)
w w
For all the roots to be equal and real, we require
^s + P h3 = s3 + 3Ps2 + 3P2 s + P3 = 0 ...(2)
and
3P = 9 & P = 3
K = P3
= ^3h3
= 27
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or K =1
^- 2 + j5h^2 + j5h
or K =1
4 + 25 4 + 25
Thus, K = 29
***********
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od
.n
ww
w
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Page 94
Chap 1 SOLUTIONS 1.3
Root Locus Technique
.c o
SOL 1.3.8 Correct option is (C).
i a
SOL 1.3.9
o
Correct option is (A). d
. n
SOL 1.3.10
SOL 1.3.11
w w
Correct option is (A).
SOL 1.3.12
wCorrect option is (A).
The number of branches is equal to the order of the polynomial.
Here, order of the system is 4. Hence the number of branches is 4.
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in
3
SOL 1.3.19
o.
Correct option is (A).
When the system has real and different poles then response becomes non
.c
oscillatory. From root locus plot, it can be observed that for 0 < K < 0.4
a
i
system has real and different poles.
d
SOL 1.3.20
no
Correct option is (D).
Due to addition of zero to the open loop transfer function, root locus move
w.
to left half. And due to addition of pole to the open loop transfer function,
root locus move to right half.
SOL 1.3.21
ww
Correct option is (D).
The meeting point of asymptotes on the real axis is a centroid which is given
by
Sreal of poles - Sreal of zeros
sA =
# poles - # zeros
"0 + ^- 2h + ^- 4h + ^- 1h + ^- 1h, - ^- 5h
=
5-1
= - 3 =- 0.75
4
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^K + 1h
Page 96
s4 1 6
Chap 1
Root Locus Technique s 3
4 4
s2 5 ^K + 1h
s1 16 - 4K
5
s0 K+1
o d
SOL 1.3.25
. n
Correct option is (A).
w w
(1) There will be four asymptotes because,
#OLP - #OLZ = 4 - 0 = 4
(2) There will be four separate root because the order of polynomial is four.
sA =
^0 - 1 - 2 - 3h - ^0 h
=- 6 =- 3
4-0 4 2
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od
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ww
w
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Eighth Edition
GATE
ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION
Electromagnetics
Vol 10 of 10
RK Kanodia
Ashish Murolia
Information contained in this book has been obtained by author, from sources believes to be reliable. However,
neither NODIA & COMPANY nor its author guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any information herein,
and NODIA & COMPANY nor its author shall be responsible for any error, omissions, or damages arising out of
use of this information. This book is published with the understanding that NODIA & COMPANY and its author
are supplying information but are not attempting to render engineering or other professional services.
MRP 590.00
Later, we perceived that many aspirants couldn’t develop a good problem solving approach in their B.E/B.Tech.
Some of them lacked the fundamentals of a subject and had difficulty understanding simple solutions. Now,
we have an idea to enhance our content and present two separate books for each subject: one for theory, which
contains brief theory, problem solving methods, fundamental concepts, and points-to-remember. The second book
is about problems, including a vast collection of problems with descriptive and step-by-step solutions that can
be understood by an average student. This was the origin of GATE Guide (the theory book) and GATE Cloud
(the problem bank) series: two books for each subject. GATE Guide and GATE Cloud were published in three
subjects only.
Thereafter we received an immense number of emails from our readers looking for a complete study package
for all subjects and a book that combines both GATE Guide and GATE Cloud. This encouraged us to present
GATE Study Package (a set of 10 books: one for each subject) for GATE Electronic and Communication
Engineering. Each book in this package is adequate for the purpose of qualifying GATE for an average student.
Each book contains brief theory, fundamental concepts, problem solving methodology, summary of formulae,
and a solved question bank. The question bank has three exercises for each chapter: 1) Theoretical MCQs, 2)
Numerical MCQs, and 3) Numerical Type Questions (based on the new GATE pattern). Solutions are presented
in a descriptive and step-by-step manner, which are easy to understand for all aspirants.
We believe that each book of GATE Study Package helps a student learn fundamental concepts and develop
problem solving skills for a subject, which are key essentials to crack GATE. Although we have put a vigorous
effort in preparing this book, some errors may have crept in. We shall appreciate and greatly acknowledge all
constructive comments, criticisms, and suggestions from the users of this book. You may write to us at rajkumar.
kanodia@gmail.com and ashish.murolia@gmail.com.
Acknowledgements
We would like to express our sincere thanks to all the co-authors, editors, and reviewers for their efforts in
making this project successful. We would also like to thank Team NODIA for providing professional support for
this project through all phases of its development. At last, we express our gratitude to God and our Family for
providing moral support and motivation.
Electromagnetic Theory
Analysis of electrostatic and magnetostatic fields; Laplace’s and Poisson’s equations; Boundary value problems
and their solutions; Maxwell’s equations; application to wave propagation in bounded and unbounded media;
Transmission lines : basic theory, standing waves, matching applications, microstrip lines; Basics of wave guides
and resonators; Elements of antenna theory.
IES Electrical
EM Theory
Electric and magnetic fields. Gauss’s Law and Amperes Law. Fields in dielectrics, conductors and magnetic
materials. Maxwell’s equations. Time varying fields. Plane-Wave propagating in dielectric and conducting media.
Transmission lines.
**********
1.1 INTRODUCTION 1
EXERCISE 1.2 25
EXERCISE 1.3 29
EXERCISE 1.4 31
SOLUTIONS 1.1 35
SOLUTIONS 1.2 50
SOLUTIONS 1.3 61
SOLUTIONS 1.4 63
2.1 INTRODUCTION 67
EXERCISE 2.2 84
EXERCISE 2.3 89
EXERCISE 2.4 91
SOLUTIONS 2.1 99
7.11 NORMAL INCIDENCE OF UNIFORM PLANE WAVE AT THE INTERFACE BETWEEN TWO
DIELECTRICS 438
7.11.1 Reflection and Transmission Coefficients 439
7.11.2 Standing Wave Ratio 439
7.12 NORMAL INCIDENCE OF UNIFORM PLANE WAVE ON A PERFECT CONDUCTOR 439
7.12.1 Reflection and Transmission Coefficients 440
7.12.2 Standing Wave Ratio 440
7.13 OBLIQUE INCIDENCE OF UNIFORM PLANE WAVE AT THE INTERFACE BETWEEN TWO
DIELECTRICS 440
7.13.1 Parallel Polarization 440
7.13.2 Perpendicular Polarization 441
7.14 OBLIQUE INCIDENCE OF UNIFORM PLANE WAVE ON A PERFECT CONDUCTOR 442
7.14.1 Parallel Polarisation 442
7.14.2 Perpendicular Polarisation 442
EXERCISE 7.1 444
CHAPTER 9 WAVEGUIDES
***********
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Maxwell’s equations are very popular and they are known as Electromagnetic
Field Equations. The main aim of this chapter is to provide sufficient
background and concepts on Maxwell’s equations. They include:
• Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction for three different cases:
time-varying magnetic field, moving conductor with static magnetic
i. n
field, and the general case of moving conductor with time-varying
magnetic field.
.co
• Lenz’s law which gives direction of the induced current in the loop
associated with magnetic flux change.
•
ia
Concept of self and mutual inductance
•
d
Maxwell’s equations for static and time varying fields in free space and
o
conductive media in differential and integral form
6.2
.n
FARADAY’S LAW OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
ww
According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, emf induced in a
conductor is equal to the rate of change of flux linkage in it. Here, we will
w
denote the induced emf by Vemf . Mathematically, the induced emf in a closed
loop is given as
Vemf = - dF =- d B : dS
dt dt S # ...(6.1)
where F is the total magnetic flux through the closed loop, B is the magnetic
flux density through the loop and S is the surface area of the loop. If the
closed path is taken by an N -turn filamentary conductor, the induced emf
becomes
Vemf =- N dF
dt
6.2.1 Integral Form of Faraday’s Law
We know that the induced emf in the closed loop can be written in terms of
electric field as
Vemf = # E : dL
L
...(6.2)
From equations (6.1) and (6.2), we get
#E : dL =- d B : dS
# ...(6.3)
L dt S
This equation is termed as the integral form of Faraday’s law.
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Page 356 6.2.2 Differential Form of Faraday’s Law
Chap 6
Time Varying Fields and
Applying Stoke’s theorem to equation (6.3), we obtain
Maxwell Equations
#(d # E ) : dS =- d B : dS #
S dt S
Thus, equating the integrands in above equation, we get
d # E =-2B
2t
This is the differential form of Faraday’s law.
The negative sign in Faraday equation is due to Lenz’s law which states that
the direction of emf induced opposes the cause producing it. To understand the
Lenz’s law, consider the two conducting loops placed in magnetic fields with
increasing and decreasing flux densities respectively as shown in Figure 6.1.
i. n
(a)
.c o (b)
i a
Figure 6.1: Determination of Direction of Induced Current in a Loop according to Lenz’s Law
with Time
o d
(a) B in Upward Direction Increasing with Time (b) B in Upward Direction Decreasing
. n
METHODOLOGY: TO DETERMINE THE POLARITY OF INDUCED EMF
w w
To determine the polarity of induced emf (direction of induced current),
we may follow the steps given below.
w Step 1: Obtain the direction of magnetic flux density through the loop.
In both the Figures 6.1(a),(b) the magnetic field is directed
upward.
Step 2: Deduce whether the field is increasing or decreasing with time
along its direction. In Figure 6.1(a), the magnetic field directed
upward is increasing, whereas in Figure 6.1(b), the magnetic
field directed upward is decreasing with time.
Step 3: For increasing field assign the direction of induced current in
the loop such that it produces the field opposite to the given
magnetic field direction. Whereas for decreasing field assign the
direction of induced current in the loop such that it produces the
field in the same direction that of the given magnetic field. In
Figure 6.1(a), using right hand rule we conclude that any current
flowing in clockwise direction in the loop will cause a magnetic
field directed downward and hence, opposes the increase in flux
(i.e. opposes the field that causes it). Similarly in Figure 6.1(b),
using right hand rule, we conclude that any current flowing in
anti-clockwise direction in the loop will cause a magnetic field
directed upward and hence, opposes the decrease in flux (i.e.
opposes the field that causes it).
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Page 357
Step 4: Assign the polarity of induced emf in the loop corresponding to
Chap 6
the obtained direction of induced current.
Time Varying Fields and
Maxwell Equations
According to Faraday’s law, for a flux variation through a loop, there will
be induced emf in the loop. The variation of flux with time may be caused
in following three ways:
6.4.2
i. n
Moving Loop in Static Magnetic Field
. o
When a conducting loop is moving in a static field, an emf is induced in the
c
loop. This induced emf is called motional emf and given by
# ^u # B h : dL
ia Vemf = #E
L
m : dL =
L
od
where u is the velocity of loop in magnetic field. Using Stoke’s theorem in
above equation, we get
d # E m = d # ^u # B h
.n
6.4.3
w
Moving Loop in Time Varying Magnetic Field
w
This is the general case of induced emf when a conducting loop is moving
w
in time varying magnetic field. Combining the above two results, total emf
induced is
Vemf = E : dL =- 2B : dS + ^u # B h : dL
L
# S 2t
# #L
or, Vemf = - 2B : dS + ^u # B h : dL
# #
S 2t L
1 44 4 2 444 3 1 444
transformer emf
4 2 4444 3
motional emf
Using Stoke’s theorem, we can write the above equation in differential form
as
d # E =-2B + d # ^u # B h
2t
6.5 INDUCTANCE
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Page 358 the change in flux is produced by the circuit itself. This phenomena is called
Chap 6 self-induction and the property of the circuit to produce self-induction is
Time Varying Fields and known as self inductance.
Maxwell Equations
Self Inductance of a Coil
Suppose a coil with N number of turns carrying current I . Let the current
induces the total magnetic flux F passing through the loop of the coil. Thus,
we have
NF \ I
or NF = LI
or L = NF
I
where L is a constant of proportionality known as self inductance.
Expression for Induced EMF in terms of Self Inductance
If a variable current i is introduced in the circuit, then magnetic flux linked
with the circuit also varies depending on the current. So, the self-inductance
of the circuit can be written as
L = dF ...(6.4)
i. n
di
Since, the change in flux through the coil induces an emf in the coil given by
Vemf =- dF
dt
So, from equations (6.4) and (6.5), we get
.c o ...(6.5)
Vemf =- L di
i a
6.5.2 Mutual Inductance
o d
dt
. n
Mutual inductance is the ability of one inductor to induce an emf across
w w
another inductor placed very close to it. Consider two coils carrying current
I1 and I2 as shown in Figure 6.2. Let B2 be the magnetic flux density
produced due to the current I2 and S1 be the cross sectional area of coil 1.
w So, the magnetic flux due to B2 will link with the coil 1, that is, it will pass
through the surface S1 . Total magnetic flux produced by coil 2 that passes
through coil 1 is called mutual flux and given as
F 12 = #B
S1
2 : dS
We define the mutual inductance M12 as the ratio of the flux linkage on coil
1 to current I2 , i.e.
M12 = N1 F 12
I2
where N1 is the number turns in coil 1. Similarly, the mutual inductance M21
is defined as the ratio of flux linkage on coil 2 (produced by current in coil
1) to current I1 , i.e.
M21 = N2 F 21
I1
The unit of mutual inductance is Henry (H). If the medium surrounding
the circuits is linear, then
M12 = M21
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Page 359
Chap 6
Time Varying Fields and
Maxwell Equations
i. n
given as
dF
^Vemf h1 =- dt12 ...(6.7)
.co
So, from equations (6.6) and (6.7) we get
di
^Vemf h1 =- M12 dt2
ia
This is the induced emf in coil 1 produced by the current i2 in coil 2.
od
Similarly, the induced emf in the coil 2 due to a varying current in the coil
1 is given as
.n di
^Vemf h2 =- M21 dt1
6.6 w
MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS
w
w
The set of four equations which have become known as Maxwell’s equations
are those which are developed in the earlier chapters and associated with
them the name of other investigators. These equations describe the sources
and the field vectors in the broad fields to electrostatics, magnetostatics and
electro-magnetic induction.
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Page 360 Maxwell’s Second Equation: Modified Ampere’s Circuital law
Chap 6
The magnetomotive force around a closed path is equal to the conduction
Time Varying Fields and
Maxwell Equations plus the time derivative of the electric displacement through any surface
bounded by the path. i.e.
d # H = J + 2D (Differential form)
2t
2D
H : dL = bJ + 2t l : dS
# # (Integral form)
L S
i. n
words, the magnetic flux lines do not originate and end anywhere, but are
continuous. i.e.,
or,
d:B = 0
# B : dS =0
.c o (Differential form)
(Integral form)
a
S
d i
This is the Gauss’ law for static magnetic fields, which confirms the non-
existence of magnetic monopole. Table 6.1 summarizes the Maxwell’s
o
equation for time varying fields.
n
.
Table 6.1: Maxwell’s Equation for Time Varying Field
w
S.N. Differential form Integral form Name
w w
1. d # E = -2B
2t
# E : dL = -2
L t
#
2 B : dS
S
Faraday’s law of
electromagnetic
induction
2. d # H = J + 2D # H : dL = # cJ +22Dt m : dS Modified Ampere’s
2t L S circuital law
3. d : D = rv # D : dS = # r dv v
Gauss’ law of
S v Electrostatics
4. d:B = 0 # B : dS = 0 Gauss’ law of
S Magnetostatic (non-
existence of magnetic
mono-pole)
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i. n
phasor forms as below:
E = Re #Es e jwt - ...(6.8a)
.co D = Re #Ds e -
B = Re #Bs e -
jwt
jwt
...(6.8b)
...(6.8c)
ia H = Re #Hs e - jwt
...(6.8d)
and
od J = Re #Js e - jwt
r v = Re #r vs e -jwt
...(6.8e)
...(6.8f)
.n
where Es, Ds, Bs, Hs, Js and r vs are the phasor forms of respective field
quantities. Using these relations, we can directly obtain the phasor form of
ww
Maxwell’s equations as described below.
Maxwell’s First Equation: Faraday’s Law
w
In time varying field, first Maxwell’s equation is written as
d # E =-2B
2t
...(6.9)
Now, from equation (6.8a) we can obtain
d # E = 4# Re #Es e jwt - = Re #4# Es e jwt -
and using equation (6.8c) we get
2B = 2 Re #B e jwt - = Re # jwB e jwt -
s s
2t 2t
Substituting the two results in equation (6.9) we get
Re #d # Es e jwt - =- Re # jwBs e jwt -
Hence, d # Es =- jwBs (Differential form)
or, # E : dL =- jw # B : dS
L
s
S
s (Integral form)
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Page 362 From equation (6.8e), we have
Chap 6
J = Re #Js e jwt -
Time Varying Fields and
Maxwell Equations and using equation (6.8b) we get
2D = 2 Re #D e jwt - = Re # jwD e jwt -
s s
2t 2t
Substituting these results in equation (6.10) we get
Re #4# Hs e jwt - = Re #Js e jwt + jwDs e jwt -
Hence, 4# Hs = Js + jwDs (Differential form)
or, # H : dL = # ^J + jwD h : dS
L
s
S
s s (Integral form)
i. n
r v = Re #r vs e jwt -
Substituting these two results in equation (6.11) we get
Hence,
Re #4: Ds e jwt - = Re #r vs e jwt -
4: Ds = r vs
.c o (Differential form)
or, # D : dS
S
s
d ia
= #r
v
vs dv (Integral form)
n d:B = 0 o
Maxwell’s Fourth Equation : Gauss’s Law for Magnetic Field
...(6.12)
w.
From equation (6.8c) we can obtain
d : B = 4: Re #Bs e jwt - = Re #4: Bs e jwt -
w w
Substituting it in equation (6.12) we get
Hence,
Re #4: Bs e jwt - = 0
4: Bs = 0 (Differential form)
or, # B : dS
S
s =0 (Integral form)
Table 6.3 summarizes the Maxwell’s equations in phasor form.
Table 6.3: Maxwell’s Equations in Phasor Form
2. 4# Hs = Js + jwDs # H : dL = # ^J + jwD h : dS
L
s
S
s s
Modified
circuital law
Ampere’s
3. 4: Ds = r vs # D : dS s = #r vs dv
Gauss’ law of
S v
Electrostatics
4. d : Bs = 0 # B : dS = 0
s
Gauss’ law of
S
Magnetostatic (non-
existence of magnetic
mono-pole)
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i. n
free space as summarized below:
. o
Table 6.4: Maxwell’s Equations for Time Varying Fields in Free Space
c
S.N. Differential form Integral form Name
1.
ia
d # E =-2B # E : dL = -2 #
2 B : dS Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
2.
od 2t
d # H = 2D
L t S
# H : dL = # 22Dt : dS
induction
3. .n
d:D = 0
2t L
# D : dS = 0
S
4.
wwd:B = 0
S
w S
mono-pole)
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Page 364 Thus, all the four Maxwell’s equation vanishes for static fields in free
Chap 6 space.
Time Varying Fields and
Maxwell Equations
6.7.3 Maxwell’s Equations for Time Harmonic Fields in Free Space
Again, substituting the parameters, J = 0 and r v = 0 in the Maxwell’s
equations given in Table 6.3, we get the Maxwell’s equation for time harmonic
fields in free space as summarized below.
Table 6.6 : Maxwell’s Equations for Time-Harmonic Fields in Free Space
4. d : Bs = 0 # B : dS = 0
s
Gauss’ law of Magnetostatic
(non-existence of magnetic
i. n
S
mono-pole)
***********
.c o
i a
o d
. n
w w
w
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MCQ 6.1.1 A perfect conducting sphere of radius r is such that it’s net charge resides
on the surface. At any time t , magnetic field B (r, t) inside the sphere will be
(A) 0
(B) uniform, independent of r
(C) uniform, independent of t
(D) uniform, independent of both r and t
MCQ 6.1.2 A straight conductor ab of length l lying in the xy plane is rotating about
the centre a at an angular velocity w as shown in the figure.
i. n
.co
ia
od
.n
ww
If a magnetic field B is present in the space directed along az then which of
the following statement is correct ?
w
(A) Vab is positive
(B) Vab is negative
(C) Vba is positive
(D) Vba is zero
MCQ 6.1.3 Assertion (A) : A small piece of bar magnet takes several seconds to emerge
at bottom when it is dropped down a vertical aluminum pipe where as an
identical unmagnetized piece takes a fraction of second to reach the bottom.
Reason (R) : When the bar magnet is dropped inside a conducting pipe,
force exerted on the magnet by induced eddy current is in upward direction.
(A) Both A and R are true and R is correct explanation of A.
(B) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(C) A is true but R is false.
(D) A is false but R is true.
MCQ 6.1.4 Self inductance of a long solenoid having n turns per unit length will be
proportional to
(A) n (B) 1/n
2
(C) n (D) 1/n2
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Page 366 MCQ 6.1.5 A wire with resistance R is looped on a solenoid as shown in figure.
Chap 6
Time Varying Fields and
Maxwell Equations
MCQ 6.1.6 A long straight wire carries a current I = I 0 cos (wt). If the current returns
along a coaxial conducting tube of radius r as shown in figure then magnetic
field and electric field inside the tube will be respectively.
i. n
.c o
i a
o
(A) radial, longitudinald (B) circumferential, longitudinal
. n
(C) circumferential, radial (D) longitudinal, circumferential
MCQ 6.1.7
w
Assertion (A) : Two coils are wound around a cylindrical core such that the
primary coil has N1 turns and the secondary coils has N2 turns as shown in
w
figure. If the same flux passes through every turn of both coils then the ratio
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MCQ 6.1.8 In a non magnetic medium electric field E = E 0 cos wt is applied. If the Page 367
permittivity of medium is e and the conductivity is s then the ratio of Chap 6
the amplitudes of the conduction current density and displacement current Time Varying Fields and
density will be Maxwell Equations
MCQ 6.1.10 In free space, the electric field intensity at any point (r, q, f) in spherical
coordinate system is given by
sin q cos ^wt - kr h
E = aq
r
i. n
The phasor form of magnetic field intensity in the free space will be
(A) k sin q e-jkr af (B) - k sin q e-jkr af
wm0 r wm0 r
(C)
kwm0 -jkr
r
e af
ia
od
Common Data For Q. 11 and 12 :
A conducting wire is formed into a square loop of side 2 m. A very long
.n
straight wire carrying a current I = 30 A is located at a distance 3 m from
the square loop as shown in figure.
ww
w
MCQ 6.1.11 If the loop is pulled away from the straight wire at a velocity of 5 m/s then
the induced e.m.f. in the loop after 0.6 sec will be
(A) 5 mvolt (B) 2.5 mvolt
(C) 25 mvolt (D) 5 mvolt
MCQ 6.1.12 If the loop is pulled downward in the parallel direction to the straight wire,
such that distance between the loop and wire is always 3 m then the induced
e.m.f. in the loop at any time t will be
(A) linearly increasing with t (B) always 0
(C) linearly decreasing with t (D) always constant but not zero.
MCQ 6.1.13 Two voltmeters A and B with internal resistances RA and RB respectively is
connected to the diametrically opposite points of a long solenoid as shown in
figure. Current in the solenoid is increasing linearly with time. The correct
relation between the voltmeter’s reading VA and VB will be
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Page 368
Chap 6
Time Varying Fields and
Maxwell Equations
(A) VA = VB (B) VA =- VB
(C) VA = RA (D) VA =- RA
VB RB VB RB
i. n
.c o
i a
o d
MCQ 6.1.14
. n
If a uniform magnetic field B = 2 Tesla
region then the current I flowing in the
pointing out of the page fills entire
bar will be
w w
(A) 0 A
(C) 4 A
(B) - 40 A
(D) - 4 A
w
MCQ 6.1.15 The force exerted by magnetic field on the sliding bar will be
(A) 4 N, opposes it’s motion
(B) 40 N, opposes it’s motion
(C) 40 N, in the direction of it’s motion
(D) 0
MCQ 6.1.16 Two small resistor of 250 W each is connected through a perfectly conducting
filament such that it forms a square loop lying in x -y plane as shown in the
figure. Magnetic flux density passing through the loop is given as
B =- 7.5 cos (120pt - 30c) az
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MCQ 6.1.17 A rectangular loop of self inductance L is placed near a very long wire
carrying current i1 as shown in figure (a). If i1 be the rectangular pulse of
current as shown in figure (b) then the plot of the induced current i2 in the
loop versus time t will be (assume the time constant of the loop, t & L/R )
i. n
.co
ia
od
.n
ww
w
MCQ 6.1.18 Two parallel conducting rails is placed in a varying magnetic field
B = 0.2 cos wtax . A conducting bar oscillates on the rails such that it’s position
is given by y = 0.5 ^1 - cos wt h m . If one end of the rails are terminated in a
resistance R = 5 W , then the current i flowing in the rails will be
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Page 370 (A) 0.01w sin wt ^1 + 2 cos wt h (B) - 0.01w sin wt ^1 + 2 cos wt h
Chap 6
(C) 0.01w cos wt ^1 + 2 sin wt h (D) 0.05w sin wt ^1 + 2 sin wt h
Time Varying Fields and
Maxwell Equations
MCQ 6.1.19 Electric flux density in a medium ( er = 10 , mr = 2 ) is given as
MCQ 6.1.20 A current filament located on the x -axis in free space with in the interval
- 0.1 < x < 0.1 m carries current I (t) = 8t A in ax direction. If the retarded
vector potential at point P (0, 0, 2) be A (t) then the plot of A (t) versus time
will be
i. n
.c o
i a
o d
. n
w w
w
Common Data For Q. 21 and 22 :
In a region of electric and magnetic fields E and B , respectively, the force
experienced by a test charge qC are given as follows for three different
velocities.
Velocity m/sec Force, N
ax q ^ay + az h
ay qay
az q ^2ay + az h
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MCQ 6.1.22 What will be electric field E in the region ? Page 371
(A) ax - az (B) ay - az Chap 6
(C) ay + az (D) ay + az - ax Time Varying Fields and
Maxwell Equations
i. n
.co
ia
(A) 16
od
What will be the circulation of the induced electric field around the loop ?
x ^x + 2h
(B) 8
x
(C)
.n
8
x ^x + 2h
(D)
x ^x + 2h
16
ww
Common Data For Q. 25 to 27 :
w
In a cylindrical coordinate system,
Z0
]
magnetic field is given by
for r < 4 m
B = [2 sin wtaz for 4 < r < 5 m
]0 for r > 5 m
\
MCQ 6.1.25 The induced electric field in the region r < 4 m will be
(A) 0 (B) 2w cos wt af
r
(C) - 2 cos wtaf (D) 1 a
2 sin wt f
MCQ 6.1.26 The induced electric field at r = 4.5 m is
(A) 0 (B) - 17w cos wt
18
(C) 4w cos wt (D) - 17w cos wt
9 4
MCQ 6.1.27 The induced electric field in the region r > 5 m is
(A) - 18 w cos wtaf (B) - 9w cos wt af
r r
(C) - 9r cos wtaf (D) 9w cos wt af
r
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Page 372 MCQ 6.1.28 Magnetic flux density, B = 0.1t az Tesla threads only the loop abcd lying in
Chap 6 the plane xy as shown in the figure.
Time Varying Fields and
Maxwell Equations
.c o 33.3 mV
66.7 mV
i a
o d
Common Data For Q. 29 and 30 :
A square wire loop of resistance R rotated at an angular velocity w in the
n
uniform magnetic field B = 5ay mWb/m2 as shown in the figure.
.
w w
w
MCQ 6.1.29 If the angular velocity, w = 2 rad/ sec then the induced e.m.f. in the loop
will be
(A) 2 sin q mV/m (B) 2 cos q mV/m
(C) 4 cos q mV/m (D) 4 sin q mV/m
MCQ 6.1.30 If resistance, R = 40 mW then the current flowing in the square loop will be
(A) 0.2 sin q mA (B) 0.1 sin q mA
(C) 0.1 cos q mA (D) 0.5 sin q mA
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Page 373
Chap 6
Time Varying Fields and
Maxwell Equations
i. n
Common Data For Q. 32 and 33 :
Consider the figure shown below. Let B = 10 cos 120pt Wb/m2 and assume
.co
that the magnetic field produced by i (t) is negligible
ia
od
.n
ww
MCQ 6.1.32
w
The value of vab is
(A) - 118.43 cos 120pt V (B) 118.43 cos 120pt V
(C) - 118.43 sin 120pt V (D) 118.43 sin 120pt V
***********
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Page 374
Chap 6 EXERCISE 6.2
Time Varying Fields and
Maxwell Equations
QUES 6.2.1 A small conducting loop is released from rest with in a vertical evacuated
cylinder. What is the voltage induced (in mV) in the falling loop ?
(Assume earth magnetic field = 10-6 T at a constant angle of 10c below the
horizontal)
QUES 6.2.2 A square loop of side 1 m is located in the plane x = 0 as shown in figure. A
non-uniform magnetic flux density through it is given as B = 4z3 t2 ax , The
emf induced in the loop at time t = 2 sec will be ____ Volt.
i. n
.c o
i a
o d
QUES 6.2.3
. n
A very long straight wire carrying a current I = 5 A is placed at a distance
w
of 2 m from a square loop as shown. If the side of the square loop is 1 m
then the total flux passing through the square loop will be ____ # 10-7 wb
w
w
QUES 6.2.4 In a medium where no D.C. field is present, the conduction current density
at any point is given as Jd = 20 cos ^1.5 # 108 t h ay A/m2 . Electric flux density
in the medium will be D 0 sin (1.5 # 108 t) ay nC/m2 such that D 0 = ____
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QUES 6.2.6 In a certain region magnetic flux density is given as B = 0.1t az Wb/m2 . An Page 375
electric loop with resistance 2 W and 4 W is lying in x -y plane as shown in Chap 6
the figure. If the area of the loop is 1 m2 then, the voltage drop V1 across the Time Varying Fields and
Maxwell Equations
2 W resistance is ____ mV.
QUES 6.2.7 A magnetic core of uniform cross section having two coils (Primary and
secondary) wound on it as shown in figure. The no. of turns of primary
coil is 5000 and no. of turns of secondary coil is 3000. If a voltage source of
12 volt is connected across the primary coil then what will be the voltage (in
i. n
Volt) across the secondary coil ?
.co
ia
od
.n
QUES 6.2.8
ww
Magnetic field intensity in free space is given as
QUES 6.2.9 Two parallel conducting rails are being placed at a separation of 2 m as
shown in figure. One end of the rail is being connected through a resistor
R = 10 W and the other end is kept open. A metal bar slides frictionlessly
on the rails at a speed of 5 m/s away from the resistor. If the magnetic flux
density B = 0.1 Wb/m2 pointing out of the page fills entire region then the
current I flowing in the resistor will be ____ Ampere.
QUES 6.2.10 An infinitely long straight wire with a closed switch S carries a uniform current
I = 4 A as shown in figure. A square loop of side a = 2 m and resistance
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Page 376 R = 4 W is located at a distance 2 m from the wire. Now at any time t = t 0
Chap 6 the switch is open so the current I drops to zero. What will be the total
Time Varying Fields and charge (in nC) that passes through a corner of the square loop after t = t 0 ?
Maxwell Equations
QUES 6.2.13 In a certain region a test charge is moving with an angular velocity 2 rad/ sec
along a circular path of radius 2 m centred at origin in the x -y plane. If
the magnetic flux density in the region isB = 2az Wb/m2 then the electric
field viewed by an observer moving with the test charge is ____ V/m in
a r direction.
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QUES 6.2.14 What will be the voltmeter reading (in volt) at t = 0.4 sec ? Page 377
Chap 6
Time Varying Fields and
Maxwell Equations
QUES 6.2.16 In a non conducting medium (s = 0) magnetic field intensity at any point
is given by H = cos ^1010 t - bx h az A/m . The permittivity of the medium is
i. n
e = 0.12 nF/m and permeability of the medium is m = 3 # 10-5 H/m . D.C.
field is not present in medium. Field satisfies Maxwell’s equation, if | b | =
____
.co
Electric field in free space in given as
a
QUES 6.2.17
o
It satisfies Maxwell’s equation for | b | = ?
n
QUES 6.2.18
w.
8 A current is flowing along a straight wire from a point charge situated at
the origin to infinity and passing through the point ^2, 2, 2h. The circulation
w
of the magnetic field intensity around the closed path formed by the triangle
having the vertices ^2, 0, 0h, ^0, 2, 0h and ^0, 0, 2h is equal to ____ Ampere.
w
QUES 6.2.19 A 50 turn rectangular loop of area 64 cm2 rotates at 60 revolution per
seconds in a magnetic field B = 0.25 sin 377t Wb/m2 directed normal to the
axis of rotation. What is the rms value of the induced voltage (in volt) ?
***********
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Page 378
Chap 6 EXERCISE 6.3
Time Varying Fields and
Maxwell Equations
MCQ 6.3.1 Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given
below (Notations have their usual meaning)
List-I List-II
a Ampere’s circuital law 1. d : D = rv
b Faraday’s law 2. d:B = 0
c Gauss’s law 3. d # E =-2B
2t
Codes :
a b c d i. n
(A) 4
(B) 4
3
1
2
3
1
2
.c o
(C)
(D) 4
2 3
3
1
1
4
i
2 a
MCQ 6.3.2
o d
Magneto static fields is caused by
. n
(A) stationary charges
(B) steady currents
w w
(C) time varying currents
(D) none of these
w
MCQ 6.3.3 Let A be magnetic vector potential and E be electric field intensity at
certain time in a time varying EM field. The correct relation between E
and A is
(A) E =-2A (B) A =-2E
2t 2t
(C) E = 2A (D) A = 2E
2t 2t
MCQ 6.3.4 A closed surface S defines the boundary line of magnetic medium such that
the field intensity inside it is B . Total outward magnetic flux through the
closed surface will be
(A) B : S (B) 0
(C) B # S (D) none of these
MCQ 6.3.5 The total magnetic flux through a conducting loop having electric field
E = 0 inside it will be
(A) 0
(B) constant
(C) varying with time only
(D) varying with time and area of the surface both
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MCQ 6.3.6 A cylindrical wire of a large cross section made of super conductor carries a Page 379
current I . The current in the superconductor will be confined. Chap 6
(A) inside the wire Time Varying Fields and
Maxwell Equations
(B) to the axis of cylindrical wire
(C) to the surface of the wire
(D) none of these
MCQ 6.3.7 If Bi denotes the magnetic flux density increasing with time and Bd
denotes the magnetic flux density decreasing with time then which of the
configuration is correct for the induced current I in the stationary loop ?
i. n
.co
ia
od
MCQ 6.3.8
.n
A circular loop is rotating about z -axis in a magnetic field B = B 0 cos wtay .
w
The total induced voltage in the loop is caused by
(A) Transformer emf
w
(B) motion emf.
w
(C) Combination of (A) and (B)
(D) none of these
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Page 380 MCQ 6.3.13 Maxwell’s equations give the relations between
Chap 6 (A) different fields
Time Varying Fields and
Maxwell Equations
(B) different sources
(C) different boundary conditions
(D) none of these
i a
***********
o d
. n
w w
w
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y
A magnetic field in air is measured to be B = B 0 c 2 x 2 ay - 2
x + y2 m
MCQ 6.4.1 ax
x +y
GATE 2009 What current distribution leads to this field ?
[Hint : The algebra is trivial in cylindrical coordinates.]
(A) J = B 0 z c 2 1 2 m, r ! 0 (B) J =- B 0 z c 2 2 2 m, r ! 0
m0 x + y m0 x + y
(C) J = 0, r ! 0 (D) J = B 0 z c 2 1 2 m, r ! 0
m0 x + y
MCQ 6.4.2 For static electric and magnetic fields in an inhomogeneous source-free
GATE 2008 medium, which of the following represents the correct form of Maxwell’s
equations ?
i. n
(A) d : E = 0 , d # B = 0 (B) d : E = 0 , d : B = 0
(C) d # E = 0 , d # B = 0 (D) d # E = 0 , d : B = 0
MCQ 6.4.3
.co
If C is closed curve enclosing a surface S , then magnetic field intensity H ,
the current density J and the electric flux density D are related by
a
GATE 2007
di
(A) ## H $ dS = ## bJ + 2D l : dl
C 2t
(C) ## H : dS = # bJ + 2D l : dl
(B) # H : dl = ## bJ + 2D l : dS
S S 2t
(D) # H : dl = ## bJ + 2D l : dS
S
no C 2t C S 2t
MCQ 6.4.4
GATE 2003
w.
The unit of d # H is
(A) Ampere (B) Ampere/meter
MCQ 6.4.5
ww
(C) Ampere/meter 2 (D) Ampere-meter
MCQ 6.4.6 A loop is rotating about they y -axis in a magnetic field B = B 0 cos (wt + f) ax
GATE 1998 T. The voltage in the loop is
(A) zero
(B) due to rotation only
(C) due to transformer action only
(D) due to both rotation and transformer action
MCQ 6.4.7 The credit of defining the following current is due to Maxwell
IES EC 2012 (A) Conduction current (B) Drift current
(C) Displacement current (D) Diffusion current
MCQ 6.4.8 A varying magnetic flux linking a coil is given by F = 1/3lt3 . If at time
IES EC 2011 t = 3 s , the emf induced is 9 V, then the value of l is.
(A) zero (B) 1 Wb/s2
(C) - 1 Wb/s2 (D) 9 Wb/s2
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Page 382 MCQ 6.4.9 Assuming that each loop is stationary and time varying magnetic field B
Chap 6 IES EC 2011 , induces current I , which of the configurations in the figures are correct ?
Time Varying Fields and
Maxwell Equations
i. n
(A) 1, 2, 3 and 4
(C) 2 and 4 only
.c o (B) 1 and 3 only
(D) 3 and 4 only
MCQ 6.4.10
i a
Assertion (A) : For time varying field the relation E =- dV is inadequate.
IES EC 2011
o d
Reason (R) : Faraday’s law states that for time varying field d # E = 0
(A) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are individually true and Reason
. n
(R) is the correct explanation of Assertion (A)
(B) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are individually true but Reason
MCQ 6.4.11
w (D) Assertion (A) is false but Reason (R) is true
MCQ 6.4.12 A single turn loop is situated in air, with a uniform magnetic field normal to
IES EC 2009 its plane. The area of the loop is 5 m2 and the rate of charge of flux density
is 2 Wb/m2 /s . What is the emf appearing at the terminals of the loop ?
(A) - 5 V (B) - 2 V
(C) - 0.4 V (D) - 10 V
MCQ 6.4.13 Which of the following equations results from the circuital form of Ampere’s law ?
IES EC 2009 (A) d # E =-2B (B) d : B = 0
2t
(C) d : D = r (D) d # H = J + 2D
2t
MCQ 6.4.14 Assertion (A) : Capacitance of a solid conducting spherical body of radius
IES EC 2009 a is given by 4pe0 a in free space.
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MCQ 6.4.15 Two conducting thin coils X and Y (identical except for a thin cut in coil
IES EC 2007 Y ) are placed in a uniform magnetic field which is decreasing at a constant
rate. If the plane of the coils is perpendicular to the field lines, which of the
following statement is correct ? As a result, emf is induced in
(A) both the coils (B) coil Y only
(C) coil X only (D) none of the two coils
MCQ 6.4.16 Assertion (A) : Time varying electric field produces magnetic fields.
Reason (R) : Time varying magnetic field produces electric fields.
i. n
IES EC 2006
(A) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(B) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A
.co
(C) A is true but R is false
(D) A is false but R is true
ia
Match List I (Electromagnetic Law) with List II (Different Form) and select
d
MCQ 6.4.17
the correct answer using the code given below the lists :
o
IES EC 2006
.n
List-I List-II
4: D = rv
a.
b. w
Ampere’s law
w
Faraday’s law
1.
2. 4: J =-2h
2t
c.
w
Gauss law 3. 4# H = J + 2D
2t
d. Current 4. 4# E =-2B
2t
Codes :
a b c d
(A) 1 2 3 4
(B) 3 4 1 2
(C) 1 4 3 2
(D) 3 2 1 4
MCQ 6.4.18 Two metal rings 1 and 2 are placed in a uniform magnetic field which is
IES EC 2004 decreasing with time with their planes perpendicular to the field. If the rings
are identical except that ring 2 has a thin air gap in it, which one of the
following statements is correct ?
(A) No e.m.f is induced in ring 1
(B) An e.m.f is induced in both the rings
(C) Equal Joule heating occurs in both the rings
(D) Joule heating does not occur in either ring.
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Page 384 MCQ 6.4.19 Which one of the following Maxwell’s equations gives the basic idea of
Chap 6 IES EC 2003 radiation ?
Time Varying Fields and
d # H = 2D/2t d # E =- 2B/2t
4 4
Maxwell Equations
(A) (B)
d # E = 2B/2t d : D =- 2B/2t
d:D = r d:B = r
(C) 3 (D) 4
d:D = 0 d # H = ^2D/2t h
MCQ 6.4.20 Which one of the following is NOT a correct Maxwell equation ?
IES EC 2001
(A) d # H = 2D + J (B) d # E = 2H
2t 2t
(C) d : D = r (D) d : B = 0
MCQ 6.4.21 Match List I (Maxwell equation) with List II (Description) and select the
IES EC 2001 correct answer :
List I
a. # B : dS = 0
b. # D : dS = #v rv dv
i. n
c. # E : dl =- # 2B $ dS
2t
.c o
d.
# H : dl = # 2(D2+ J)
i a
: dS
List II
o
t
d
1.
. n
The mmf around a closed path is equal to the conduction current plus
the time derivative of the electric displacement current through any
w
2.
w surface bounded by the path.
The emf around a closed path is equal to the time derivative is equal
w3.
to the time derivative of the magnetic displacement through any
surface bounded by the path.
The total electric displacement through the surface enclosing a volume
is equal to total charge within the volume
4. The net magnetic flux emerging through any closed surface is zero.
Codes :
a b c d
(A) 1 3 2 4
(B) 4 3 2 1
(C) 4 2 3 1
(D) 1 2 3 4
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MCQ 6.4.23 What is the generalized Maxwell’s equation d # H = Jc + 2D for the free Page 385
2t Chap 6
IES EE 2009 space ?
Time Varying Fields and
(A) d # H = 0 (B) d # H = Jc Maxwell Equations
(C) d # H = 2D (D) d # H = D
2t
MCQ 6.4.24 Magnetic field intensity is H = 3ax + 7yay + 2xaz A/m. What is the current
IES EE 2009 density J A/m2 ?
(A) - 2ay (B) - 7az
(C) 3ax (D) 12ay
MCQ 6.4.25 A circular loop placed perpendicular to a uniform sinusoidal magnetic field
IES EE 2009 of frequency w1 is revolved about an axis through its diameter at an angular
velocity w 2 rad/sec (w 2 < w1) as shown in the figure below. What are the
frequencies for the e.m.f induced in the loop ?
i. n
.co
ia
od
.n
(A) w1 and w 2 (B) w1, w 2 + w 2 and w 2
MCQ 6.4.26
ww
(C) w 2, w1 - w 2 and w 2 (D) w1 - w 2 and w1 + w 2
w
(A) d # H = ^s + jweh E (B) F = Q ^E + v # B h
(C) # H : dl = # J : dS + # 2D : dS (D) # B : dS = 0
c s s 2t S
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Page 386 MCQ 6.4.29 A straight current carrying conductor and two conducting loops A and B
Chap 6 IES EE 2007 are shown in the figure given below. What are the induced current in the
Time Varying Fields and two loops ?
Maxwell Equations
MCQ 6.4.30
i. n
Which one of the following equations is not Maxwell’s equation for a static
electromagnetic field in a linear homogeneous medium ?
o
IES EE 2007
.c
(A) d : B = 0 (B) d # D = v0
#c B : dl = m0 I (D) d2 A = m0 J
(C)
i a
MCQ 6.4.31
IES EE 2004 below :
o d
Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given
. List I n List II
a
w w Continuity equation 1. d H = J + 2D
#
2t
wb
c
Ampere’s law
Displacement current
2. J = 2D
2t
3. d E =-2B
#
2t
d Faraday’s law 4. 2r
d # J =- v
2t
Codes :
a b c d
(A) 4 3 2 1
(B) 4 1 2 3
(C) 2 3 4 1
(D) 2 1 4 3
MCQ 6.4.32 The magnetic flux through each turn of a 100 turn coil is (t3 - 2t) milli-
IES EE 2002 Webers where t is in seconds. The induced e.m.f at t = 2 s is
(A) 1 V (B) - 1 V
(C) 0.4 V (D) - 0.4 V
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MCQ 6.4.33 Match List I (Type of field denoted by A) with List II (Behaviour) and Page 387
IES EE 2004 select the correct answer using the codes given below : Chap 6
Time Varying Fields and
List I List II Maxwell Equations
Codes :
a b c d
(A) 4
(B) 4
2
2 i. n 3
1
1
3
(C)
(D) 2
2
.
4
c
4o 3
1
1
3
MCQ 6.4.34
ia
Which one of the following pairs is not correctly matched ?
IES EE 2003
od
(A) Gauss Theorem :
# D : ds = #v rdv
.n dfm
ww
(C) Coulomb’s Law :
MCQ 6.4.36 Two conducting coils 1 and 2 (identical except that 2 is split) are placed in
IES EE 2002 a uniform magnetic field which decreases at a constant rate as in the figure.
If the planes of the coils are perpendicular to the field lines, the following
statements are made :
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Page 388 3. equal Joule heating occurs in both coils
Chap 6
4. Joule heating does not occur in any coil
Time Varying Fields and
Maxwell Equations Which of the above statements is/are true ?
(A) 1 and 4 (B) 2 and 4
(C) 3 only (D) 2 only
MCQ 6.4.37 For linear isotropic materials, both E and H have the time dependence e jwt
IES EE 2002 and regions of interest are free of charge. The value of d # H is given by
(A) sE (B) jweE
(C) sE + jweE (D) sE - jweE
MCQ 6.4.38 Which of the following equations is/are not Maxwell’s equations(s) ?
2r
IES EE 2002
(A) d : J =- v (B) d : D = rv
2t
(C) d : E =-2B (D) # H : dl = # b sE + e2E l : ds
2t s 2t
Select the correct answer using the codes given below :
(A) 2 and 4 (B) 1 alone
i. n
(C) 1 and 3 (D) 1 and 4
MCQ 6.4.39
IES EE 2001
.c
the current density J in free space is
d # (d # A) = m0 J
o
Assertion (A) : The relationship between Magnetic Vector potential A and
i a
For a magnetic field in free space due to a dc or slowly varying current is
d2 A =- m0 J
o d
Reason (R) : For magnetic field due to dc or slowly varying current
d : A = 0.
. n
(A) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
w w
(B) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A
(C) A is true but R is false
MCQ 6.4.40
w
(D) A is false but R is true
Given that d # H = J + 2D
2t
IES EE 2001
Assertion (A) : In the equation, the additional term 2D is necessary.
2t
Reason (R) : The equation will be consistent with the principle of conservation
of charge.
(A) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(B) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A
(C) A is true but R is false
(D) A is false but R is true
MCQ 6.4.41 A circular loop is rotating about the y -axis as a diameter in a magnetic field
IES EE 2001 B = B 0 sin wtax Wb/m2 . The induced emf in the loop is
(A) due to transformer emf only
(B) due to motional emf only
(C) due to a combination of transformer and motional emf
(D) zero
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MCQ 6.4.42 Consider coils C1, C2, C 3 and C 4 (shown in the given figures) which are placed Page 389
IES EE 2001 in the time-varying electric field E (t) and electric field produced by the coils Chap 6
C l2, C l3 and C l4 carrying time varying current I (t) respectively : Time Varying Fields and
Maxwell Equations
i. n
.co
i
(A) C1 and C2a
The electric field will induce an emf in the coils
(B) C2 and C 3
od
(C) C1 and C 3 (D) C2 and C 4
MCQ 6.4.43
.n
Match List I (Law/quantity) with List II (Mathematical expression) and
select the correct answer :
w
IES EE 2001
a. w
List I
Gauss’s law
w
b. Ampere’s law
List II
1. d : D = r
2. d E =-2B
#
2t
d. Poynting vector 4. F = q ^E + v # B h
5. d H = J + 2D
# c
2t
Codes :
a b c d
(A) 1 2 4 3
(B) 3 5 2 1
(C) 1 5 2 3
(D) 3 2 4 1
***********
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Page 390
Chap 6 SOLUTIONS 6.1
Time Varying Fields and
Maxwell Equations
i. n
SOL 6.1.2 Option (A) is correct.
Electric field intensity experienced by the moving conductor ab in the
presence of magnetic field B is given as
E = v#B
.c o
where v is the velocity of the conductor.
So, electric field will be directed from b to a as determined by right hand
i a
rule for the cross vector. Therefore, the voltage difference between the two
Vab =-
d
ends of the conductor is given as
o b
# E : dl
. n a
Thus, the positive terminal of voltage will be a and Vab will be positive.
SOL 6.1.3
w w
Option (A) is correct.
Consider a magnet bar being dropped inside a pipe as shown in figure.
Suppose the current I in the magnet flows counter clockwise (viewed from
above) as shown in figure. So near the ends of pipe, it’s field points upward.
A ring of pipe below the magnet experiences an increasing upward flux as
the magnet approaches and hence by Lenz’s law a current will be induced in
it such as to produce downward flux.
Thus, Iind must flow clockwise which is opposite to the current in the magnet.
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Since opposite currents repel each other so, the force exerted on the magnet Page 391
due to the induced current is directed upward. Meanwhile a ring above the Chap 6
magnet experiences a decreasing upward flux; so it’s induced current parallel Time Varying Fields and
Maxwell Equations
to I and it attracts magnet upward. And flux through the rings next to the
magnet bar is constant. So no current is induced in them.
Thus, for all we can say that the force exerted by the eddy current (induced
current according to Lenz’s law) on the magnet is in upward direction which
causes the delay to reach the bottom. Whereas in the cases of unmagnetized
bar no induced current is formed. So it reaches in fraction of time.
Thus, A and R both true and R is correct explanation of A.
i. n
F = (m0 nI) (pr2) (nl) (1)
Since the total magnetic flux through a coil having inductance L and
.co
carrying current I is given as
F = LI
ia
So comparing it with equation (1) we get,
L = m0 n2 Ip2 l
od
and as for a given solenoid, radius r and length l is constant therefore
L \ n2
SOL 6.1.5
.n
Option (C) is correct.
ww
The magnetic flux density inside the solenoid is defined as
B = m0 nI
where
w n " no. of turns per unit length
I " current flowing in it.
So the total magnetic flux through the solenoid is
F = # B : dS = (m0 nI) (pa2)
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Page 392 It will be similar to the current in a solenoid.
Chap 6 So, the magnetic field will be in circumferential while the electric field is
Time Varying Fields and
longitudinal.
Maxwell Equations
i. n
Vemf 1 N1
Now, in Reason (R) : a primitive transformer is similar to the cylinder core
.c o
carrying wound coils. It is the device in which by choosing the appropriate
no. of turns, any desired secondary emf can be obtained.
So, both the statements are correct but R is not the explanation of A.
. n
Therefore the displacement current density in the medium is
w w Jd = 2D =- weE 0 sin wt
2t
and the conduction current density in the medium is
w Jc = sE = sE 0 cos wt
So, the ratio of amplitudes of conduction current density and displacement
current density is
Jc
= s
Jd we
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i. n
So, the magnetic flux density produced by the straight conducting wire
linking through the loop is normal to the surface of the loop.
.co
Now consider a strip of width dr of the square loop at distance r from the
wire for which the total magnetic flux linking through the square loop is
given as
ia # B : dS
odF =
=
S
m0 I r + a 1
# (adr) (area of the square loop is dS = adr )
.n 2p r
m Ia
= 0 ln b
r
r+a
r l
ww 2p
The induced emf due to the change in flux (when pulled away) is given as
m Ia r+a
w
Therefore,
Vemf =- dF =- 0 d ;ln b
dt
m Ia
Vemf =- 0 c 1
2p dt
dr 1 dr
2p r + a dt r dt m
-
r lE
dr
Given = velocity of loop = 5 m/s
dt
and since the loop is currently located at 3 m distance from the straight
wire, so after 0.6 sec it will be at
r = 3 + (0.6) # v (v " velocity of the loop )
= 3 + 0.6 # 5 = 6 m
m (30) # 2 1 1
So, Vemf =- 0 #
2p : 8 (5) - 6 (5)D (a = 2 m, I = 30 A )
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Page 394 SOL 6.1.13 Option (D) is correct.
Chap 6 Total magnetic flux through the solenoid is given as
Time Varying Fields and
Maxwell Equations F = m0 nI
where n is the no. of turns per unit length of solenoid and I is the current
flowing in the solenoid.
Since the solenoid carries current that is increasing linearly with time
i.e. I\t
So the net magnetic flux through the solenoid will be
F\t
or, F = kt where k is a constant.
Therefore the emf induced in the loop consisting resistances RA , RB is
Vemf =- dF
dt
Vemf =- k
and the current through R1 and R2 will be
Iind =- k
R1 + R 2
i. n
Now according to Lenz’s law the induced current I in a loop flows such as
to produce a magnetic field that opposes the change in B (t).
.c o
i.e. the induced current in the loop will be opposite to the direction of
current in solenoid (in anticlockwise direction).
So,
i a
VA = Iind RA =- kRA
RA + RB
and
o d
VB =- Iind RB = b kRB l
RA + RB
. n
Thus, the ratio of voltmeter readings is
VA =- RA
SOL 6.1.14
w w VB
Option (D) is correct.
RB
Induced emf in the conducting loop formed by rail, bar and the resistor is
w given by
Vemf =- dF
dt
where F is total magnetic flux passing through the loop.
The bar is located at a distance x from the resistor at time t . So the total
magnetic flux passing through the loop at time t is
F = # B : dS = Blx where l is separation between the
rails
Now the induced emf in a loop placed in magnetic field is defined as
Vemf =- dF
dt
where F is the total magnetic flux passing through the loop. Therefore the
induced emf in the square loop is
Vemf =- d (Blx) =- Bl dx ( F = Blx )
dt dt
Since from the given figure, we have
l =5m
B = 2T
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i. n
.co
ia
Therefore, the force exerted on the bar is
5
# Idl # B = # (- 4dza ) # (2a )
od F =
0
.n
i.e. The force exerted on the sliding bar is in opposite direction to the
motion of the sliding bar.
SOL 6.1.16
ww
Option (C) is correct.
Given the magnetic flux density through the square loop is
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Page 396 wire be M . So applying KVL in the rectangular loop we get,
Chap 6
M di1 = L di2 + Ri2 ...(1)
Time Varying Fields and dt dt
Maxwell Equations
Now from the shown figure (b), the current flowing in the straight wire is
given as
i1 = I1 u (t) - I1 u (t - T) (I1 is amplitude of the current)
or, di1 = I d (t) - I d (t - T) (2)
1 1
dt
So, at t = 0 di1 = I
1
dt
and MI1 = L di2 + Ri2 (from equation (1))
dt
Solving it we get
i2 = M I1 e-^R/Lht for 0 < t < T
L
Again in equation (2) at t = T we have
di1 =- I
1
dt
- MI1 = L di2 + Ri2
i. n
and (from equation (1))
dt
Solving it we get
.c o
i2 =- M I1 e-^R/Lh(t - T)
L
for t > T
i a
Thus, the current in the rectangular loop is
Z
o i2 = [d
]] M I1 e-^R/Lht
L
0<t<T
]- M I1 e- (R/L)(t - T) t > T
. n \ L
Plotting i2 versus t we get
w w
w
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opposite direction to the current i . So the current i in the loop will be Page 397
i =-Vemf =- 1 b- dF l Chap 6
R R dt Time Varying Fields and
Maxwell Equations
= 0.05 6- w sin wt - 2w cos wt sin wt@
5
=- 0.01w sin wt ^1 + 2 cos wt h
i. n
d # E =-2B
2t
or,
.
2t o
2B =- d E
c #
ia 2E
=- y az
2x
.n
Integrating both sides, we get the magnetic flux density in the medium as
ww B = # 3 # 10 cos ^3 # 10 t - 0.2x ha
3
3 8
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Page 398 time as
Chap 6
I (t) = 8t A
Time Varying Fields and
Maxwell Equations
So, the retarded vector potential at the point P will be given as
m0 I ^t - R/c h
A= # 4p R
ax dx
where R is the distance of any point on the filamentary current from P as
shown in the figure and c is the velocity of waves in free space. So, we have
R= x2 + 4 and c = 3 # 108 m/s
0.1 m0 8 ^t - R/c h
Therefore, A= #
x =- 0.1 4pR
ax dx
8m 0.1
t 0.1
1 dx
= 0< # dx - # F
4p -0.1 x2 + 4 -0.1 c
-7
= 8 # 10-7 t 8ln ^x + x2 + 4 hB-0.1 - 8 # 10 8 6x @-0.01.1
0.1
3 # 10
i. n
or, A = ^80t - 5.3 # 10-7h ax nWb/m (1)
-9
So, when A = 0 t = 6.6 # 10 = 6.6 n sec
and when t = 0
.c o
A =- 5.3 # 10-7 nWb/m
From equation (1) it is clear that A will be linearly increasing with respect
a
to time. Therefore the plot of A versus t is
i
o d
. n
w w
w NOTE :
Time varying potential is usually called the retarded potential.
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i. n
B = ax Wb/m2
So, putting it in Lorentz force equation we get
or,
co F = q ^E + V # B h
q ^ay + az h = q ^E + ax # ax h
.
ia
Therefore, the electric field intensity in the medium is
od E = ay + az V/m
SOL 6.1.23
Given
.n
Option (C) is correct.
ww
Retarded scalar potential,
and retarded vector potential,
V = y ^x - ct h volt
A = y a x - t k ax Wb/m
c
w
Now the magnetic flux density in the medium is given as
B = d#A
2A
=- y az = at - x k az Tesla (1)
2y c
So, the magnetic field intensity in the medium is
H =B ( m0 is the permittivity of the medium)
m0
= 1 at - x k az A/m (2)
m0 c
and the electric field intensity in the medium is given as
E =- dV - 2A
2t
=-^x - ct h ay - yax + yax = ^ct - x h ay (3)
So, the electric flux density in the medium is
D = e0 E ( e0 is the permittivity of the medium)
= e0 ^ct - x h ay C/m2 (4)
Now we determine the condition for the field to satisfy all the four Maxwell’s
equation.
(a) d : D = rv
or, rv = d : 6e0 ^ct - x h ay@ (from equation (4))
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Page 400 =0
Chap 6 It means the field satisfies Maxwell’s equation if rv = 0 .
Time Varying Fields and
Maxwell Equations
(b) d:B = 0
Now, d : B = d : 9at - x k azC = 0 (from equation (1))
c
So, it already, satisfies Maxwell’s equation
(c) d # H = J + 2D
2t
Now, d # H =-2Hz ay = 1 ay = e0 a (from equation (2))
2x m0 c m0 y
and from equation (4) we have
2D = e ca = e0 a (Since in free space c = 1 )
2t 0 y
m0 y m0 e0
Putting the two results in Maxwell’s equation, we get the condition
J =0
(d) d # E =-2B
2t
2Ey
Now d#E = a =- az
i. n
2x z
2B = a
z
2t
.c o
So, it already satisfies Maxwell’s equation. Thus, by combining all the results
we get the two required conditions as J = 0 and rv = 0 for the field to satisfy
Maxwell’s equation.
i a
SOL 6.1.24 Option (A) is correct.
o d
Given the magnetic flux density through the loop is
. n B =- 2/x az
So the total magnetic flux passing through the loop is given as
w w #
F = B : dS =
x
#
x+2
y
#
y+2
b- x az l : ^- dxdyaz h
2
w = b 2 ln x +
x l^ h
2 2 = 4 ln b x + 2 l
x
Therefore, the circulation of induced electric field in the loop is
# E : dl =- dF =- d ;4 ln b x + 2 lE
C dt dt x
=- 4 d x+2
x + 2 dt b x l
b x l
=- 4x b- 22 dx l
x + 2 x dt
= 8
^2 h = 16 dx
b dt = v = 2ax l
x ^x + 2h x ^x + 2h
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At any distance r from origin in the region 4 < r < 5 m , the circulation of
i. n
induced electric field is given as
# E : dl =- dF =- d b B : dS l #
dt dt
o
C
a.c dt
=- 2w cos wt ^pr2 - 16ph
or,
di
E ^2prh =- 2w cos wt ^pr2 - 16ph
2 ^r2 - 16h w cos wt
no E =-
2r
w.
So, the induced electric field intensity at r = 4.5 m is
E =- 2 (^4.5) 2 - 16h w cos wt
4.5
ww =- 17 w cos wt
18
# ^2 sin wt ha
5
= 0+ z : dS
4
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=- 9 w cos wtaf
Page 402
Chap 6 r
Time Varying Fields and
Maxwell Equations SOL 6.1.28 Option (D) is correct.
The distribution of magnetic flux density and the resistance in the circuit
are same as given in section A (Q. 31) so, as calculated in the question, the
two voltage drops in the loop due to magnetic flux density B = 0.1t az are
V1 = 33.3 mV
and V2 = 66.67 mV = 66.7 mV
Now V3 (voltmeter) which is directly connected to terminal cd is in parallel
to both V2 and V1 . It must be kept in mind that the loop formed by voltmeter
V3 and resistance 2 W also carries the magnetic flux density crossing through
it. So, in this loop the induced emf will be produced which will be same as
the field produced in loop abcd at the enclosed fluxes will be same.
Therefore as calculated above induced emf in the loop of V3 is
Vemf = 100 mV
According to lenz’s law it’s polarity will be opposite to V3 and so
- Vemf = V1 + V3
or, V3 = 100 - 33.3 = 66.7 mV
i. n
SOL 6.1.29 Option (D) is correct.
.c o
The induced emf in a closed loop is defined as
Vemf =- dF
i
dt
a
o d
where F is the total magnetic flux passing through the square loop
At any time t , angle between B and dS is q since B is in ay direction so
. F =n
the total magnetic flux passing through the square loop is
# B : dS
w w = ^B h^S h cos q
= ^5 # 10-3h^20 # 10-3 # 20 # 10-3h cos q
w = 2 # 10-6 cos q
Therefore the induced emf in the loop is
Vemf =- dF
dt
=- 2 # 10-6 d ^cos qh
dt
= 2 # 10-6 sin q dq
dt
and as dq = angular velocity = 2 rad/ sec
dt
So, Vemf = ^2 # 10-6h sin q ^2 h
= 4 # 10-6 sin q V/m = 4 sin q mV/m
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-6
= 4 sin q # 10 ( R = 40 mW ) Page 403
40 # 10-3 Chap 6
= 0.1 sin q mA Time Varying Fields and
Maxwell Equations
SOL 6.1.31 Option (C) is correct.
The total magnetic flux through the square loop is given as
F = B : dS = ^B 0 sin wt h^S h cos q
#
So, the induced emf in the loop is
Vemf =- dF =- d 6(B 0 sin wt) (S) cos q@
dt dt
=- B 0 S d 6sin wt cos wt@ ( q = wt )
dt
=- B 0 S cos 2wt
Thus, the maximum value of induced emf is
Vemf = B 0 Sw
i. n
Vemf =-2F =- 2 ^10 cos 120pt h^pr2h
2t 2t
ia
As determined by Lenz’s law the polarity of induced e.m.f will be such that
i.e.
od
b is at positive terminal with respect to a .
Vba = Vemf = 12p2 sin 120pt
or
SOL 6.1.33
ww
Option (D) is correct.
As calculated in previous question, the voltage induced in the loop is
***********
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Page 404
Chap 6 SOLUTIONS 6.2
Time Varying Fields and
Maxwell Equations
i. n
Induced emf in a loop placed in magnetic field is defined as
Vemf =- dF
dt
Vemf =-
i a
d (t2)
dt
=- 2t ( F = t2 )
o d
Therefore at time t = 2 sec the induced emf is
. n Vemf =- 4 volt
SOL 6.2.3
w
Correct answer is 4.05 .
Magnetic flux density produced at a distance r from a long straight wire
w
carrying current I is defined as
w mI
B = 0 af
2pr
where af is the direction of flux density as determined by right hand rule. So
the flux density produced by straight wire at a distance r from it is
mI
B = 0 an (an is unit vector normal to the loop)
2pr
Therefore the total magnet flux passing through the loop is
d+a m I
#
F = B : dS =
d
#
2
0
pr
adr (dS = adran )
where dr is width of the strip of loop at a distance r from the straight wire.
Thus,
3 m I dr m0 I 3 m0 (5)
# b 2p l r = 2p ln b 2 l = 2p ln (1.5)
0
F =
2
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Page 405
Since the displacement current density in the medium is given as
Chap 6
Jd = 20 cos ^1.5 # 108 t h ay A/m2 Time Varying Fields and
Maxwell Equations
So, the electric flux density in the medium is
D = # J dt + C
d (C " constant)
= # 20 cos ^1.5 # 10 t h a dt + C
8
y
As there is no D.C. field present in the medium so, we get C = 0 and thus,
20 sin ^1.5 # 108 t h
D = 8 ay = 1.33 # 10-7 sin ^1.5 # 108 t h ay
1.5 # 10
= 133.3 sin ^1.5 # 108 t h ay nC/m2
Since, from the given problem we have the flux density
D = D 0 sin ^1.5 # 108 t h ay nC/m2
So, we get
D 0 = 133.3
i. n
The ratio of magnitudes of displacement current to conduction current in
any medium having permittivity e and conductivity s is given as
co
Displacement current
Conduction current
.
= we
s
where w is the angular frequency of the current in the medium.
ia
Given frequency, f = 50 GHz
od
Permittivity,
Conductivity,
e = 4e0 = 4 # 8.85 # 10-12
s = 1.14 # 108 s/m
So,
.n w = 2pf = 2p # 50 # 109 = 100p # 109
ww
Therefore, the ratio of magnitudes of displacement current to the conduction
current is
Id = 100p # 109 # 4 # 8.85 # 10-12 = 9.75 10-8
SOL 6.2.6
w Ic
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V2 =- N2 dF
Page 406
Again
Chap 6 dt
Time Varying Fields and Since both the coil are in same magnetic field so, change in flux will be same
Maxwell Equations
for both the coil.
Comparing the equations (1) and (2) we get
V1 = N1
V2 N2
V2 = V1 N2 = (12) 3000 = 7.2 volt
N1 5000
i. n
3 # 10
^15ph + b = 400p2
2 2
. n Vemf =- dF
dt
w w
where F is total magnetic flux passing through the loop.
Consider the bar be located at a distance x from the resistor at time t . So
the total magnetic flux passing through the loop at time t is
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(- 1)
I =-Vemf =- = 0.01 A (R = 10W ) Page 407
R 10 Chap 6
SOL 6.2.10 Correct answer is 277. Time Varying Fields and
Maxwell Equations
Magnetic flux density produced at a distance r from a long straight wire
carrying current I is defined as
mI
B = 0 af
2pr
where af is the direction of flux density as determined by right hand rule.
Since the direction of magnetic flux density produced at the loop is normal
to the surface of the loop So, total flux passing through the loop is given by
4 m0 I
#
F = B : dS = # c 2pr m^adrh (dS = adr )
S r=2
m Ia 4 dr
= 0 #
2p 2 r
m I2 mI
= 0 ln 2 = 0 ln (2)
2p p
The current flowing in the loop is Iloop and induced e.m.f. is Vemf .
i. n
So, Vemf = Iloop R =- dF
dt
dQ m
.co
dt
(R) =- 0 ln (2) dI
p dt
where Q is the total charge passing through a corner of square loop.
ia dQ
dt
m
=- 0 ln (2) dI
4p dt
(R = 4 W )
od m
dQ =- 0 ln (2) dI
4p
.n
Therefore the total charge passing through a corner of square loop is
m
w
0
Q =- 0 ln (2) dI
4p 4
#
ww m
=- 0 ln (2) (0 - 4)
4p
-7
= 4 # 4p # 10 ln (2)
4p
= 2.77 # 10-7 C = 277 nC
= 25 # 4p # 10-7
# p ^10 h = 44.9 fWb
-3 2
^13h3
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Page 408 SOL 6.2.12 Correct answer is 2.7 .
Chap 6 Electric field in any medium is equal to the voltage drop per unit length.
Time Varying Fields and
Maxwell Equations i.e. E =V
d
where V " potential difference between two points.
d " distance between the two points.
The voltage difference between any two points in the medium is
V = V0 cos 2pft
So the conduction current density in the medium is given as
Jc = sE ( s " conductivity of the medium)
=E ( r " resistivity of the medium)
r
V cos 2pft
=V = 0 (V = V0 cos 2pft)
rd rd
or, Jc = V0
rd
and displacement current density in the medium is given as
V cos (2pft)
Jd = 2D = e2E = e 2 ; 0
i. n
2t 2t 2t d E (V = V0 cos 2pft)
or, Jd =
d
2pf eV0
.c o
i
d
a
Therefore, the ratio of amplitudes of conduction current and displacement
current in the medium is
oIc d
JC (V0) / (rd)
= 1
. n Id
=
Jd
=
(d) / (2pfeV0)
1
2pfer
w w =
2p # (1.6 # 108) # (54 # 8.85 # 10-12) # 0.77
= 2.7
w
SOL 6.2.13 Correct answer is 8.
Let the test charge be q coulomb So the force presence of experienced by the
test charge in the presence of magnetic field is
F = q ^v # B h
and the force experienced can be written in terms of the electric field
intensity as
F = qE
Where E is field viewed by observer moving with test charge.
Putting it in Eq. (i)
qE = q ^v # B h
E = ^wrafh # ^2az h
where w is angular velocity and r is radius of circular loop.
= ^2 h^2 h^2 h a r = 8a r V/m
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So, the total magnetic flux passing through the loop is Page 409
F = # B : dS
S
Chap 6
Time Varying Fields and
x
= # (8x a ) (20 # 10
2 -2 Maxwell Equations
z dxaz )
0
1.6 8t ^1 + 0.4t2hB
3
=
3
Therefore, the induced e.m.f. in the loop is given as
Vemf =- dF =- 1.6 # 3 ^t + 0.4t3h2 # (1 + 1.2t2)
dt 3
Vemf =- 1.6 6^0.4h + ^0.4h4@ # 61 + (1.2) (0.4) 2@
2
(t = 0.4 sec )
=- 0.35 volt
Since the voltmeter is connected in same manner as the direction of induced
emf (determined by Lenz’s law).
So the voltmeter reading will be
V = Vemf =- 0.35 volt
i. n
SOL 6.2.15 Correct answer is - 23.4 .
Since the position of bar is give as
x = t ^1 + 0.4t2h
co
So for the position x = 12 cm we have
. 0.12 = t ^1 + 0.4t2h
or,
ia t = 0.1193 sec
time t is
od
As calculated in previous question, the induced emf in the loop at a particular
ww
So, at t = 0.1193 sec ,
Vemf =- 1.6 7(0.1193) + 0.4 ^0.1193h3A 61 + ^1.2h^0.1193h2@
2
w =- 0.02344 =- 23.4 mV
Since the voltmeter is connected in same manner as the direction of induced
emf as determined by Lenz’s law. Therefore, the voltmeter reading at
x = 12 cm will be
V = Vemf =- 23.4 mvolt
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Page 410 Again From the Maxwell’s equation
Chap 6
Time Varying Fields and
d # E =-2B
2t
Maxwell Equations
# :1.2 cos ^10 - bx h ayD
or, 2B =- d b 10t
2t
2
=- b sin ^1010t - bx h az
1.2
So, the magnetic flux density in the medium is
2
B =- b sin ^1010t - bx h az dt
#
1.2
b2
10 cos ^10 t - bx h a z
10
= (1)
(1.2) # 10
We can also determine the value of magnetic flux density as :
B = mH
= (3 # 10-5) cos ^1010 t - bx h az (2)
Comparing the results of equation (1) and (2) we get,
b2 = 3 # 10-5
(1.2) # 1010
b2 = 3.6 # 105
b = ! 600 rad/m i. n
SOL 6.2.17 Correct answer is 54.414 .
.c o
i a
Given the electric field in time domain as
E = 5 sin ^10py h cos ^6p # 109 - bx h az
o d
Comparing it with the general equation for electric field intensity given as
E = E 0 cos ^wt - bx h az
.
We get,
n w = 6p # 109
w w
Now in phasor form, the electric field intensity is
Es = 5 sin ^10py h e-jbx az
From Maxwell’s equation we get the magnetic field intensity as
(1)
w Hs =- 1 ^d # Es h =
j
jwm0
j 2Esz
a - 2Esz a
wm0 < 2y x 2x yF
wm0 6
= 50p cos ^10py h e-jbx ax + j5b sin ^10py h ay@ e-jbx
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Let the point change located at origin be Q and the current I is flowing out
of the page through the closed triangular path as shown in the figure.
As the current I flows away from the point charge along the wire, the net
i. n
charge at origin will change with increasing time and given as
dQ
.co dt
=- I
So the electric field intensity will also vary through the surface and for the
ia
varying field circulation of magnetic field intensity around the triangular
loop is defined as
od
# H : dl = 6Id@enc + 6Ic@enc
where 6Ic@enc is the actual flow of charge called enclosed conduction current
n
and 6Id@enc is the current due to the varying field called enclosed displacement
.
ww
current which is given as
6Id@enc = dt
d
# S
^e0 E h : dS = dt
d D : dS
#S
(1)
w
From symmetry the total electric flux passing through the triangular surface
is
# D : dS =
Q
S 8
d Q = 1 dQ =- I
So, 6Id@enc = dt b 8 l 8 dt 8
(from equation (1))
whereas 6Ic@enc = I
So, the net circulation of the magnetic field intensity around the closed
triangular loop is
# H : dl = 6Id@enc + 6Ic@enc
C
=- I + I = 7 ^8 h = 7 A (I = 8 A )
8 8
SOL 6.2.19 Correct answer is 21.33 .
As calculated in previous question the maximum induced voltage in the
rotating loop is given as
Vemf = B 0 Sw
From the given data, we have
B 0 = 0.25 Wb/m2
S = 64 cm2 = 64 # 10-4 m2
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Page 412 and w = 60 # 2p = 377 rad/ sec (In one revolution 2p radian
Chap 6
is covered)
Time Varying Fields and
Maxwell Equations So, the r.m.s. value of the induced voltage is
1 V 1 B Sw
6Vemf@r.m.s = emf = 0
2 2
= 1 ^0.25 # 64 # 10-4 # 377h
2
= 0.4265
Since the loop has 50 turns so net induced voltage will be 50 times the
calculated value.
i.e. 6Vemf@r.m.s = 50 # ^0.4265h
= 21.33 volt
***********
i. n
.c o
i a
o d
. n
w w
w
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.co 2t
potential
ia
and since the magnetic flux density is equal to the curl of magnetic vector
i.e.
od B = d#A
So, putting it in equation (1), we get
.n d # E =- 2 ^d # Ah
2t
or
ww d # E = d # b- 2 A l
2t
SOL 6.3.4
w
Therefore, E =-2A
# B : dS
S
= # (d : B) dv = 0
v
(Stokes Theorem)
Thus, net outwards flux will be zero for a closed surface.
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Page 414 dF = 0
Chap 6 dt
Time Varying Fields and i.e. F is constant and doesn’t vary with time.
Maxwell Equations
SOL 6.3.6 Option (C) is correct.
A superconductor material carries zero magnetic field and zero electric field
inside it.
i.e. B = 0 and E = 0
Now from Ampere-Maxwell equation we have the relation between the
magnetic flux density and electric field intensity as
d # B = m0 J + m0 e02E
2t
So, J =0 (B = 0 , E = 0 )
Since the net current density inside the superconductor is zero so all the
current must be confined at the surface of the wire.
i. n
produce a magnetic field that opposes the change in B (t).
Now the configuration shown in option (A) and (B) for increasing magnetic
.c o
flux Bi , the change in flux is in same direction to Bi as well as the current I
flowing in the loop produces magnetic field in the same direction so it does
not follow the Lenz’s law.
i a
For the configuration shown in option (D), as the flux Bd is decreasing
o d
with time so the change in flux is in opposite direction to Bd as well as
the current I flowing in the loop produces the magnetic field in opposite
direction so it also does not follow the Lenz’s law.
. n
For the configuration shown in option (C), the flux density Bd is decreasing
w
with time so the change in flux is in opposite direction to Bd but the current
I flowing in the loop produces magnetic field in the same direction to Bd
w
(opposite to the direction of change in flux density). Therefore this is the
SOL 6.3.8
wcorrect configuration.
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i. n
.co
ia
od
.n
ww
w
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Page 416
Chap 6 SOLUTIONS 6.4
Time Varying Fields and
Maxwell Equations
i. n
H = B = 0 f , which is constant
m0 m0
So, the current density of the field is
J = d#H = 0
.c o (since H is constant)
i a
Maxwell equations for an EM wave is given as
d:B = 0
o r
d
. n
d:E = v
e
w w d # E =-2B
d # H = 2D + J
2t
w 2t
So, for static electric magnetic fields
d:B = 0
d : E = rv /e
2B
d#E = 0 b 2t = 0 l
2D
d#H = J b 2t = 0 l
SOL 6.4.3 Option (D) is correct.
d # H = J + 2D Maxwell Equations
2t
##S ^d # H h : dS = ##S `J + 22Dt j : dS Integral form
D : dS
# H : dl = ##S bJ +2
2t l
Stokes Theorem
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or, #l H $ dl = #S J : dS
Applying Stoke’s theorem we get
#S ^d # H h $ dS = #S J : dS
d#H = J
Then, it is modified using continuity equation as
d # H = J + 2D
2t
SOL 6.4.6 Option (D) is correct.
When a moving circuit is put in a time varying magnetic field induced emf
have two components. One due to time variation of magnetic flux density B
and other due to the motion of circuit in the field.
SOL 6.4.7
i. n
Option (C) is correct.
o
From maxwell equation we have
c
d # H = J + 2D
. 2t
ia
The term 2D defines displacement current.
2t
SOL 6.4.8
od
Option (C) is correct.
Emf induced in a loop carrying a time varying magnetic flux F is defined as
.n Vemf =- dF
ww dt
9 =- d b 1 lt3 l
dt 3
w 9 =- lt2
at time, t = 3 s , we have
9 =- l ^3h2
l =- 1 Wb/s2
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Page 418 doesn’t obey Lenz’s law.
Chap 6 Thus, the configuration 1 and 3 are correct.
Time Varying Fields and
Maxwell Equations SOL 6.4.10 Option (C) is correct.
Faraday’s law states that for time varying field,
d # E =-2B
2t
Since, the curl of gradient of a scalar function is always zero
i.e. d # ^dV h = 0
So, the expression for the field, E =- dV must include some other terms is
E =- dV - 2A
2t
i.e. A is true but R is false.
i. n
SOL 6.4.12 Option (D) is correct.
Given, the area of loop
S = 5 m2
Rate of change of flux density,
2B = 2 Wb/m2 /S
.c o
2t
i a
So, the emf in the loop is
o d #
Vemf =- 2 B : dS
2t
. n = ^5 h^- 2h =- 10 V
SOL 6.4.13
w w
Option (D) is correct.
The modified Maxwell’s differential equation.
w d # H = J + 2D
2t
This equation is derived from Ampere’s circuital law which is given as
# H : dl = Ienc
# ^d # H h : dS = # JdS
d#H = J
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i. n
SOL 6.4.19 Option (A) is correct.
The Basic idea of radiation is given by the two Maxwell’s equation
.co d # H = 2D
d # E =-2B
2t
ia 2t
SOL 6.4.20
od
Option (B) is correct.
The correct Maxwell’s equation are
.n d # H = J + 2D
2t
d:D = r
ww d # E =-2B
2t
d:B = 0
SOL 6.4.21
w
Option (B) is correct.
In List I
a. #B : dS = 0
The surface integral of magnetic flux density over the closed surface is zero
or in other words, net outward magnetic flux through any closed surface is
zero. ^a " 4h
b. # D : dS = # r dv
v
v
Total outward electric flux through any closed surface is equal to the charge
enclosed in the region. ^b " 3h
c. E : dl =- 2B dS
# #
2t
i.e. The line integral of the electric field intensity around a closed path is
equal to the surface integral of the time derivative of magnetic flux density
^c " 2h
d. # H : dS = b2D + J l da
# 2t
i.e. The line integral of magnetic field intensity around a closed path is equal
to the surface integral of sum of the current density and time derivative of
electric flux density. ^d " 1h
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Page 420 SOL 6.4.22 Option (D) is correct.
Chap 6 The continuity equation is given as
Time Varying Fields and
Maxwell Equations d : J =- rv
i.e. it relates current density ^J h and charge density rv .
o d
The emf in the loop will be induced due to motion of the loop as well as the
n
variation in magnetic field given as
. Vemf =- 2B dS + ^v # B h dl
# #
w w 2t
So, the frequencies for the induced e.m.f. in the loop is w1 and w2 .
w
SOL 6.4.26 Option (B) is correct.
F = Q ^E + v # B h is Lorentz force equation.
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So again by using right hand rule we get the direction of induced e.m.f. is Page 421
anticlockwise in A and clockwise in B . Chap 6
Time Varying Fields and
SOL 6.4.30 Option (D) is correct. Maxwell Equations
d2 A =- m0 J
This is the wave equation for static electromagnetic field.
i.e. It is not Maxwell’s equation.
i. n
Induced emf in a coil of N turns is defined as
Vemf =- N dF
co dt
where F is flux linking the coil. So, we get
.
ia
Vemf =- 100 d ^t3 - 2t h
dt
od =- 100 ^3t2 - 2h
=- 100 _3 ^2 h2 - 2i =- 1000 mV (at t = 2 s )
.n =- 1 V
SOL 6.4.33
ww
Option (B) is correct.
A static electric field in a charge free region is defined as
d:E = 0 ^a " 4h
and w d#E = 0
A static electric field in a charged region have
r
d:E = v ! 0
e ^b " 2h
and d#E = 0
A steady magnetic field in a current carrying conductor have
d:B = 0 ^c " 1h
d # B = m0 J ! 0
A time varying electric field in a charged medium with time varying magnetic
field have
d # E =-2B ! 0 ^d " 3h
2t
r
d:E = v ! 0
e
SOL 6.4.34 Option (C) is correct.
V =- dFm
dt
It is Faraday’s law that states that the change in flux through any loop
induces e.m.f. in the loop.
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Page 422 SOL 6.4.35 Option (B) is correct.
Chap 6 From stokes theorem, we have
Time Varying Fields and
Maxwell Equations # ^d # E h : dS = # E : dl (1)
Given, the Maxwell’s equation
d # E =- (2B/2t)
Putting this expression in equation (1) we get,
# #
E : dl =- 2 B : dS
2t s
SOL 6.4.36 Option (D) is correct.
Since, the flux linking through both the coil is varying with time so, emf are
induced in both the coils.
Since, the loop 2 is split so, no current flows in it and so joule heating does
not occur in coil 2 while the joule heating occurs in closed loop 1 as current
flows in it.
Therefore, only statement 2 is correct.
i. n
The electric field intensity is
E = E 0 e jwt where E 0 is independent of time
So, from Maxwell’s equation we have
d # H = J + e2E
2t
.c o
i a
= sE + e ^ jwh E 0 e jwt = sE + jweE
o d
Equation (1) and (3) are not the Maxwell’s equation.
SOL 6.4.39
. n
Option (A) is correct.
w w
From the Maxwell’s equation for a static field (DC) we have
d # B = m0 J
d # ^d # Ah = m0 J
w For static field (DC),
d ^d : Ah - d2A = m0 J
d:A = 0
therefore we have, d2A =- m0 J
So, both A and R are true and R is correct explanation of A.
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i. n
Gauss’s law d:D = r
Ampere’s law d # H = Jc + 2D ^b " 5h
2t
Faraday’s law
.co d # E =-2B
2t
^c " 2h
ia
Poynting vector P = E#H ^d " 3h
od ***********
.n
ww
w
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Eighth Edition
GATE
ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION
Network Analysis
Vol 3 of 10
RK Kanodia
Ashish Murolia
Information contained in this book has been obtained by author, from sources believes to be reliable. However,
neither NODIA & COMPANY nor its author guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any information herein,
and NODIA & COMPANY nor its author shall be responsible for any error, omissions, or damages arising out of
use of this information. This book is published with the understanding that NODIA & COMPANY and its author
are supplying information but are not attempting to render engineering or other professional services.
MRP 690.00
Later, we perceived that many aspirants couldn’t develop a good problem solving approach in their B.E/B.Tech.
Some of them lacked the fundamentals of a subject and had difficulty understanding simple solutions. Now,
we have an idea to enhance our content and present two separate books for each subject: one for theory, which
contains brief theory, problem solving methods, fundamental concepts, and points-to-remember. The second book
is about problems, including a vast collection of problems with descriptive and step-by-step solutions that can
be understood by an average student. This was the origin of GATE Guide (the theory book) and GATE Cloud
(the problem bank) series: two books for each subject. GATE Guide and GATE Cloud were published in three
subjects only.
Thereafter we received an immense number of emails from our readers looking for a complete study package
for all subjects and a book that combines both GATE Guide and GATE Cloud. This encouraged us to present
GATE Study Package (a set of 10 books: one for each subject) for GATE Electronic and Communication
Engineering. Each book in this package is adequate for the purpose of qualifying GATE for an average student.
Each book contains brief theory, fundamental concepts, problem solving methodology, summary of formulae,
and a solved question bank. The question bank has three exercises for each chapter: 1) Theoretical MCQs, 2)
Numerical MCQs, and 3) Numerical Type Questions (based on the new GATE pattern). Solutions are presented
in a descriptive and step-by-step manner, which are easy to understand for all aspirants.
We believe that each book of GATE Study Package helps a student learn fundamental concepts and develop
problem solving skills for a subject, which are key essentials to crack GATE. Although we have put a vigorous
effort in preparing this book, some errors may have crept in. We shall appreciate and greatly acknowledge all
constructive comments, criticisms, and suggestions from the users of this book. You may write to us at rajkumar.
kanodia@gmail.com and ashish.murolia@gmail.com.
Acknowledgements
We would like to express our sincere thanks to all the co-authors, editors, and reviewers for their efforts in
making this project successful. We would also like to thank Team NODIA for providing professional support for
this project through all phases of its development. At last, we express our gratitude to God and our Family for
providing moral support and motivation.
Networks:
Network graphs: matrices associated with graphs; incidence, fundamental cut set and fundamental circuit matrices.
Solution methods: nodal and mesh analysis. Network theorems: superposition, Thevenin and Norton’s maximum
power transfer, Wye-Delta transformation. Steady state sinusoidal analysis using phasors. Linear constant coefficient
differential equations; time domain analysis of simple RLC circuits, Solution of network equations using Laplace
transform: frequency domain analysis of RLC circuits. 2-port network parameters: driving point and transfer
functions. State equations for networks.
Network Theory
Network analysis techniques; Network theorems, transient response, steady state sinusoidal response; Network
graphs and their applications in network analysis; Tellegen’s theorem. Two port networks; Z, Y, h and transmission
parameters. Combination of two ports, analysis of common two ports. Network functions : parts of network
functions, obtaining a network function from a given part. Transmission criteria : delay and rise time, Elmore’s and
other definitions effect of cascading. Elements of network synthesis.
**********
EXERCISE 1.2 18
SOLUTIONS 1.1 23
SOLUTIONS 1.2 30
EXERCISE 2.1 49
EXERCISE 2.2 67
SOLUTIONS 2.1 78
***********
CHAPTER 5
Page 211
Chap 5
Circuit Theorems
CIRCUIT THEOREMS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
i. n
5.2 LINEARITY
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A system is linear if it satisfies the following two properties
i
Homogeneity Property
a
od
The homogeneity property requires that if the input (excitation) is multiplied
by a constant, then the output (response) is multiplied by the same constant.
.n
For a resistor, for example, Ohm’s law relates the input I to the output V ,
V = IR
ww
If the current is increased by a constant k , then the voltage increases
correspondingly by k , that is,
w
Additivity Property
kIR = kV
The additivity property requires that the response to a sum of inputs is the
sum of the responses to each input applied separately. Using the voltage-
current relationship of a resistor, if
V1 = I1 R (Voltage due to current I1 )
and V2 = I2 R (Voltage due to current I2 )
then, applying current (I1 + I2) gives
V = (I1 + I2) R = I1 R + I2 R
= V1 + V2
These two properties defining a linear system can be combined into a single
statement as
For any linear resistive circuit, any output voltage or current, denoted by
the variable y , is related linearly to the independent sources(inputs), i.e.,
y = a1 x1 + a2 x2 + ... + an xn
where x1, x2 .... xn are the voltage and current values of the independent
sources in the circuit and a1 through am are properly dimensioned constants.
Thus, a linear circuit is one whose output is linearly related (or directly
Page 212 proportional) to its input. For example, consider the linear circuit shown
Chap 5 in figure 5.2.1. It is excited by an input voltage source Vs , and the current
Circuit Theorems through load R is taken as output(response).
i. n
Therefore, linearity does not applicable to power calculations..
5.3 SUPERPOSITION
.c o
The number of circuits required to solve a network. using superposition
theorem is equal to the number of independent sources present in the
network. It states that
i a
o d
In any linear circuit containing multiple independent sources the total
. n
current through or voltage across an element can be determined by
algebraically adding the voltage or current due to each independent source
w w
acting alone with all other independent sources set to zero.
M E T H O D O L O G Y
1. Consider one independent source (either voltage or current) at a time,
short circuit all other voltage sources and open circuit all other current
sources.
2. Dependent sources can not be set to zero as they are controlled by
other circuit parameters.
3. Calculate the current or voltage due to the single source using any
method (KCL, KVL, nodal or mesh analysis).
4. Repeat the above steps for each source.
5. Algebraically add the results obtained by each source to get the total
response.
NOTE :
Superposition theorem can not be applied to power calculations since power is not a linear
quantity.
i. n
1.
. o
Fig. 5.4.1 Source Transformation of Independent Source
c
Note that head of the current source arrow corresponds to the + ve
ia
terminal of the voltage source. The following figure illustrates this
od
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ww
w
Fig. 5.4.2 Source Transformation of Independent Source
2. Source conversion are equivalent at their external terminals only i.e. the
voltage-current relationship at their external terminals remains same.
The two circuits in figure 5.4.3a and 5.4.3b are equivalent, provided
they have the same voltage-current relation at terminals a -b
Fig. 5.4.3 An example of source transformation (a) Circuit with a voltage source (b)
Equivalent circuit when the voltage source is transformed into current sources
Page 214 because for an ideal current source Rs = 3 , so equivalent voltage source
Chap 5 value will not be finite.
Circuit Theorems
i. n
.c o
i a
d
Fig. 5.4.4 Source Transformation of Dependent Sources
o
5.5
.
THEVENIN’S THEOREM n
w w
It states that any network composed of ideal voltage and current sources,
Figure 5.5.2 illustrates that the open-circuit voltage, Voc , and the
Thevenin voltage, VTh , must be the same because in the circuit consisting of
i. n
VTh and RTh , the voltage Voc must equal VTh , since no current flows through RTh
and therefore the voltage across RTh is zero. Kirchhoff’s voltage law confirms
that
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VTh = RTh (0) + Voc = Voc
ia
The procedure of obtaining Thevenin voltage is given in the following
methodology.
od
M E T H O D O L O G Y 1
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1. Remove the load i.e open circuit the load terminals.
ww
2. Define the open-circuit voltage Voc across the open load terminals.
3. Apply any preferred method (KCL, KVL, nodal analysis, mesh analysis
etc.) to solve for Voc .
w
4. The Thevenin voltage is VTh = Voc .
NOTE :
Note that this methodology is applicable with the circuits containing both the dependent
and independent source.
If a circuit contains dependent sources only, i.e. there is no independent
source present in the network then its open circuit voltage or Thevenin
voltage will simply be zero.
NOTE :
For the Thevenin voltage we may use the terms Thevenin voltage or open circuit voltage
interchangeably.
M E T H O D O L O G Y
.c2
o
i a
1. Set all independent sources to zero(Short circuit independent voltage
o d
source and open circuit independent current source).
2. Remove the load, and put a test source Vtest across its terminals. Let
. n
the current through test source is Itest . Alternatively, we can put a test
source Itest across load terminals and assume the voltage across it is Vtest
w NOTE :
We may use Vtest = 1 V or Itest = 1 A .
M E T H O D O L O G Y 3
1. Connect a short circuit between terminal a and b .
2. Be careful, do not set independent sources zero in this method because
we have to find short circuit current.
3. Now, obtain the short circuit current Isc through terminals a , b .
4. Thevenin resistance is given as RTh = Voc /Isc where Voc is open circuit
voltage or Thevenin voltage across terminal a, b which can be obtained
by same method given previously.
Fig. 5.5.5 A Circuit with a Load and its Equivalent Thevenin Circuit
i. n
IL = VTh
RTh + RL
Voltage across the load RL
co
VL = RL IL =
.
RL V
RTh + RL Th
.n
resistors, may be represented by an equivalent circuit consisting of an
ideal current source, IN , in parallel with an equivalent resistance, RN as
w
illustrated in figure 5.6.1.
w
w
Page 218
Chap 5
Circuit Theorems
Figure 5.6.2 illustrates that if we replace the load by a short circuit, then
current flowing through this short circuit will be same as Norton current IN
IN = Isc
The procedure of obtaining Norton current is given in the following
methodology. Note that this methodology is applicable with the circuits
containing both the dependent and independent source.
M E T H O D O L O G Y
1. Replace the load with a short circuit.
2.
3. i. n
Define the short circuit current, Isc , through load terminal.
Obtain Isc using any method (KCL, KVL, nodal analysis, loop analysis).
4. The Norton current is IN = Isc .
.c o
i a
If a circuit contains dependent sources only, i.e. there is no independent
source present in the network then the short circuit current or Norton
d
current will simply be zero.
o
5.6.2
.
Norton’s Resistance
n
w w
Norton resistance is the input or equivalent resistance seen at the load
terminals when all independent sources are set to zero(voltage sources
Fig. 5.6.4 A circuit with a Load and its Equivalent Norton Circuit
.
ia
od
.n
ww
Fig. 5.7.1 Source Transformation of Thevenin and Norton Equivalents
5.8
w
MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM
Page 220 Fiig. 5.8.1 A Circuit Used for Maximum Power Transfer
Chap 5
Circuit Theorems We assume that we can adjust the load resistance RL . The power
absorbed by the load, PL , is given by the expression
PL = I L2 RL (5.8.1)
and that the load current is given as,
IL = VTh (5.8.2)
RL + RTh
Substituting IL from equation (5.8.2) into equation (5.8.1)
2
PL = V Th RL (5.8.3)
(RL + RTh) 2
To find the value of RL that maximizes the expression for PL (assuming that
VTh and RTh are fixed), we write
dPL = 0
dRL
Computing the derivative, we obtain the following expression :
.c o
Thus, in order to transfer maximum power to a load, the equivalent
source and load resistances must be matched, that is, equal to each other.
RL = RTh
i a
o
into equation (5.8.3) d
The maximum power transferred is obtained by substituting RL = RTh
n
2 2
Pmax = V Th RTh = V Th (5.8.4)
w w
or, Pmax = V Th
4RL
M E T H O D O L O G Y
1. Remove the load RL and find the Thevenin equivalent voltage VTh and
resistance RTh for the remainder of the circuit.
2. Select RL = RTh , for maximum power transfer.
3. The maximum average power transfer can be calculated using
Pmax = V Th
2
/4RTh .
i. n
I1 I2
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ia
od
.n
w
Fig. 5.9.1 Illustration of Reciprocity Theorem for a Voltage Source
w
w
When applying the reciprocity theorem for a voltage source, the following
steps must be followed:
1. The voltage source is replaced by a short circuit in the original
location.
2. The polarity of the voltage source in the new location have the same
correspondence with branch current, in each position, otherwise a -
ve sign appears in the expression (5.9.1).
This can be explained in a better way through following example.
Page 222 Again, the ratio of voltage and current remains constant. Consider the
Chap 5 network shown in figure 5.9.2a and 5.9.2b. Using reciprocity theorem we my
Circuit Theorems write
V1 = V2 (5.9.2)
I1 I2
When applying the reciprocity theorem for a current source, the following
conditions must be met:
1. The current source is replaced by an open circuit in the original
location.
2. The direction of the current source in the new location have the same
correspondence with voltage polarity, in each position, otherwise a -
ve sign appears in the expression (5.9.2).
If the voltage across and the current through any branch of a dc bilateral
network are known, this branch can be replaced by any combination of
elements that will maintain the same voltage across and current through
the chosen branch.
i. n
o
For example consider the circuit of figure 5.10.1 .
.c
i a
o d
. n
w w
Fig 5.10.1 A Circuit having Voltage Vab = 6 V and Current I = 1 A in Branch ab
w The voltage Vab and the current I in the circuit are given as
Vab = c 6 m 10 = 6 V
6+4
I = 10 = 1 A
6+4
The 6 W resistor in branch a -b may be replaced with any combination
of components, provided that the terminal voltage and current must be the
same.
We see that the branches of figure 5.10.2a-e are each equivalent to the
original branch between terminals a and b of the circuit in figure 5.10.1.
i. n
Fig. 5.11.1 Illustration of Millman’s Theorem
Mathematically
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Veq = V1 G1 + V2 G2 + V3 G3 + V4 G4 + . . . + Vn Gn
G1 + G2 + G3 + G4 + . . . + Gn
iaReq = 1 = 1
od
where conductances
Geq G1 + G2 + G3 + ... + Gn
.n G1 = 1 , G2 = 1 , G3 = 1 , G4 = 1 , f Gn = 1
R1
In terms of resistances
R2 R3 R4 Rn
ww Veq =
V1 /R1 + V2 /R2 + V3 /R3 + V4 /R4 + . . . + Vn Rn
1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 + 1/R4 + . . . + 1/Rn
w
5.12 TELLEGEN’S THEOREM
Req = 1 = 1
Geq 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 + ... + 1/Rn
Tellegen’s theorem states that the sum of the power dissipations in a lumped
network at any instant is always zero. This is supported by Kirchhoff’s
voltage and current laws. Tellegen’s theorem is valid for any lumped network
which may be linear or non-linear, passive or active, time-varying or time-
invariant.
For a network with n branches, the power summation equation is,
k=n
/V I
k=1
k k =0
***********
Page 224
Chap 5 EXERCISE 5.1
Circuit Theorems
MCQ 5.1.1 The linear network in the figure contains resistors and dependent sources
only. When Vs = 10 V , the power supplied by the voltage source is 40 W.
What will be the power supplied by the source if Vs = 5 V ?
(A) 20 W
(B) 10 W
i. n
(C) 40 W
(D) can not be determined
MCQ 5.1.2
.c o
In the circuit below, it is given that when Vs = 20 V , IL = 200 mA . What
values of IL and Vs will be required such that power absorbed by RL is
2.5 W ?
i a
o d
. n
w
(A)w 1 A , 2.5 V
w (B)
(C)
(D)
0.5 A, 2 V
0.5 A, 50 V
2 A, 1.25 V
MCQ 5.1.3 For the circuit shown in figure below, some measurements are made and
listed in the table.
i. n
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ia
od
(A) 8 A, 8 A, - 4 A
(C) 4 A, 4 A, - 1 A
(B) 12 A, 12 A, - 5 A
(D) 2 A, 2 A, - 4 A
MCQ 5.1.6
.n
In the circuit below, current I is equal to sum of two currents I1 and I2 .
What are the values of I1 and I2 ?
ww
w
(A) 6 A, 1 A (B) 9 A, 6 A
(C) 3 A, 1 A (D) 3 A, 4 A
MCQ 5.1.7 A network consists only of independent current sources and resistors. If the
values of all the current sources are doubled, then values of node voltages
(A) remains same
(B) will be doubled
(C) will be halved
(D) changes in some other way.
MCQ 5.1.8 Consider a network which consists of resistors and voltage sources only. If
the values of all the voltage sources are doubled, then the values of mesh
current will be
(A) doubled (B) same
(C) halved (D) none of these
Page 226 MCQ 5.1.9 The value of current I in the circuit below is equal to
Chap 5
Circuit Theorems
(A) 72 A (B) 1 A
(C) 2 A (D) 4 A
i. n
(A) absorbs 36 W
(B) delivers 4 W
(C) absorbs 100 W
.c o
(D) delivers 36 W
i a
MCQ 5.1.11
o d
Which of the following circuits is equivalent to the circuit shown below ?
. n
w w
w
i. n
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ia
od
Which of the following circuit is equivalent to the above circuit ?
.n
ww
w
MCQ 5.1.14 For the circuit shown in the figure the Thevenin voltage and resistance seen
from the terminal a -b are respectively
(A) 34 V, 0 W
(B) 20 V , 24 W
(C) 14 V, 0 W
(D) - 14 V , 24 W
Page 228 MCQ 5.1.15 In the following circuit, Thevenin voltage and resistance across terminal a
Chap 5 and b respectively are
Circuit Theorems
(A) 10 V, 18 W (B) 2 V, 18 W
(C) 10 V, 18.67 W (D) 2 V, 18.67 W
MCQ 5.1.16 The value of RTh and VTh such that the circuit of figure (B) is the Thevenin
equivalent circuit of the circuit shown in figure (A), will be equal to
i. n
(A) RTh = 6 W , VTh = 4 V
.c o
(B)
i
RTh = 6 W , VTh = 28 V
a
(C)
(D)
o d
RTh = 2 W , VTh = 24 V
RTh = 10 W , VTh = 14 V
MCQ 5.1.17
. n
What values of RTh and VTh will cause the circuit of figure (B) to be the
equivalent circuit of figure (A) ?
w w
w
(A) 2.4 W, - 24 V (B) 3 W, 16 V
(C) 10 W, 24 V (D) 10 W, - 24 V
(C) 18 V, 12 V (D) 30 V, - 12 V
MCQ 5.1.19 The value of Thevenin resistance across terminals a -b of figure (A) and
figure (B) respectively are
(A) zero, 3 W (B) 9 W, 16 W
(C) 2 W, 3 W (D) zero, 16 W
MCQ 5.1.20 For a network having resistors and independent sources, it is desired to
obtain Thevenin equivalent across the load which is in parallel with an ideal
current source. Then which of the following statement is true ?
(A) The Thevenin equivalent circuit is simply that of a voltage source.
(B) The Thevenin equivalent circuit consists of a voltage source and a series
resistor.
(C) The Thevenin equivalent circuit does not exist but the Norton equivalent
does exist.
(D) None of these
i. n
MCQ 5.1.21
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The Thevenin equivalent circuit of a network consists only of a resistor
(Thevenin voltage is zero). Then which of the following elements might be
contained in the network ?
ia
(A) resistor and independent sources
od
(B) resistor only
(C) resistor and dependent sources
n
(D) resistor, independent sources and dependent sources.
.
MCQ 5.1.22
w
For the circuit shown in the figure, the Thevenin’s voltage and resistance
looking into a -b are
w
w
(A) 2 V, 3 W (B) 2 V, 2 W
(C) 6 V, - 9 W (D) 6 V, - 3 W
MCQ 5.1.23 For the following circuit, values of voltage V for different values of R are
given in the table.
The Thevenin voltage and resistance of the unknown circuit are respectively.
(A) 14 V, 4 W
(B) 4 V, 1 W
(C) 14 V, 6 W
(D) 10 V, 2 W
Page 230 MCQ 5.1.24 In the circuit shown below, the Norton equivalent current and resistance
Chap 5 with respect to terminal a -b is
Circuit Theorems
(A) 176 A , 0 W
(B) 2 A, 24 W
(C) - 76 A , 24 W
(D) - 2 A , 24 W
MCQ 5.1.25 The Norton equivalent circuit for the circuit shown in figure is given by
i. n
.c o
i a
o d
. n
w w
w
MCQ 5.1.26 What are the values of equivalent Norton current source (IN ) and equivalent
resistance (RN ) across the load terminal of the circuit shown in figure ?
IN RN
(A) 10 A 2W
(B) 10 A 9W
(C) 3.33 A 9W
(D) 6.66 A 2W
MCQ 5.1.27 For a network consisting of resistors and independent sources only, it is
desired to obtain Thevenin’s or Norton’s equivalent across a load which is in
parallel with an ideal voltage sources.
Consider the following statements :
3. The Norton equivalent circuit for this terminal does not exist.
Which of the above statements is/are true ?
(A) 1 and 3 (B) 1 only
(C) 2 and 3 (D) 3 only
MCQ 5.1.28 For a network consisting of resistors and independent sources only, it is
desired to obtain Thevenin’s or Norton’s equivalent across a load which is in
series with an ideal current sources.
Consider the following statements
1. Norton equivalent across this terminal is not feasible.
2. Norton equivalent circuit exists and it is simply that of a current source
only.
3. Thevenin’s equivalent circuit across this terminal is not feasible.
Which of the above statements is/are correct ?
(A) 1 and 3
(B) 2 and 3 i. n
(C) 1 only
(D) 3 only
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MCQ 5.1.29
ia
The Norton equivalent circuit of the given network with respect to the
d
terminal a -b, is
o
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ww
w
MCQ 5.1.30 In the circuit below, if RL is fixed and Rs is variable then for what value of
Rs power dissipated in RL will be maximum ?
(A) RS = RL (B) RS = 0
(C) RS = RL /2 (D) RS = 2RL
Page 232 MCQ 5.1.31 In the circuit shown below the maximum power transferred to RL is Pmax ,
Chap 5 then
Circuit Theorems
(A) RL = 12 W , Pmax = 12 W
(B) RL = 3 W , Pmax = 96 W
(C) RL = 3 W , Pmax = 48 W
(D) RL = 12 W , Pmax = 24 W
MCQ 5.1.32 In the circuit shown in figure (A) if current I1 = 2 A , then current I2 and I 3
in figure (B) and figure (C) respectively are
i. n
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i a
o d
. n
w w
(A) 2 A, 2 A
w (B) - 2 A , 2 A
(C) 2 A, - 2 A
(D) - 2 A , - 2 A
MCQ 5.1.33 In the circuit of figure (A), if I1 = 20 mA , then what is the value of current
I2 in the circuit of figure (B) ?
(A) 40 mA
(B) - 20 mA
(C) 20 mA
(D) R1 , R2 and R 3 must be known
(A) 2 V (B) - 2 V
(C) 4 V (D) R1 , R2 and R 3 must be known
MCQ 5.1.35 The value of current I in the circuit below is equal to
i. n
(A)100 mA
(C) 233.34 mA
.co (B) 10 mA
(D) none of these
MCQ 5.1.36
ia
A simple equivalent circuit of the two-terminal network shown in figure is
od
.n
ww
w
MCQ 5.1.37 If V = AV1 + BV2 + CI 3 in the following circuit, then values of A, B and C
respectively are
Page 234 MCQ 5.1.38 For the linear network shown below, V -I characteristic is also given in the
Chap 5 figure. The value of Norton equivalent current and resistance respectively
Circuit Theorems are
(A) 3 A, 2 W (B) 6 W, 2 W
(C) 6 A, 0.5 W (D) 3 A, 0.5 W
MCQ 5.1.39 In the following circuit a network and its Thevenin and Norton equivalent
are given.
i. n
The value of the parameter are
.c o
VTh RTh
2W
i a IN RN
2W
(A)
(B)
4V
4V
o d
2W
2A
2A 3W
(C)
(D)
.
8V
8V n 1.2 W
5W
30
8
3 A
A
1.2 W
5W
w
5
For the following circuit the value of equivalent Norton current IN and
w
MCQ 5.1.40
resistance RN are
w
(A) 2 A, 20 W (B) 2 A, - 20 W
(C) 0 A, 20 W (D) 0 A, - 20 W
MCQ 5.1.41 Consider the following circuits shown below
(C) Ib = 1.5Ia
(D) Ib = Ia
MCQ 5.1.42 The Thevenin equivalent of the unknown network across terminal a -b is
i. n
(A) 3 W, 14 V (B) 5 W, 16 V
(C) 16 W, 38 V (D) 10 W, 26 V
MCQ 5.1.43
(A) 22 W
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The value of R that will cause I to be 1 A, is
(B) 16 W
(C) 8 W
ia (D) 11 W
MCQ 5.1.44
od
In the circuit shown in fig (A) if current I1 = 2.5 A then current I2 and I 3 in
fig (B) and (C) respectively are
.n
ww
w
(A) 5 A, 10 A (B) - 5 A , 10 A
(C) 5 A, - 10 A (D) - 5 A , - 10 A
MCQ 5.1.45 The V -I relation of the unknown element X in the given network is
V = AI + B . The value of A (in ohm) and B (in volt) respectively are
Page 236
Chap 5
Circuit Theorems
(A) 2, 20 (B) 2, 8
(C) 0.5, 4 (D) 0.5, 16
MCQ 5.1.46 For the following network the V -I curve with respect to terminals a -b, is
given by
i. n
.c o
i a
o d
. n
w w
w
MCQ 5.1.47 A network N feeds a resistance R as shown in circuit below. Let the power
consumed by R be P . If an identical network is added as shown in figure,
the power consumed by R will be
a
(D) 150 mA, upward
i
MCQ 5.1.50
od
The Thevenin’s equivalent of the circuit shown in the figure is
.n
ww
(A)
w
4 V, 48 W
(B) 24 V, 12 W
(C) 24 V, 24 W
(D) 12 V, 12 W
MCQ 5.1.51 The voltage VL across the load resistance in the figure is given by
VL = V b RL l
R + RL
V and R will be equal to
(A) - 10 V , 2 W (B) 10 V, 2 W
(C) - 10 V , - 2 W (D) none of these
Page 238 MCQ 5.1.52 In the circuit given below, viewed from a -b, the circuit can be reduced to an
Chap 5 equivalent circuit as
Circuit Theorems
i. n
(A) 7V = 200I + 54
.c o (B) V = 100I + 36
(C) V = 200I + 54
i a (D) V = 50I + 54
MCQ 5.1.54
o d
In the following circuit the value of open circuit voltage and Thevenin
resistance at terminals a, b are
. n
w w
w
(A) Voc = 100 V , RTh = 1800 W
(B) Voc = 0 V , RTh = 270 W
(C) Voc = 100 V , RTh = 90 W
(D) Voc = 0 V , RTh = 90 W
***********
QUES 5.2.1 In the given network, if Vs = V0 , I = 1 A . If Vs = 2V0 then what is the value
of I1 (in Amp) ?
QUES 5.2.2 In the given network, if Is = I 0 then V = 1 volt . What is the value of I1 (in
Amp) if Is = 2I 0 ?
i. n
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ia
In the circuit below, the voltage V across the 40 W resistor would be equal
d
QUES 5.2.3
to ____ Volts.
no
w.
QUES 5.2.4
ww
The value of current I flowing through 2 W resistance in the given circuit,
equals to ____ Amp.
QUES 5.2.5 In the given circuit, the value of current I will be _____Amps.
QUES 5.2.6 What is the value of current I in the given network (in Amp) ?
Page 240
Chap 5
Circuit Theorems
QUES 5.2.7 In the given network if V1 = V2 = 0 , then what is the value of Vo (in volts) ?
i. n
QUES 5.2.8 What is the value of current I in the circuit shown below (in Amp) ?
.c o
i a
QUES 5.2.9
o d
How much power is being dissipated by the 4 kW resistor in the network (in
mW) ?
. n
w w
w
QUES 5.2.10 Thevenin equivalent resistance RTh between the nodes a and b in the
following circuit is ____ W .
QUES 5.2.11 The equivalent Thevenin voltage across terminal a -b is____ Volts.
QUES 5.2.12 The Norton equivalent current with respect to terminal a -b is ____ Amps
QUES 5.2.13 In the circuit given below, what is the value of current I (in Amp) through
6 W resistor
i. n
QUES 5.2.14
co
For the circuit below, what value of R will cause I = 3 A (in W ) ?
.
ia
od
.n
QUES 5.2.15
ww
The maximum power that can be transferred to the resistance R in the
circuit is ____ mili watts.
w
QUES 5.2.16 The value of current I in the following circuit is equal to _____Amp.
QUES 5.2.17 For the following circuit the value of RTh is____W .
Page 242
Chap 5
Circuit Theorems
QUES 5.2.18 What is the value of current I in the given network (in Amp) ?
i. n
QUES 5.2.20
.c o
For the circuit of figure, some measurements were made at the terminals a -b
i a
and given in the table below.
o d
. n
w w
What is the value of IL (in Amps) for RL = 20 W ?
w
QUES 5.2.21 In the circuit below, for what value of k , load RL = 2 W absorbs maximum
power ?
QUES 5.2.22 In the circuit shown below, the maximum power that can be delivered to the
load RL is equal to _____ mW.
QUES 5.2.25 If I = 5 A in the circuit below, then what is the value of voltage source Vs
(in volts)?
i. n
QUES 5.2.26
.co
For the following circuit, what is the value of current I (in Amp) ?
ia
od
QUES 5.2.27
.n
The Thevenin equivalent resistance between terminal a and b in the following
w
circuit is _____ W .
w
w
QUES 5.2.28 In the circuit shown below, what is the value of current I (in Amps) ?
QUES 5.2.29 The power delivered by 12 V source in the given network is ____ watts.
Page 244 QUES 5.2.30 In the circuit shown, what value of RL (in W ) maximizes the power delivered
Chap 5 to RL ?
Circuit Theorems
QUES 5.2.31 The V -I relation for the circuit below is plotted in the figure. The maximum
power that can be transferred to the load RL will be ______ mW
QUES 5.2.32
i. n
In the following circuit equivalent Thevenin resistance between nodes a and
o
b is RTh = 3 W . The value of a is_____
.c
i a
o d
QUES 5.2.33
. n
The maximum power that can be transferred to the load resistor RL from
w
the current source in the figure is ____ watts.
w
w
QUES 5.2.37 What is the value of voltage V in the following network (in volts) ?
i. n
.co
QUES 5.2.38
ia
For the circuit shown in figure below the value of RTh is ____W .
od
.n
ww
QUES 5.2.39
w
Consider the network shown below :
RL 10 kW 30 kW
P 3.6 mW 4.8 mW
***********
Page 246
Chap 5 SOLUTIONS 5.1
Circuit Theorems
For, Vs = 10 V , P = 40 W
So, Is = P = 40 = 4 A
Vs 10
Now, Vsl = 5 V , so Isl= 2 A (From linearity)
i. n
New value of the power supplied by source is
Psl = VslIsl= 5 # 2 = 10 W
i a
From linearity, we know that in the circuit Vs ratio remains constant
IL
o
Vs =
IL d 20
200 # 10-3
= 100
. n
Let current through load is ILl when the power absorbed is 2.5 W, so
PL = (ILl) 2 RL
w w 2.5 = (ILl) 2 # 10
ILl = 0.5 A
w So,
Vs = Vsl = 100
IL ILl
Vsl = 100ILl= 100 # 0.5 = 50 V
Thus required values are
ILl = 0.5 A , Vsl= 50 V
SOL 5.1.3 Option (D ) is correct.
From linearity,
IL = AVs + BIs , A and B are constants
From the table 2 = 14A + 6B ...(1)
6 = 18A + 2B ...(2)
Solving equation (1) & (2)
A = 0.4 , B =- 0.6
So, IL = 0.4Vs - 0.6Is
SOL 5.1.4 Option (B) is correct.
The circuit has 3 independent sources, so we apply superposition theorem
to obtain the voltage drop.
Due to 16 V source only : (Open circuit 5 A source and Short circuit 32 V
source)
i. n
.coV2 = (24 W || 16 W || 16 W) # 5
ia = 6 # 5 = 30 volt
source)
od
Due to 32 V source only : (Short circuit 16 V source and open circuit 5 A
.n
ww
w
Using voltage division
V3 = 9.6 (32) = 12 V
16 + 9.6
By superposition, the net voltage across R2 is
V = V1 + V2 + V3 =- 4 + 30 + 12 = 38 volt
ALTERNATIVE METHOD :
The problem may be solved by applying a node equation at the top node.
SOL 5.1.5 Option (C) is correct
Due to 60 A Source Only : (Open circuit 30 A and short circuit 30 V sources)
12 W || 6 W = 4 W
Page 248
Chap 5
Circuit Theorems
i. n
Using current division
Ib =
.c o
4 (30) = 12 A
4+6
i a
Ib will be distributed between parallel combination of 12 W and 6 W
o d
I2 = 6 (12) = 4 A
12 + 6
n
Due to 30 V Source Only : (Open circuit 60 A and 30 A sources)
.
w w
w
Using source transformation
i. n
SOL 5.1.9 Option (C) is correct.
Using source transformation, we can obtain I in following steps.
.co
ia
od
.n
ww
w
I = 6 + 8 = 14 = 2 A
3+4 7
ALTERNATIVE METHOD :
Try to solve the problem by obtaining Thevenin equivalent for right half of
the circuit.
SOL 5.1.10 Option (D) is correct.
Using source transformation of 4 A and 6 V source.
Page 250
Chap 5
Circuit Theorems
SOL 5.1.11
or, 12 V source supplies 36 W power.
Option (B) is correct.
o
= 12 # - 3 =- 36 W
.c
i a
We know that source transformation also exists for dependent source, so
o d
. n
w w
Current source values
i. n
SOL 5.1.14
.co
Option (D) is correct.
Thevenin Voltage : (Open Circuit Voltage)
a
The open circuit voltage between a -b can be obtained as
i
od
.n
ww
Writing KCL at node a
VTh - 10 + 1 = 0
w
Thevenin Resistance :
24
VTh - 10 + 24 = 0 or VTh =- 14 volt
RTh = 24 W
SOL 5.1.15 Option (B) is correct.
Thevenin Voltage :
Using voltage division V1 = 20 (10) = 4 volt
20 + 30
and, V2 = 15 (10) = 6 volt
15 + 10
Applying KVL,V1 - V2 + Vab = 0
4 - 6 + Vab = 0
Thevenin Resistance :
i. n
RTh = Rab = 18 W
.c o
Rab = [20 W || 30 W] + [15 W || 10 W] = 12 W + 6 W = 18 W
i a
Using source transformation of 24 V source
o d
. n
w w
Adding parallel connected sources
RTh = 6 W || 4 W = 6 # 4 = 2.4 W
6+4
SOL 5.1.18 Option (B) is correct.
i. n
For the circuit of figure (A)
.co
ia
od VTh = Va - Vb
.n Va = 24 V
ww Vb = 6 (- 6) =- 4 V
6+3
VTh = 24 - (- 4) = 28 V
(Voltage division)
w
For the circuit of figure (B), using source transformation
VTh =- 12 V
SOL 5.1.19 Option (C) is correct.
For the circuit for fig (A)
Page 254
Chap 5
Circuit Theorems
RTh = Rab = 6 W || 3 W = 2 W
For the circuit of fig (B), as obtained in previous solution.
RTh = 3 W
SOL 5.1.20 Option (B) is correct.
i. n
.c o
The current source connected in parallel with load does not affect Thevenin
i a
equivalent circuit. Thus, Thevenin equivalent circuit will contain its usual
SOL 5.1.21
o
Option (C) is correct. d
form of a voltage source in series with a resistor.
. n
The network consists of resistor and dependent sources because if it has
independent source then there will be an open circuit Thevenin voltage
SOL 5.1.22
w w
present.
Option (D) is correct.
i. n
.co
ia
od
By applying KCL at top middle node
Vx - 2Vx + Vx + 1 + Vx - Vtest = 0
.n 3 6 3
- 2Vx + Vx + 6 + 2Vx - 2Vtest = 0
ww 2Vtest - Vx = 6
Itest = Vtest - Vx
...(1)
w
We have
3
3Itest = Vtest - Vx
Vx = Vtest - 3Itest
Put Vx into equation (1)
2Vtest - (Vtest - 3Itest) = 6
2Vtest - Vtest + 3Itest = 6
Vtest = 6 - 3Itest ...(2)
For Thevenin’s equivalent circuit
Vtest - VTh = I
test
RTh
Vtest = VTh + RTh Itest ...(3)
Comparing equation (2) and (3)
VTh = 6 V , RTh =- 3 W
8 = VTh b 8 l ...(2)
8 + RTh
Dividing equation (1) and (2), we get
6 = 3 (8 + RTh)
8 8 (3 + RTh)
6 + 2RTh = 8 + RTh
RTh = 2 W i. n
Substituting RTh into equation (1)
.c o
6 = VTh b 3 l or VTh = 10 V
d
SOL 5.1.24
o
The Norton equivalent current is equal to the short-circuit current that
n
.
would flow when the load replaced by a short circuit as shown below
w
w w
Applying KCL at node a
I N + I1 + 2 = 0
Since I1 = 0 - 20 =- 5 A
24 6
So, 5
IN - + 2 = 0
6
IN =- 7 A
6
Norton Resistance :
Set all independent sources to zero (i.e. open circuit current sources and
short circuit voltage sources) to obtain Norton’s equivalent resistance RN .
RN = 24 W
i. n
.co
ia
ALTERNATIVE METHOD :
SOL 5.1.26
od
Try to solve the problem using superposition method.
Option (C) is correct.
n
Short circuit current across terminal a -b is
.
ww
w
For simplicity circuit can be redrawn as
RN = 6 + 3 = 9 W
i. n
The output current from the network is equal to the series connected current
source only, so IN = Is . Thus, effect of all other component in the network
does not change IN .
.c o
In this case Thevenin’s equivalent is not feasible because of the series
connected current source.
SOL 5.1.29 Option (C) is correct.
i a
d
Norton Current : (Short Circuit Current)
o
. n
w w
w Using source transformation
- 4 + 1 + IN = 0
IN = 3 A
Norton Resistance :
V = Vs b RL
Rs + R L l
Power absorbed by RL
(V) 2 2
PL = = V s RL 2
i. n
RL (Rs + RL)
From above expression, it is known that power is maximum when Rs = 0
NOTE :
co
Do not get confused with maximum power transfer theorem. According to maximum power
.
transfer theorem if RL is variable and Rs is fixed then power dissipated by RL is maximum
ia
when RL = Rs .
SOL 5.1.31
od
Option (C) is correct.
We solve this problem using maximum power transfer theorem. First, obtain
.n
Thevenin equivalent across RL .
Thevenin Voltage : (Open circuit voltage)
ww
w
Using source transformation
i. n
respect to direction of branch current so
V1 =-V2 =-V3
I1 I2
I2 = I 3 =- 2 A
I3
.c o
SOL 5.1.33 Option (C) is correct.
i a
According to reciprocity theorem in any linear bilateral network when a
o d
single voltage source Va in branch a produces a current Ib in branches b,
then if the voltage source Va is removed(i.e. branch a is short circuited) and
. n
inserted in branch b, then it will produce a current Ib in branch a.
So, I2 = I1 = 20 mA
SOL 5.1.34
w w
Option (A) is correct.
According to reciprocity theorem in any linear bilateral network when a
So, V2 = 2 volt
SOL 5.1.35 Option (A) is correct.
We use Millman’s theorem to obtain equivalent resistance and voltage across
a -b.
- 96 + 40 + - 80
Vab = 240 200 800 =- 144 =- 28.8 V
1 + 1 + 1 5
240 200 800
The equivalent resistance
Rab = 1 = 96 W
1 + 1 + 1
240 200 800
I = 28.8 = 100 mA
96 + 192
SOL 5.1.36 Option (B) is correct.
Thevenin Voltage: (Open circuit voltage):
The open circuit voltage will be equal to V , i.e. VTh = V
Thevenin Resistance:
Set all independent sources to zero i.e. open circuit the current source and
short circuit the voltage source as shown in figure
i. n
.co Open circuit voltage = V1
SOL 5.1.37
ia
Option (B) is correct.
V is obtained using super position.
d
Due to source V1 only : (Open circuit source I 3 and short circuit source V2 )
o
.n
ww
so,
w V =
A=1
50 (V ) = 1 V
100 + 50 1 3 1
(using voltage division)
3
Due to source V2 only : (Open circuit source I 3 and short circuit source V1 )
So, IN + I = V
RN
I = V - IN (General form)
i. n
RN
From the given graph, the equation of line
I = 2V - 6
Comparing with general form
1 = 2 or R = 0.5 W
.c o
RN
i
N
a
SOL 5.1.39
o
Option (D) is correct. d
IN = 6 A
. n
Thevenin voltage: (Open circuit voltage)
w w
w
VTh = 4 + ^2 # 2h = 4 + 4 = 8 V
Thevenin Resistance:
RTh = 2 + 3 = 5 W = RN
Norton Current:
IN = VTh = 8 A
RTh 5
SOL 5.1.40 Option (C) is correct.
Norton current, IN = 0 because there is no independent source present in
the circuit.
To obtain Norton resistance we put a 1 A test source across the load terminal
as shown in figure.
i. n RN = Vtest = 20 W
1
SOL 5.1.41
.co
Option (C) is correct.
In circuit (b) transforming the 3 A source in to 18 V source all source are
1.5 times of that in circuit (a) as shown in figure.
ia
od
.n
ww
SOL 5.1.42
w
Using principal of linearity, Ib = 1.5Ia
Option (B) is correct.
I = VTh
R + RTh
From the table, 2 = VTh ...(1)
3 + RTh
1.6 = VTh ...(2)
5 + RTh
Dividing equation (1) and (2), we get
2 = 5 + RTh
1.6 3 + RTh
6 + 2RTh = 8 + 1.6RTh
0.4RTh = 2
I = 16 = 1
5+R
16 = 5 + R
R = 11 W
SOL 5.1.44 Option (B) is correct.
i. n
.c o
It can be solved by reciprocity theorem. Polarity of voltage source should
i a
have same correspondence with branch current in each of the circuit. Polarity
of voltage source and current direction are shown below
So,
oI1 I2d
V1 =-V2 = V3
I3
. n 10 =- 20 = 40
2.5 I2 I3
w w I2 =- 5 A
I 3 = 10 A
w
SOL 5.1.45 Option (A) is correct.
To obtain V -I equation we find the Thevenin equivalent across the terminal
at which X is connected.
Thevenin Voltage : (Open Circuit Voltage)
V1 = 6#1 = 6V
12 + V1 - V3 =0 (KVL in outer mesh)
V3 = 12 + 6 = 18 V
VTh - V2 - V3 =0 (KVL in Bottom right mesh)
VTh = V2 + V3
(V2 = 2 # 1 = 2 V)
VTh = 2 + 18 = 20 V
RTh = 1 + 1 = 2 W
Now, the circuit becomes as
I = V - VTh
i. n
RTh
V = RTh I + VTh
so
.co
A = RTh = 2 W
B = VTh = 20 V
ia
ALTERNATIVE METHOD :
od
.n
ww
w
In the mesh ABCDEA, we have KVL equation as
V - 1 (I + 2) - 1 (I + 6) - 12 = 0
V = 2I + 20
So, A = 2, B = 2
SOL 5.1.46 Option (A) is correct.
To obtain V -I relation, we obtain either Norton equivalent or Thevenin
equivalent across terminal a -b.
Norton Current (short circuit current) :
IN = V + I
RN
4 =V +I
4
16 = V + 4I i. n
or V =- 4I + 16
.c o
i a
o d
. n
w w
ALTERNATIVE METHOD :
w
SOL 5.1.47
Solve by writing nodal equation at the center node.
Option (C) is correct.
Let Thevenin equivalent of both networks are as shown below.
P = b VTh l R
2
(Single network N )
RTh + R
Pl = c VThR m R = 4 b VTh
2 2
R+ 2 Th
2R + RTh l R (Two N are added)
40 || 60
V = (20) = 24 # 20 = 12 V
(40 || 60) + 16 40
Current entering terminal a -b is
I = V = 12 = 200 mA
R 60
In fig(B), to maintain same voltage V = 12 V current through 240 W resistor
must be
i. n
IR = 12 = 50 mA
co 240
Using KCL at terminal a , as shown
.
ia
od
.n
ww I = I R + IS
200 = 50 + Is
SOL 5.1.50
w Is = 150 mA ,
Option (B) is correct.
down wards
I3 = 0 (a -b is open circuit)
Writing mesh equations
Mesh 1: 36 - 12 (I1 - I2) - 6 (I1 - I 3) = 0
36 - 12I1 + 12I2 - 6I1 = 0 (I 3 = 0)
3I1 - 2I2 = 6 ...(1)
Mesh 2: - 24I2 - 20 (I2 - I 3) - 12 (I2 - I1) = 0
i. n
.c o
i a
o d
. n
w w RTh = (20 + 4) || 24 W = 24 W || 24 W = 12 W
w ALTERNATIVE METHOD :
VTh can be obtained by writing nodal equation at node a and at center node.
SOL 5.1.51 Option (C) is correct.
We obtain Thevenin’s equivalent across load terminal.
Thevenin Voltage : (Open Circuit Voltage)
i. n
.co
ia V = VTh b R
R + RL l
(Using voltage division)
So,
od V = VTh =- 10 volt
R = RTh =- 2 W
SOL 5.1.52
.n
Option (D) is correct.
w
We obtain Thevenin equivalent across terminal a -b.
Thevenin Voltage :
w
Since there is no independent source present in the network, Thevenin
w
voltage is simply zero i.e. VTh = 0
Thevenin Resistance :
Put a test source across terminal a -b
RTh = Vtest
Itest
For the super node
V1 - Vtest = 2000Ix
V1 - Vtest = 2000 b V1 l ^Ix = V1 /4000h
4000
V1 = V or V = 2V
test 1 test
2
Applying KCL to the super node
.c
3Vx = 2VTh & Vx = 2 VTh
o
KCL at the center node
i a 3
o d
Vx - VTh + Vx = 0.3
20 30
w w 5 b 2 l VTh - 3VTh = 18
3
2
bVx = 3 VTh l
RTh = Vtest
Itest
KCL at the top node
Vx + I = Vtest
40 test
20 + 30
Vx + I = Vtest ...(1)
test
40 50
Vx = 30 (Vtest) = 3 Vtest (using voltage division)
30 + 20 5
I = V - VTh = V - 54
RTh 200
i. n
V = 200I + 54
Option (D) is correct.
o
SOL 5.1.54
a.c
di
no
w.
ww Vtest = Vx , Itest = Ix
Writing loop equation for the circuit
Vtest = 600 (I1 - I2) + 300 (I1 - I 3) + 900 (I1)
Vtest = (600 + 300 + 900) I1 - 600I2 - 300I 3
Vtest = 1800I1 - 600I2 - 300I 3 ...(1)
The loop current are given as,
I1 = Itest , I2 = 0.3Vs , and I 3 = 3Itest + 0.2Vs
Substituting theses values into equation (1),
Vtest = 1800Itest - 600 (0.01Vs) - 300 (3Itest + 0.01Vs)
Vtest = 1800Itest - 6Vs - 900Itest - 3Vs
10Vtest = 900Itest or Vtest = 90Itest
Thevenin resistance
RTh = Vtest = 90 W
Itest
Thevenin voltage or open circuit voltage will be zero because there is no
independent source present in the network, i.e. Voc = 0 V
***********
Page 272
Chap 5 SOLUTIONS 5.2
Circuit Theorems
I 3 = V3 = 6 = 2 A
3 3
i. n (using ohm’s law)
I2 = I3 + I
= 2+1 = 3A
.c o (using KCL)
d
= 3+6 = 9Via
V1 = (1) I2 + V3 (using KVL)
n o
I1 = V1 = 9 = 3 A
6 6 2
(using ohm’s law)
w.
Applying principal of linearity
For Vs = V0 , I1 = 3 A
SOL 5.2.2 w w
So for Vs = 2V0 ,
Correct answer is 3.
2
I1 = 3 # 2 = 3 A
2
i. n
.co
Using current division,
ia V2 =
40
30
30 + (40 + 20)
(6) & V2 = 80 volt
od
From superposition,
V = V1 + V2 = 80 + 80 = 160 volt
.n
ALTERNATIVE METHOD :
SOL 5.2.4
ww
The problem may be solved by transforming both the current sources into
equivalent voltage sources and then applying voltage division.
Correct answer is 5.
w
Using super position, we obtain I .
Due to 10 V source only : (Open circuit 5 A source)
I1 = 10 = 5 A
2
Due to 5 A source only : (Short circuit 10 V source)
I2 = 0
I = I1 + I 2 = 5 + 0 = 5 A
ALTERNATIVE METHOD :
We can see that voltage source is in parallel with resistor and current source
so voltage across parallel branches will be 10 V and I = 10/2 = 5 A
I1 = 6 = 0.5 A
6+6
Due to 2 A source only : (Short circuit 6 V source)
i. n
I2 = 6 (- 2)
6+6
.c o (using current division)
=- 1 A
i a
o
ALTERNATIVE METHOD :
d
I = I1 + I2 = 0.5 - 1 =- 0.5 A
. n
This problem may be solved by using a single KVL equation around the
SOL 5.2.6 w
outer loop.
w
Correct answer is 4.
Applying superposition,
I1 = 24 = 3 A
8
Due to 20 V source only : (Short circuit 24 V and open circuit 2 A source)
i. n
SOL 5.2.7 Correct answer is 0.
V1 = V2 = 0 (short circuit both sources)
.co
ia
od
.n
SOL 5.2.8
ww Vo = 0
Correct answer is 1.5 .
w
Using source transformation of 48 V source and the 24 V source
i. n
.c o
i a
d
Again transforming 3 mA source
o
. n
w w
w I = 6+6
2+8+4+2 4
= 3 mA
= I 2 (4 # 103) = b 3 l # 4 = 2.25 mW
2
P4 kW
4
RTh = 12 W || 4 W = 3 W
SOL 5.2.11 Correct answer is 16.8 .
Using current division
(5 + 1)
I1 = (12) = 6 (12) = 7.2 A
(5 + 1) + (3 + 1) 6+4
V2 = 5I2 = 5 # 4.8 = 24 V
VTh + V1 - V2 = 0 (KVL)
VTh = V2 - V1 = 24 - 7.2 = 16.8 V
i. n
of Thevenin’s circuit to obtain equivalent Norton circuit.
.co
ia
od
.n RTh = (5 + 1) || (3 + 1) = 6 || 4 = 2.4 W
Thevenin’s equivalent is
ww
w
Norton equivalent
i. n
I =
.c o
VTh = - 9 =- 9 =- 0.5 A
RTh + 6 12 + 6 18
i a
Note: The problem can be solved easily by a single node equation. Take the
nodes connecting the top 4 W, 3 V and 4 W as supernode and apply KCL.
SOL 5.2.14 Correct answer is 0.
o d
We obtain Thevenin’s equivalent across R.
. n
Thevenin Voltage : (Open circuit voltage)
w w
w
Applying KVL 18 - 6Ix - 2Ix - (1) Ix = 0
Ix = 18 = 2 A
9
VTh = (1) Ix = (1) (2) = 2 V
Thevenin Resistance :
RTh = VTh Isc " Short circuit current
Isc
Isc = 18 = 3 A
6
Thevenin resistance,
RTh = VTh = 2 W
Isc 3
Now, the circuit becomes as
i. n 2 =3
.co I =
2+R
3
2 = 2 + 3R
ia R =0
SOL 5.2.15
od
Correct answer is 121.5 .
We obtain Thevenin’s equivalent across R. By source transformation of
.n
both voltage sources
ww
w
Adding parallel sources and combining parallel resistances
Page 280
Chap 5
Circuit Theorems
i. n
- 15
.c
+ ^- 120
o
15 h + 5
a
60 20
Vab =
d i 15 + 15 + 5
1
Rab = 1 11 1 = 3 W
1 1 =- 24 V
n o 15 + 15 + 5
w.
w w I = 24 = 3 A
3+5
SOL 5.2.17 Correct answer is 6.
Set all independent sources to zero as shown,
RTh = 6 W
i. n
.co
ia
od Is = 6 = 6 = 0.6 mA
6 + 6 || 12 6 + 4
I1 = 6 (Is) = 6 # 0.6 = 0.2 mA (Using current division)
.n 6 + 12 18
Due to 2 mA source only : (Short circuit 6 V source) :
ww
w
Combining resistances,
6 kW || 6 kW = 3 kW
3 kW + 6 kW = 9 kW
Page 282
Chap 5
Circuit Theorems
IL = VTh
RTh + RL
From the data given in table
10 = VTh ...(1)
RTh + 2
6 = VTh ...(2)
RTh + 10
Dividing equation (1) and (2), we get
10 = RTh + 10
6 RTh + 2
10RTh + 20 = 6RTh + 60
4RTh = 40 & RTh = 10 W
i. n
Substituting RTh into equation (1)
10 = VTh
10 + 2
.c
VTh = 10 (12) = 120 V o
For RL = 20 W , IL = VTh
i a
RTh + RL
o d
= 120 = 4 A
10 + 20
SOL 5.2.21
. n
Correct answer is 4.
w w
w
For maximum power transfer
RTh = RL = 2 W
To obtain RTh set all independent sources to zero and put a test source
across the load terminals.
RTh = Vtest
Itest
Using KVL,
Vtest - 4Itest - 2Itest - kVx - 4Itest = 0
Vtest - 10Itest - k (- 2Itest) = 0 (Vx =- 2Itest )
i. n
.co
ia
od
.n
ww VTh = 2 (24)
2+2
= 12 V
(Using voltage division)
w
Thevenin Resistance :
RTh = 1 + 2 || 2 = 1 + 1 = 2 kW
Circuit becomes as
VL = RL V
RTh + RL Th
For maximum power transfer RL = RTh
VL = VTh # RTh = VTh
2RTh 2
So maximum power absorbed by RL
Page 284 V 2
V 2
(12) 2
Pmax = L
= Th
= = 18 mW
Chap 5 RL 4RTh 4#2
Circuit Theorems
SOL 5.2.23 Correct answer is 22.5 .
The circuit is as shown below
i a
Pmax = I s Rs =
4
2
(30) # 100
4
= 22.5 kW
SOL 5.2.24
o
Correct answer is 6. d
. n
If we solve this circuit directly by nodal analysis, then we have to deal with
three variables. We can replace the left most and write most circuit by their
w
Thevenin equivalent as shown below.
w
w
6V1 = 36
V1 = 6 V
SOL 5.2.25 Correct answer is 56.
6 W and 3 W resistors are in parallel, which is equivalent to 2 W.
i. n
.co
ia
od
Source transform of 4 A source
.n
ww
w
Adding series resistors and sources on the left
I = 12 + 72 + Vs
19 + 9
Vs = (28 # I) - 12 - 72 = (28 # 5) - 12 - 72 = 56 V
SOL 5.2.26 Correct answer is 0.5 .
We obtain I using superposition.
Due to 24 V source only : (Open circuit 6 A)
i. n
Applying KVL
.c o
24 - 6I1 - 3I1 - 3I1 = 0
i a I1 = 24 = 2 A
12
d
Due to 6 A source only : (Short circuit 24 V source)
o
. n
w w
w Applying KVL to supermesh
- 6I2 - 3 (6 + I2) - 3I2 = 0
6I2 + 18 + 3I2 + 3I2 = 0
I2 =- 18 =- 3 A
12 2
From superposition, I = I1 + I 2
= 2 - 3 = 1 = 0.5 A
2 2
ALTERNATIVE METHOD :
Note that current in 3 W resistor is ^I + 6h A, so by applying KVL around
the outer loop, we can find current I .
SOL 5.2.27 Correct answer is 11.
Open circuit voltage
RTh = Voc =
Isc short circuit
Thevenin Voltage: (Open Circuit Voltage Voc )
Using source transformation of the dependent source
i. n
.co
ia
Applying KVL in the right mesh
od Vx - 8Isc - Vx = 0
2
.n Vx = 8I
2 sc
ww Vx = 16Isc
KCL at the top left node
w 24 = Vx + x
6
V - Vx /2
24 = Vx + Vx
6 16
8
Vx = 1152 V
11
Isc = Vx = 1152 = 72 A
16 11 # 16 11
RTh = Voc = 72
72 = 11 W
Isc 11
ALTERNATIVE METHOD :
We can obtain Thevenin equivalent resistance without calculating the
Thevenin voltage (open circuit voltage). Set all independent sources to zero
(i.e. open circuit current sources and short circuit voltage sources) and put
a test source Vtest between terminal a -b as shown
RTh = Vtest
Page 288
Chap 5 Itest
6I + 8I - Vx - Vtest = 0
Circuit Theorems
(KVL)
2
14I - 6I - Vtest = 0 Vx = 6Itest (Using Ohm’s law)
2
11I = Vtest
So RTh = Vtest = 11 W
Itest
SOL 5.2.28 Correct answer is 4.
We solve this problem using linearity and assumption that I = 1 A .
V1 = 4I + 2I (Using KVL)
=6V
i. n
I 2 = I1 + I
4 4
.c o
= V1 + I = 6 + 1 = 2.5 A
(Using KCL)
d ia
V2 = 4I2 + V1
= 4 (2.5) + 6 = 16 V
(Using KVL)
n o
Is + I 3 = I 2 (Using KCL)
w. Is - V2 = I
4 + 12 2
Is = 16 + 2.5 = 3.5 A
w w
When Is = 3.5 A ,
But Is = 14 A , so
16
I = 1A
I = .1 # 14 = 4 A
3.5
SOL 5.2.29 Correct answer is 120.
This problem will easy to solve if we obtain Thevenin equivalent across the
12 V source.
Thevenin Voltage : (Open Circuit Voltage)
RTh = 1 + 1 = 2 W
circuit becomes as
i. n
.co 12 - (- 8)
ia I = 12 - VTh =
RTh 2
= 10 A
od
Power supplied by 12 V source
P12 V = 10 # 12 = 120 W
.n
ALTERNATIVE METHOD :
ww
w
KVL in the loop ABCDA
12 - 1 (I - 2) - 1 (I - 6) = 0
2I = 20
I = 10 A
Power supplied by 12 V source
P12 V = 10 # 12 = 120 W
SOL 5.2.30 Correct answer is 286.
For maximum power transfer RL = RTh . To obtain Thevenin resistance set
all independent sources to zero and put a test source across load terminals.
RTh = Vtest
Page 290
Chap 5 Itest
Circuit Theorems Writing KCL at the top center node
Vtest + Vtest - 2Vx = I ...(1)
test
2k 1k
Also, Vtest + Vx = 0 (KVL in left mesh)
so Vx =- Vtest
Substituting Vx =- Vtest into equation (1)
Vtest + Vtest - 2 (- Vtest) = I
test
2k 1k
Vtest + 6Vtest = 2Itest
RTh = Vtest = 2 kW - 286 W
Itest 7
SOL 5.2.31 Correct answer is 4.
Redrawing the circuit in Thevenin equivalent form
i. n
I = VTh - V
RTh
.c o
or,
i a
V =- RTh I + VTh (General form)
From the given graph
o d
V =- 4I + 8
.
So, by comparing
n RTh = 4 kW , VTh = 8 V
w w
For maximum power transfer RL = RTh
Maximum power absorbed by RL
(8) 2
w
2
Pmax = VTh = = 4 mW
4RTh 4#4
SOL 5.2.32 Correct answer is 3.
To fine out Thevenin equivalent of the circuit put a test source between
node a and b,
RTh = Vtest
Itest
Writing node equation at V1
V1 - aIx + V1 = I
x
1 1
2V1 = ^1 + ah Ix ...(1)
Ix is the branch current in 1 W resistor given as
Ix = Vtest - V1
1
2Vtest = ^3 + ah Ix
2Vtest = ^3 + ah Itest ^Ix = Itest h
RTh = Vtest = 3 + a = 3
Itest 2
3+a = 6
a = 3W
SOL 5.2.33 Correct answer is 16.
We obtain Thevenin equivalent across the load terminals
Thevenin Voltage : (Open circuit voltage)
i. n
.co
ia VTh = Va - Vb
d
Rotating the circuit, makes it simple
o
.n
ww
w 340 (40) = 34 A
I1 = (Current division)
340 + 60
Va = 20I1 = 20 # 34 = 680 V (Ohm’s Law)
Similarly, I2 = 60 (40) = 6 A (Current division)
60 + 340
Vb = 100I2 = 100 # 6 = 600 V (Ohm’s Law)
Thevenin voltage VTh = 680 - 600 = 80 V
Thevenin Resistance :
i. n
.c o
i a
o d
. n
w w
w
I = 36 - 12 = 3 A
6+2
Power supplied by 36 V source
P36 V = 3 # 36 = 108 W
SOL 5.2.35 Correct answer is 1026.
Now, we do source transformation from left to right as shown
i. n
Vs = (27 + 1.5) (4 W || 2 W)
= 28.5 # 4
.co = 38 V
3
ia
Power supplied by 27 A source
P27 A = Vs # 27 = 38 # 27
od = 1026 W
SOL 5.2.36
.n
Correct answer is 9.
First, we find current I in the 4 W resistors using superposition.
w
Due to 18 V source only : (Open circuit 4 A and short circuit 12 V source)
w
w
I1 = 18 = 4.5 A
4
Due to 12 V source only : (Open circuit 4 A and short circuit 18 V source)
I2 =- 12 =- 3 A
Page 294
Chap 5 4
Circuit Theorems Due to 4 A source only : (Short circuit 12 V and 18 V sources)
i. n
P4 W = I 2 (4) = (1.5) 2 # 4 = 9 W
Alternate Method: Let current in 4 W resistor is I , then by applying KVL
around the outer loop
18 - 12 - 4I = 0
.c o
4
i a
I = 6 = 1.5 A
o d
So, power dissipated in 4 W resistor
P4 W = I 2 (4) = (1.5) 2 # 4
. n =9W
SOL 5.2.37
w w
Correct answer is - 10 .
Using, Thevenin equivalent circuit
Ix =- 24 =- 24 A
1
Ix + 4 = Isc (using KCL)
- 24 + 4 = Isc
Isc =- 20 A
RTh = - 20 = 1 W
- 20
The circuit is as shown below
i. n
.co
V =
ia1 (V ) = 1 (- 20)=- 10 volt (Using voltage division)
od
1 + RTh Th
ALTERNATIVE METHOD :
1+1
n
Note that current in bottom right most 1 W resistor is ^Ix + 4h, so applying
.
w
KVL around the bottom right mesh,
- 24 - Ix - ^Ix + 4h = 0
w Ix =- 14 A
SOL 5.2.38
So,
w V = 1 # ^Ix + 4h =- 14 + 4 =- 10 V
Correct answer is 100.
Writing currents into 100 W and 300 W resistors by using KCL as shown in
figure.
Ix = 1 A, Vx = Vtest
Writing mesh equation for bottom right mesh.
Vtest = 100 (1 - 2Ix ) + 300 (1 - 2Ix - 0.01Vx ) + 800
= 100 V
***********
i. n
.c o
i a
o d
. n
w w
w
GATE
ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION
RK Kanodia
Ashish Murolia
Information contained in this book has been obtained by author, from sources believes to be reliable. However,
neither NODIA & COMPANY nor its author guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any information herein,
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Classification of signals and systems: System modelling in terms of differential and difference equations; State
variable representation; Fourier series; Fourier transforms and their application to system analysis; Laplace
transforms and their application to system analysis; Convolution and superposition integrals and their applications;
Z-transforms and their applications to the analysis and characterisation of discrete time systems; Random signals
and probability, Correlation functions; Spectral density; Response of linear system to random inputs.
**********
1.2 SIGNAL-CLASSIFICATION 1
1.2.1 Analog and Discrete Signals 1
1.2.2 Deterministic and Random Signal 1
1.2.3 Periodic and Aperiodic Signal 2
1.2.4 Even and Odd Signal 3
1.2.5 Energy and Power Signal 4
1.3 BASIC OPERATIONS ON SIGNALS 5
1.3.1 Addition of Signals 5
1.3.2 Multiplication of Signals 5
1.3.3 Amplitude Scaling of Signals 5
1.3.4 Time-Scaling 5
1.3.5 Time-Shifting 6
1.3.6 Time-Reversal/Folding 7
1.3.7 Amplitude Inverted Signals 8
1.4 MULTIPLE OPERATIONS ON SIGNALS 8
EXERCISE 1.1 16
EXERCISE 1.2 41
EXERCISE 1.3 44
EXERCISE 1.4 49
SOLUTIONS 1.1 56
SOLUTIONS 1.2 79
SOLUTIONS 1.3 84
SOLUTIONS 1.4 85
***********
CHAPTER 6
Page 493
Chap 6
The Z-Transform
THE Z-TRANSFORM
6.1 INTRODUCTION
i. n
and unilateral z -transform.
The bilateral or two-sided z -transform is used to analyze both causal
o
and non-causal LTI discrete systems, while the unilateral z -transform is
c
defined only for causal signals.
NOTE :
ia.
The properties of z -transform are similar to those of the Laplace transform.
6.1.1
od
The Bilateral or Two-Sided z -transform
.n
The z -transform of a discrete-time sequence x [n], is defined as
3
w
X (z) = Z {x [n]} = / x [n] z -n
(6.1.1)
n =- 3
w
Where, X (z) is the transformed signal and Z represents the z
w
-transformation. z is a complex variable. In polar form, z can be expressed as
z = re jW
where r is the magnitude of z and W is the angle of z . This corresponds to
a circle in z plane with radius r as shown in figure 6.1.1 below
NOTE :
The signal x [n] and its z -transform X (z) are said to form a z -transform pair denoted as
Z
x [n ] X (z)
n =- 3
The z -transform exists when the infinite sum in above equation converges.
For this summation to be converged x [n] z-n must be absolutely summable.
i. n
Substituting z = re jW
3
X [z] = / x [n] (re jW -n
)
o
n =- 3
or,
.c
3
X [z] = / {x [n] r -n
} e-jWn
i a
n =- 3
o d
n
3
/ x [n] r-n
(6.2.1)
.
13
n =- 3
6.3
w
REGION OF CONVERGENCE
w
The existence of z -transform is given from equation (6.2.1). The values of r for
NOTE :
In pole-zero plot poles are marked by a small cross ‘#’ and zeros are marked by a small dot
i. n
‘o’ as shown in figure 6.3.1.
o
6.3.2 Properties of ROC
.c
The various properties of ROC are summarized as follows. These properties
a
can be proved by taking appropriate examples of different DT signals.
PROPERTY 1
di
no
The ROC is a concentric ring in the z -plane centered about the origin.
PROOF :
w.
ww
The z -transform is defined as
Put z = re jW
X (z) =
3
/ x [n] z-n
n =- 3
3
X (z) = X (re jW) = / x [n] r-n e-jWn
n =- 3
X (z) converges for those values of z for which x [n] r-n is absolutely summbable
that is
3
/ x [n] r-n < 3
n =- 3
Thus, convergence is dependent only on r , where, r = z
The equation z = re jW , describes a circle in z -plane. Hence the ROC will
consists of concentric rings centered at zero.
PROPERTY 2
PROOF :
ROC is defined as the values of z for which z -transform X (z) converges. We
know that X (z) will be infinite at pole, and, therefore X (z) does not converge
at poles. Hence the region of convergence does not include any pole.
Page 496
Chap 6 PROPERTY 3
The Z-Transform If x [n] is a finite duration two-sided sequence then the ROC is entire z
-plane except at z = 0 and z = 3.
PROOF :
A sequence which is zero outside a finite interval of time is called ‘finite
duration sequence’. Consider a finite duration sequence x [n] shown in figure
6.3.2a; x [n] is non-zero only for some interval N1 # n # N2 .
.c o
a
X (z) = / x [n] z-n
i
n = N1
d
This summation converges for all finite values of z . If N1 is negative and
o
N2 is positive, then X (z) will have both positive and negative powers of z .
The negative powers of z becomes unbounded (infinity) if z " 0 . Similarly
. n
positive powers of z becomes unbounded (infinity) if z " 3. So ROC of
w
X (z) is entire z -plane except possible z = 0 and/or z = 3.
w
NOTE :
Both N1 and N 2 can be either positive or negative.
w PROPERTY 4
PROOF :
A sequence which is zero prior to some finite time is called the right-sided
sequence. Consider a right-sided sequence x [n] shown in figure 6.3.2b; that is;
x [n] = 0 for n < N1 .
x [n] r 0-n a z k
3
= / r0
-n
(6.3.2)
n=N 1
i. n
/ x [n] z-n # Mx / a rz0 k-n
3 3
(6.3.3)
n=N n=N
o
1 1
c
z > 1 or z > r
.
0
r0
ia
Thus, we conclude that if the circle z = r0 is in the ROC, then all
d
values of z for which z > r0 will also be in the ROC. The ROC of a right-
o
sided sequence is illustrated in figure 6.3.2c.
.n
ww
w
Figure 6.3.2c ROC of a right-sided sequence
PROPERTY 5
PROOF :
A sequence which is zero after some finite time interval is called a ‘left-
sided signal’. Consider a left-sided signal x [n] shown in figure 6.3.2d; that is
x [n] = 0 for n > N2 .
Page 498
Chap 6
The Z-Transform
i. n
N2
/ x [n] r 0-n < 3 (6.3.5)
o
n =- 3
Now if take another value of z as z = r 1 , then we can write
.c
N2 N2
/ x [n] z-n = / x [n] z-n r 0-n r 0n
ia
n =- 3 n =- 3
d
N2
x [n] r 0-n a r 0 k
/ n
= (6.3.6)
z
o
n =- 3
From equation (6.3.4), we know that x [n] r 0-n is absolutely summable. Let it
. n
is bounded by some value Mx , then equation (6.3.6) becomes as
w
N2 N2
r0 n
/ x [n] z-n # Mx / az k
w
n =- 3 n =- 3
w
negatively), so z < r 0 will be in ROC.
The ROC of a left-sided sequence is illustrated in figure 6.3.2e.
PROPERTY 6
For any time N 0 , a two-sided sequence can be divided into sum of left-
sided and right-sided sequences as shown in figure 6.3.2g.
i. n
.co
ia
od
.n
w
Sequencew
Figure 6.3.2g A Two Sided Sequence Divided into Sum of a Left - Sided and Right - Sided
w
The z -transform of x [n] converges for the values of z for which the
transform of both xR [n] and xL [n] converges. From property 4, the ROC of a
right-sided sequence is a region which is bounded on the inside by a circle and
extending outward to infinity i.e. | z | > r1 . From property 5, the ROC of a left
sided sequence is bounded on the outside by a circle and extending inward to
zero i.e. | z | < r2 . So the ROC of combined signal includes intersection of both
ROCs which is ring in the z -plane.
The ROC for the right-sided sequence xR [n], the left-sequence xL [n] and
their combination which is a two sided sequence x [n] are shown in figure
6.3.2h.
Page 500
Chap 6
The Z-Transform
Figure 6.3.2h ROC of a left-sided sequence, a right-sided sequence and two sided sequence
PROPERTY 7
i. n
PROOF :
The exponential DT signals also have rational z -transform and the poles of
o
X (z) determines the boundaries of ROC.
PROPERTY 8
i a .c
If the z -transform X (z) of x [n] is rational and x [n] is a right-sided sequence
d
then the ROC is the region in the z -plane outside the outermost pole
o
i.e. ROC is the region outside a circle with a radius greater than the
n
magnitude of largest pole of X (z).
w.
PROOF :
w w
This property can be be proved by taking property 4 and 7 together.
PROPERTY 9
PROOF :
This property can be be proved by taking property 5 and 7 together.
-Transform of Some Basic Functions
Z-transform of basic functions are summarized in the Table 6.1 with their
respective ROCs.
1
1. d [ n] entire z -plane
z-n 0
entire z -plane,
2. d [n - n 0]
except z = 0
1 = z
3. u [n] 1 - z-1 z - 1 z >1
1 z
4. an u [n] -1 = z - a z > a
1 - az
n-1
z-1 = 1
5. a u [n - 1] 1 - az-1 z - a z > a
i. n
z-1 = z
6. nu [n] (1 - z-1) 2 (z - 1) 2 z >1
7. n
.
na u [ n]
co az-1
-1 2 =
az
z >a
a
(1 - az ) (z - a) 2
di 1 - z-1 cos W 0 or
o
1 - 2z-1 cos W 0 + z-2
n
8. cos (W0 n) u [n] z >1
.
z [z - cos W0]
2
z - 2z cos W0 + 1
ww z-1 sin W0 or
w
1 - 2z-1 cos W0 + z-2
9. sin (W0 n) u [n] z >1
z sin W0
z2 - 2z cos W0 + 1
1 - az-1 cos W0
1 - 2az-1 cos W0 + a2 z-2
10. an cos (W0 n) u [n] z > a
z [z - a cos W0]
or 2
z - 2az cos W0 + a2
az-1 sin W0
1 - 2az-1 cos W0 + a2 z-2
11. an sin (W0 n) u [n] az sin W0 z >a
or
z - 2az cos W0 + a2
2
A + Bz-1
1 + 2gz-1 + a2 z-2
ran sin (W0 n + q) u [n]
12. z # a (a)
with a ! R z (Az + B)
or
z + 2g z + g 2
2
x [n] = 1
Page 502
Chap 6 2pj #
X (z) zn - 1 dz
The Z-Transform This method involves the contour integration, so difficult to solve. There
are other commonly used methods to evaluate the inverse z -transform given
as follows
1. Partial fraction method
2. Power series expansion
i. n
X (z)
= A1 + A2 + A 3 + ... + An
z z - p1 z - p 2 z - p 3 z - pn
o
X (z) = A1 z + A2 z + ... + z
z - p1 z - p2 z - pn
.c
Now, the inverse z -transform of above equation can be obtained by comparing
a
each term with the standard z -tranform pair given in table 6.1. The values of
d i
coefficients A1 , A2 , A 3 ....An depends on whether the poles are real & distinct
or repeated or complex. Three cases are given as follows
n o
Case I : Poles are Simple and Real
.
X (z) /z can be expanded in partial fraction as
w X (z)
= A1 + A2 + A 3 + ... + An (6.4.1)
w
z z - p1 z - p 2 z - p 3 z - pn
where A1 , A2 ,... An are calculated as follows
w A1 = (z - p1)
A2 = (z - p2)
X (z)
z z=p
X (z)
1
z z=p 2
In general,
Ai = (z - pi) X (z) z = p (6.4.2)
i
X (z)
= A1 + A 1 )
)
(6.4.5)
z z - p1 z - p 1
where A 1) is complex conjugate of A1 and p) 1 is complex conjugate of z1 . The
coefficients are obtained by equation (6.4.2)
n =- 3
i. n
form of above power series. Then by comparing we can get
o
x [n] = {...x [- 2], x [- 1], x [0], x [1], x [2], ...}
6.5 PROPERTIES OF
a.c -TRANSFORM
di
The unilateral and bilateral z -transforms possess a set of properties, which
are useful in the analysis of DT signals and systems. The proofs of properties
o
are given for bilateral transform only and can be obtained in a similar way
n
for the unilateral transform.
6.5.1 Linearity
w.
w
Like Laplace transform, the linearity property of z transform states that,
w
the linear combination of DT sequences in the time domain is equivalent to
linear combination of their z transform.
Z
Let x 1 [n] X1 (z), with ROC: R1
Z
and x 2 [ n] X2 (z), with ROC: R2
ax1 [n] + bx2 [n]
Z
then, aX1 (z) + bX2 (z),
with ROC: at least R1 + R2
for both unilateral and bilateral z -transform.
PROOF :
The z -transform of signal {ax1 [n] + bx2 [n]} is given by equation (6.1.1) as
follows
3
Z {ax1 [n] + bx2 [n]} = / {ax [n] + bx [n]} z
1 2
-n
n =- 3
3 3
=a / x [n] z
1
-n
+b / x [n] z
2
-n
n =- 3 n =- 3
Page 504 Similarly, X2 (z) is finite within its ROC, R2 . Therefore, the linear combination
Chap 6 aX1 (z) + bX2 (z) should be finite at least within region R1 + R2 .
The Z-Transform
NOTE :
In certain cases, due to the interaction between x1 [n] and x 2 [n], which may lead to cancellation
of certain terms, the overall ROC may be larger than the intersection of the two regions.
On the other hand, if there is no common region between R1 and R 2 , the z-transform of
ax1 [n] + bx 2 [n] does not exist.
x [n + n 0] zn X (z),
Z
and 0
PROOF :
i. n
o
The bilateral z -transform of signal x [n - n 0] is given by equation (6.1.1) as
.c
follows
3
/ x [n - n ] z
a
-n
Z {x [n - n 0]} =
i
0
n =- 3
d
Substituting n - n 0 = a on RHS, we get
o
3
Z {x [n - n 0]} = / x [a] z - (n 0 + a)
. n
a =- 3
3 3
= / x [a] z -n 0 - a
z = z-n / x [a] z
-a
w
0
a =- 3 a =- 3
ROC : The ROC of shifted signals is altered because of the terms zn or z-n , 0 0
PROOF :
The unilateral z -transform of signal x [n - n 0] is given by equation (6.1.2) as
follows
n=0
Substituting n - n 0 = a
Limits; when n " 0, a " - n 0
when n " + 3, a " + 3
3
Now, Z {x [n - n 0]} = z-n 0
/ x [a] z -a
a =- n 0
-1 3
= z-n 0
/ x [a] z -a
+ z-n 0
/ x [a] z -a
a =- n 0 a=0
3 -1
or, Z {x [n - n 0]} = z-n 0
/ x [a] z -a
+ z-n 0
/ x [a] z -a
i. n
a=0 a =- n 0
3 n0
or, Z {x [n - n 0]} = z-n 0
/ x [a] z -a
+ z-n 0
/ x [- a] z a
o
a=0 a=1
Changing the variables as a " n and a " m in first and second summation
respectively
a.c 3 n0
i
Z {x [n - n 0]} = z-n 0
/ x [n] z -n
+ z-n 0
/ x [- m] z m
d
n=0 m=1
n0
/ x [- m] z
o
= z-n X [z] + z-n
0 0 m
n
m=1
.
In similar way, we can also prove that
n0 - 1
w
x [n + n 0]
Z
z e X (z) -
n0
/ x [m] z -m
o
w
m=0
w
6.5.3 Time Reversal
Time reversal property states that time reflection of a DT sequence in time
domain is equivalent to replacing z by 1/z in its z -transform.
Z
If x [n] X (z), with ROC : Rx
x [- n] Xb 1 l,
Z
then with ROC : 1/Rx
z
for bilateral z -transform.
PROOF :
The bilateral z -transform of signal x [- n] is given by equation (6.1.1) as
follows
3
Z {x [- n]} = / x [ - n] z -n
n =- 3
Substituting - n = k on the RHS, we get
-3 3
Z {x [- n]} = / x [ k] z k
= / x [k] (z -1 -k
) = Xb 1 l
k=3 k =- 3
z
x [- n] Xb 1 l
Z
Hence,
z
ROC : z-1 ! Rx or z ! 1/Rx
Z
If X (z),
x [n] with ROC : Rx
Z dX (z)
then nx [n] -z , with ROC : Rx
dz
For both unilateral and bilateral z -transforms.
PROOF :
The bilateral z -transform of signal x [n] is given by equation (6.1.1) as follows
3
X (z) = / x [ n] z -n
n =- 3
Differentiating both sides with respect to z gives
dX (z) 3 -n 3
= x [n] dz =
/ /
x [n] (- nz-n - 1)
i. n
dz n =- 3
dz n =- 3
Multiplying both sides by - z , we obtain
o
dX (z) 3
-z = /
nx [n] z-n
.c
dz n =- 3
dX (z)
a
Z
Hence, nx [n] -z
i
dz
d
ROC : This operation does not affect the ROC.
n o
w.
Multiplication of a time sequence with an exponential sequence an corresponds
to scaling in z -domain by a factor of a .
w w
If
then a n x [n]
Z
X (z),
x [n]
X a z k,
a
Z
with ROC : Rx
with ROC : a Rx
for both unilateral and bilateral transform.
PROOF :
The bilateral z -transform of signal x [n] is given by equation (6.1.1) as
3 3
Z {an x [n]} = / a x [n] z
n -n
= / x [n] [a
-1
z] -n
n =- 3 n =- 3
n
Xa z k
Z
a x [n]
a
ROC : If z is a point in the ROC of X (z) then the point a z is in the ROC
of X (z/a).
Z
If x [n] X (z), with ROC : Rx
Xk (z) = X (zk ), with ROC : (Rx ) 1/k
Z
then x k [ n]
for both the unilateral and bilateral z -transform.
PROOF :
The unilateral z -transform of expanded sequence xk [n] is given by
i. n
3
Z {xk [n]} = / x [n] z
k
-n
n=0
ia
Since the expanded sequence xk [n] is zero everywhere except when n is a
d
multiple of k . This reduces the above transform as follows
o
Z {xk [n]} = xk [0] + xk [k] z-k + xk [2k] z-2k + xk [3k] z-3k + ...
n
As defined in equation 6.5.1, interpolated sequence is
n=0
w. x k [ n]
x k [ 0]
= x [n/k]
= x [0],
n=k
n = 2k
ww x k [k ]
x k [ 2k ]
Thus, we can write
= x [1]
= x [ 2]
Z {xk [n]} = x [0] + x [1] z-k + x [2] z-2k + x [3] z-3k + ...
3
= / x [n] (z ) k -n
= X (zk )
n=0
NOTE :
k
Time expansion of a DT sequence by a factor of k corresponds to replacing z as z in its z
-transform.
Z
If x [n] X (z), with ROC : Rx
-1
x [ n ] - x [ n - 1]
Z
then (1 - z ) X (z), with the ROC
: Rx except for the possible deletion of z = 0 , for both unilateral and
bilateral transform.
PROOF :
The z -transform of x [n] - x [n - 1] is given by equation (6.1.1) as follows
3
Z {x [n] - x [n - 1]} = / {x [n] - x [n - 1]} z -n
n =- 3
Page 508 3 3
Chap 6
= / x [n] z-n - / x [ n - 1] z -n
n =- 3 n =- 3
The Z-Transform
In the second summation, substituting n - 1 = r
3 3
Z {x [n] - x [n - 1]} = / x [ n] z -n
- / x [r] z - (r + 1)
n =- 3 r =- 3
3 3
= / x [ n] z -n
- z-1 / x [r] z -r
n =- 3 r =- 3
-1
= X (z) - z X (z)
Hence, x [n] - x [n - 1] (1 - z-1) X (z)
Z
Z
Let x 1 [n] X1 (z), ROC : R1
Z
and x 2 [ n] X2 (z), ROC : R2
i. n
then the convolution property states that
Z
x 1 [n] * x 2 [n] X1 (z) X2 (z), ROC : at least R1 + R2
for both unilateral and bilateral z -transforms.
.c o
PROOF :
i a
o d
As discussed in chapter 4, the convolution of two sequences is given by
3
n
x 1 [n] * x 2 [n] = / x [k ] x [n - k ]
.
1 2
k =- 3
w
Taking the z -transform of both sides gives
w
3 3
x 1 [n] * x 2 [n]
Z
/ / x [k ] x [n - k ] z
1 2
-n
w
n =- 3 k =- 3
k =- 3 n =- 3
k =- 3 a =- 3
3 3
or x [n] * x 2 [n]
Z
e / x [k ] z
1
-k
oe / x [a] z 2
-a
o
k =- 3 a =- 3
Z
x 1 [n] * x 2 [n] X1 (z) X2 (z)
Z
If x [n] X (z), with ROC : Rx
Z
then x [n]
)
X (z ), ) )
with ROC : Rx
n =- 3
by taking complex conjugate on both sides of above equation
3
X)(z) = / [ x [ n] z -n )
]
n =- 3
/ 6x [n] (z )
3
@
)
) -n
X)(z)) = (6.5.3)
n =- 3
Comparing equation (6.5.2) and (6.5.3)
Z {x)[n]} = X)(z)) (6.5.4)
i. n
3
Z {x)[n]} = / x [ n] z -n
= X (z) (6.5.5)
o
n =- 3
i
6.5.10 Initial Value Theorem
d
If
no x [n]
Z
X (z), with ROC : Rx
w.
then initial-value theorem states that,
x [0] = lim X (z)
w
z"3
The initial-value theorem is valid only for the unilateral Lapalce transform
w
PROOF :
For a causal signal x [n]
3
X (z) = / x [ n] z -n
n=0
Z
If x [n] X (z), with ROC : Rx
then final-value theorem states that
x [3] = lim (z - 1) X (z)
z"1
Final value theorem is applicable if X (z) has no poles outside the unit
circle. This theorem can be applied to either the unilateral or bilateral z
-transform.
n=0
(6.5.6)
From the time shifting property of unilateral z -transform discussed in section
6.5.2
n0 - 1
x [n + n 0]
Z
zn e X (z) -
0
/ x [m] z -m
o
m=0
0
For n 0 = 1 x [ n + 1]
Z
z e X (z) - / x [m] z -m
o
m=0
x [ n + 1] z ^X (z) - x [0]h
Z
n=0
k
(z - 1) X [z] - zx [0] = lim
k"3
/ (x [n + 1] - x [n]) z -n
n=0
i. n
k
lim (z - 1) X [z] - x [0] = lim
z"1 k"3
/ x [n + 1] - x [n]
o
n=0
lim (z - 1) X [z] - x [0] = lim {(x [1] - x [0]) + (x [2] - x [1]) + (x [3] - x [2]) + ...
.c
z"1 k"3
... + (x [k + 1] - x [k])
i a
lim (z - 1) X [z] - x [0] = x [3] - x [0]
z"1
d
Hence, x [3] = lim (z - 1) X (z)
z"1
Summary of Properties
n o
.
Z
Let, x [n] X (z), with ROC Rx
w
Z
x 1 [n] X1 (z), with ROC R1
w
Z
x 2 [ n] X2 (z), with ROC R2
w
The properties of z -transforms are summarized in the following table.
TABLE 6.2 Properties of z -transform
Linearity ax1 [n] + bx2 [n] aX1 (z) + bX2 (z) at least R1 + R2
x [n - n 0] z-n X (z)
0 Rx except for the
Time shifting
possible deletion
(bilateral or
or addition of
non-causal) x [n + n 0] zn X (z) z = 0 or z = 3
0
z-n ^X (z)
0
x [n - n 0] n0
Time shifting + / x [- m] z m
o Rx except for the
m=1 possible deletion
(unilateral or
or addition of
causal) zn ^X (z)
0
z = 0 or z = 3
x [n + n 0] n0 - 1
- / x [m] z-m
o
m=0
Differentiation dX (z)
nx [n] -z Rx
in z domain dz
Scaling in z
domain
a n x [n] Xa z k a Rx
a
i. n
Time
x 1 [n] * x 2 [n] X1 (z) X2 (z) at least R1 + R2
convolution
Conjugations
.co x [n]
)
X (z )
) )
Rx
a
Initial-value provided x [ n] = 0
i
x [0] = lim X (z)
theorem z"3 for n < 0
od
Final-value
x [3]
= lim x [n] provided x [3]
.n
n"3
theorem exists
= lim (z - 1) X (z)
w
z"1
6.6
w
ANALYSIS OF DISCRETE LTI SYSTEMS USING
w
z -TRANSFORM
The z -transform is very useful tool in the analysis of discrete LTI system. As
the Laplace transform is used in solving differential equations which describe
continuous LTI systems, the z -transform is used to solve difference equation
which describe the discrete LTI systems.
Similar to Laplace transform, for CT domain, the z -transform gives
transfer function of the LTI discrete systems which is the ratio of the z
-transform of the output variable to the z -transform of the input variable.
These applications are discussed as follows
i. n
as y N [n].
.c o
The zero-state response yzs [n] is the response of the system due to input
signal and with zero initial conditions. The zero-state response is obtained
i a
from the difference equation (6.6.1) governing the system for specific input
signal x [n] for n $ 0 and with zero initial conditions.
d
Substituting y [n] = yzs [n] in equation (6.6.1) we get,
o
n
aN yzs [n - N] + aN - 1 yzs [n - (N - 1)] + ....... + a1 yzs [n - 1] + a0 yzs [n]
.
= bM x [n - M] + bM - 1 x [n - (M - 1)] + ..... + b1 x [n - 1] + b0 x [n]
w
Taking z -transform of the above equation with zero initial conditions for
output (i.e., y [- 1] = y [- 2] ... = 0 we can form an equation for Yzs (z).
w w The zero-state response yzs [n] is given by inverse z -transform of Yzs (z).
NOTE :
The zero state response is also called the forced response of the system and it is denoted as
y F [n].
Total Response
The total response y [n] is the response of the system due to input signal and
initial output. The total response can be obtained in following two ways :
Taking z -transform of equation (6.6.1) with non-zero initial conditions
for both input and output, and then substituting for X (z) we can form
an equation for Y (z). The total response y [n] is given by inverse Laplace
transform of Y (s).
Alternatively, that total response y [n] is given by sum of zero-input
response yzi [n] and zero-state response yzs [n].
Therefore total response,
y [n] = yzi [n] + yzs [n]
i. n
z -transform is also used in characterization of LTI discrete systems. In this
o
section, we derive a z -domain condition to check the stability and causality
c
of a system directly from its z -transfer function.
6.7.1 Causality
ia.
d
A linear time-invariant discrete time system is said to be causal if the impulse
o
response h [n] = 0 , for n < 0 and it is therefore right-sided. The ROC of such
n
a system H (z) is the exterior of a circle. If H (z) is rational then the system
w.
is said to be causal if
1. The ROC is the exterior of a circle outside the outermost pole ; and
ww
2. The degree of the numerator polynomial of H (z) should be less than
or equal to the degree of the denominator polynomial.
6.7.2 Stability
An LTI discrete-time system is said to be BIBO stable if the impulse response
h [n] is summable. That is
3
/ h [ n] < 3
n =- 3
n =- 3
jW
Let z = e (which describes a unit circle in the z -plane), then
3
H [e jW] = / h [n] e -jWn
n =- 3
3
# / h [n] e -jWn
n =- 3
3
= / h [ n] < 3
n =- 3
which is the condition for the stability. Thus we can conclude that
Page 514
STABILITY OF LTI DISCRETE SYSTEM
Chap 6
The Z-Transform An LTI system is stable if the ROC of its system function H (z) contains
the unit circle z = 1
An LTI discrete time system with the rational system function H (z) is
said to be both causal and stable if all the poles of H (z) lies inside the
unit circle.
i. n
o
6.8 BLOCK DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION
i a .c
In z -domain, the input-output relation of an LTI discrete time system is
represented by the transfer function H (z) ,which is a rational function of z ,
d
as shown in equation
Y (z)
o
H (z) =
X (z)
. n M M-1 M-2
= b 0 z N + b1 z N - 1 + b2 z N - 2 + ... + bM - 1 z + bM
w
a 0 z + a1 z + a2 z + ... + aN - 1 z + aN
where, N = Order of the system, M # N and a 0 = 1
w w The above transfer function is realized using unit delay elements, unit
advance elements, adders and multipliers. Basic elements of block diagram
with their z -domain representation is shown in table 6.3.
Elements
of Block Time Domain Representation s -domain Representation
diagram
Adder
Constant
multiplier
Unit delay
element
Unit
advance
element
i. n
.co
ia
od
.n
ww
w
For example consider a discrete LTI system which has the following
impulse response
Y (z) 1 + 2z-1 + 2z-2
H (z) = =
X (z) 1 + 4z-1 + 3z-2
Y (z) + 4z-1 Y (z) + 3z-2 Y (z) = 1X (z) + 2z-1 X (z) + 2z-2 X (z)
Comparing with standard form of equation (6.8.1), we get a1 = 4 , a2 = 3
and b 0 = 1, b1 = 2 , b2 = 2 . Now put these values in general structure of Direct
form-I realization we get
Page 516
Chap 6
The Z-Transform
Figure 6.8.1b
i. n
Y (z)=- a1 z-1 Y (z) - a2 z-2 Y (z) - ... - aN z-N Y (z) +
b 0 X (z) + b1 z-1 X (z) + b2 z-2 X (z) + ... + bM z-M X (z)
o
It can be simplified as,
.c
Y (z) 61 + a1 z-1 + a2 z-2 + ... + aN z-N @ = X (z) 6b 0 + b1 z-1 + b2 z-2 + ... + bM z-M @
Y (z) W (z) Y (z)
a
Let, =
i
X (z) X (z) # W (z)
d
where,
W (z)
o
= 1 (6.8.2)
X (z) 1 + a1 z-1 + a2 z-2 + ... + aN z-N
.
Y (z)
n
= b 0 + b1 z-1 + b2 z-2 + ... + bM z-M (6.8.3)
w
W (z)
Equation (6.8.2) can be simplified as,
w w
W (z) + a1 z-1 W (z) + a2 z-2 W (z) + ... + aN z-N W (z) = X (z)
W (z) = X (z) - a1 z-1 W (z) - a2 z-2 W (z) - ... - aN z-N W (z)
Similarly by simplifying equation (6.8.3), we get
(6.8.4)
Y (z) = b 0 W (z) + b1 z-1 W (z) + b2 z-2 W (z) + ... + bM z-M W (z) (6.8.5)
Equation (6.8.4) and (6.8.5) can be realized together by a direct structure
called direct form-II structure as shown in figure 6.8.2a. It uses less number
of delay elements then the Direct Form I structure.
For example, consider the same transfer function H (z) which is discussed
above
Y (z) 1 + 2z-1 + 2z-2
H (z) = =
X (z) 1 + 4z-1 + 3z-2
Y (z) Y (z) W (z)
Let =
X (z) W (z) # X (z)
W (z) 1
where, = ,
X (z) 1 + 4z + 3z-2
-1
Y (z)
= 1 + 2z-1 + 2z-2
W (z)
so, W (z) = X (z) - 4z-1 W (z) - 3z-2 W (z)
and Y (z) = 1W (z) + 2z-1 W (z) + 2z-2 W (z)
Comparing these equations with standard form of equation (6.8.4) and
(6.8.5), we have a1 = 4 , a2 = 3 and b 0 = 1, b1 = 2, b2 = 2 . Substitute these
i. n
.co
ia
od
Figure 6.8.2a General structure of direct form-II realization
.n
ww
w
Figure 6.8.2b
Page 518 -1 -2
H2 (z) = bm0 + bm1 z-1 + bm2 z-2
Chap 6 1 + am1 z + am2 z
The Z-Transform Realizing H1 (z) and H2 (z) in direct form II and cascading we obtain
cascade form of the system function H (z) as shown in figure 6.8.3.
.c
sum of several transfer functions using partial fractions. Then the individual
transfer functions are realized in direct form I or direct form II realization
i a
and connected in parallel for the realization of H (z). Let us consider the
d
transfer function
o
H (z) = c + c1 c2 cN
-1 + -1 + ......
1 - p1 z 1 - pz z 1 - pn z-1
. n
Now each factor in the system is realized in direct form II and connected
w
in parallel as shown in figure 6.8.4.
w w
i. n
***********
.co
ia
od
.n
ww
w
Page 520
Chap 6 EXERCISE 6.1
The Z-Transform
MCQ 6.1.1 The z -transform and its ROC of a discrete time sequence
-b 1 l ,
n
n<0
x [n] = * 2
0, n$0
will be
(A) 2z , z > 1 (B) z , z < 1
2z - 1 2 z-2 2
-1
(C) 2z , z <1 (D) 2z , z >1
2z - 1 2 z-1 2
MCQ 6.1.2 The ROC of z -transform of the discrete time sequence x [n] = ^ 12 h| n | is
(A) 12 < z < 2 (B) z > 2
(C) - 2 < z < 2 (D) z < 12
i. n
Consider a discrete-time signal x [n] = b 1 l u [n] + b 1 l u [- n - 1]. The ROC
n n
MCQ 6.1.3
3 2
o
of its z -transform is
(B) z < 1
.c
(A) 3 < z < 2
2
(C) z > 1
3
i a (D) 1 < z < 1
3 2
MCQ 6.1.4
o d
For a signal x [n] = [an + a-n] u [n], the ROC of its z -transform would be
. a
n
(A) z > min e a , 1 o (B) z > a
w w
(C) z > max e a , 1 o
a
(D) z < a
w
MCQ 6.1.5 Match List I (discrete time sequence) with List II (z -transform) and choose
the correct answer using the codes given below the lists:
P. u [n - 2] 1. 1 , z <1
z-2 (1 - z-1)
Q. - u [- n - 3] 2. - z-1 , z <1
1 - z-1
R. u [n + 4] 3. 1 , z >1
z-4 (1 - z-1)
S. u [- n] 4. z-2 , z >1
1 - z-1
Codes :
P Q R S
(A) 1 4 2 3
(B) 2 4 1 3
(C) 4 1 3 2
(D) 4 2 3 1
MCQ 6.1.7 Consider the pole zero diagram of an LTI system shown in the figure which
corresponds to transfer function H (z).
Match List I (The impulse response) with List II (ROC which corresponds to
i. n
above diagram) and choose the correct answer using the codes given below:
{Given that H (1) = 1}
.co
List-I (Impulse Response)
[(- 4) 2n + 6 (3) n] u [n]
List-II (ROC)
a
P. 1. does not exist
i z >3
n n
Q. (- 4) 2 u [n] + (- 6) 3 u [- n - 1] 2.
d
n
R. (4) 2 u [- n - 1] + (- 6) 3 u [- n - 1]
o
n
3. z <2
n
S. n
4 (2) u [- n - 1] + (- 6) 3 u [n] n
4. 2< z <3
Codes :
P
w. Q R S
(A) 4
(B)
(C)
(D) 2ww
2
1
1
1
4
4
3
3
2
3
2
4
3
1
MCQ 6.1.8 The z -transform of a signal x [n] is X (z) = ez + e1/z , z ! 0 . x [n] would be
(A) d [n] + 1 (B) u [n] + 1
n! n!
(C) u [n - 1] + n! (D) d [n] + (n - 1) !
Page 522 MCQ 6.1.11 If ROC of X (z) is 1 < z < 3 , the signal x [n] would be
Chap 6 (A) [2 (3) n - (- 1) n] u [n] (B) [- 2 (3) n + (- 1) n] u [- n - 1]
The Z-Transform
(C) - 2 (3) n u [- n - 1] - (- 1) n u [n] (D) [2 (3) n + (- 1) n] u [- n - 1]
MCQ 6.1.12 Consider a DT sequence x [n] = x1 [n] + x2 [n] where, x1 [n] = (0.7) n u [n - 1] and
x2 [n] = (- 0.4) n u [n - 2]. The region of convergence of z -transform of x [n] is
(A) 0.4 < z < 0.7 (B) z > 0.7
(C) z < 0.4 (D) none of these
MCQ 6.1.13 The z -transform of a DT signal x [n] is X (z) = 2 z . What will be the
8z - 2z - 1
z -transform of x [n - 4] ?
(z + 4) z5
(A) 2 (B)
8 (z + 4) - 2 (z + 4) - 1 8z2 - 2z - 1
(C) 4z (D) 5 1 4
128z2 - 8z - 1 8z - 2z - z3
MCQ 6.1.14 Let x1 [n], x2 [n] and x 3 [n] be three discrete time signals and X1 (z), X2 (z) and
X 3 (z) are their z -transform respectively given as
i. n
X1 (z) = z2 ,
(z - 1) (z - 0.5)
o
X2 (z) = z
.c
(z - 1) (z - 0.5)
1
a
and X 3 (z) =
i
(z - 1) (z - 0.5)
d
Then x1 [n], x2 [n] and x 3 [n] are related as
(A) x1 [n - 2] = x2 [n - 1] = x 3 [n] (B) x1 [n + 2] = x2 [n + 1] = x 3 [n]
n o
(C) x1 [n] = x2 [n - 1] = x 3 [n - 2] (D) x1 [n + 1] = x2 [n - 1] = x 3 [n]
MCQ 6.1.15
w.
The z -transform of the discrete time signal x [n] shown in the figure is
w w
(A) z-k (B) z-k
1 - z-1 1 + z-1
-k -k
(C) 1 - z-1 (D) 1 + z-1
1-z 1-z
(A) z2 , 1 (B) 1 , z2
z-1 z-1 z-1 z-1
(C) 1 , z (D) z , z2
z-1 z-1 z-1 z-1
MCQ 6.1.17 A discrete time causal signal x [n] has the z -transform
X (z) = z , ROC : z > 0.4
z - 0.4
The ROC for z -transform of the even part of x [n] will be
Q. - nu [- n - 1] 2. 1 , ROC : z > 1
(1 + z-1)
i. n
Codes :
P Q R S
(A) 4
(B) 4
.co 1
3
2
2
3
1
a
(C) 3 1 4 2
(D) 2
di 4 1 3
o
MCQ 6.1.19 A discrete time sequence is defined as x [n] = n1 (- 2) -n u [- n - 1]. The z
-transform of x [n] is
.n
(A) log bz + 1 l, ROC : z < 1
2 2
(B) log bz - 1 l, ROC : z < 1
2 2
ww
(C) log (z - 2), ROC : z > 2 (D) log (z + 2), ROC : z < 2
w
Z
MCQ 6.1.20 Consider a z -transform pair x [n] X (z) with ROC Rx . The z transform
n
and its ROC for y [n] = a x [n] will be
MCQ 6.1.21 Let X (z) be the z -transform of a causal signal x [n] = an u [n] with ROC : z > a .
Match the discrete sequences S1, S2, S 3 and S 4 with ROC of their z -transforms
R1, R2 and R 3 .
Sequences ROC
S 1 : x [ n - 2] R1 : z >a
S 2 : x [ n + 2] R2 : z <a
S 3 : x [- n] R3 : z <1
a
S 4 : (- 1) n x [n]
(A) (S1, R1), (S2, R2), (S 3, R 3), (S 4, R 3)
(B) (S1, R1), (S2, R1), (S 3, R 3), (S 4, R1)
(C) (S1, R2), (S2, R1), (S 3, R2), (S 4, R 3)
(D) (S1, R1), (S2, R2), (S 3, R2), (S 4, R 3)
Page 524 MCQ 6.1.22 Consider a discrete time signal x [n] = an u [n] and its z -transform X (z).
Chap 6 Match List I (discrete signals) with List II (z -transform) and select the
The Z-Transform correct answer using the codes given below:
List-I (Discrete time signal) List-II (z -transform)
P. x [n/2] 1. z-2 X (z)
Q. x [ n - 2] u [ n - 2 ] 2. X (z2)
R. x [n + 2] u [n] 3. X (z/b 2)
S. b 2n x [n] 4. a2 X (z)
Codes :
P Q R S
(A) 1 2 4 3
(B) 2 4 1 3
(C) 1 4 2 3
(D) 2 1 4 3
MCQ 6.1.23 The z -transform of a discrete sequence x [n] is X (z), then the z -transform of
i. n
x [2n] will be
(A) X (2z) (B) X a z k
2
MCQ 6.1.24
(C) 1 8X ( z ) + X (- z )B
2
.c o
(D) X ( z )
o
The z -transform of the sequence y [n] = x [0] + x [1] + x [2] + ..... + x [n] will
n
be
(A)
w. 4z 2
(z - 1) (8z2 - 2z - 1)
(B)
4z (z - 1)
8z2 - 2z - 1
w
MCQ 6.1.25
w
(C) 4z2
(z + 1) (8z2 - 2z - 1)
4z (z + 1)
(D) 2
8z - 2z - 1
MCQ 6.1.27 A discrete-time system with input x [n] and output y [n] is governed by
following difference equation
y [n] - 1 y [n - 1] = x [n], with initial condition y [- 1] = 3
2
The impulse response of the system
(A) 5 a n - 1k, n $ 0 (B) 5 b 1 l , n $ 0
n
2 2 2 2
(C) 5 b 1 l , n $ 0 (D) 5 b 1 l , n $ 0
n-1 n+1
2 2 2 2
MCQ 6.1.30 The input-output relationship of a system is given as y [n] - 0.4y [n - 1] = x [n]
where, x [n] and y [n] are the input and output respectively. The zero state
response of the system for an input x [n] = (0.4) n u [n] is
(A) n (0.4) n u [n] (B) n2 (0.4) n u [n]
(C) (n + 1) (0.4) n u [n] (D) 1 (0.4) n u [n]
i. n
n
MCQ 6.1.31 A discrete time system has the following input-output relationship
o
y [n] - 12 y [n - 1] = x [n]. If an input x [n] = u [n] is applied to the system, then
c
its zero state response will be
ia.
(A) :1 - (2) nD u [n] (B) ;2 - b 1 l E u [n]
2
n
d
(C) ;1 - b 1 l E u [n]
n
(D) [2 - (2) n] u [n]
o
2 2
n
MCQ 6.1.32 Consider the transfer function of a system
w. H (z) = 2
2z (z - 1)
z + 4z + 4
w
For an input x [n] = 2d [n] + d [n + 1], the system output is
(A) 2d [n + 1] + 6 (2) n u [n] (B) 2d [n] - 6 (- 2) n u [n]
MCQ 6.1.33
w
(C) 2d [n + 1] - 6 (- 2) n u [n] (D) 2d [n + 1] + 6 b 1 l u [n]
Page 526 MCQ 6.1.35 If h [n] denotes the impulse response of a causal system, then which of the
Chap 6 following system is not stable?
(A) h [n] = n b 1 l u [n] (B) h [n] = 1 d [n]
The Z-Transform n
3 3
(C) h [n] = d [n] - b- 1 l u [n]
n
(D) h [n] = [(2) n - (3) n] u [n]
3
MCQ 6.1.36 A causal system with input x [n] and output y [n] has the following relationship
y [n] + 3y [n - 1] + 2y [n - 2] = 2x [n] + 3x [n - 1]
The system is
(A) stable (B) unstable
(C) marginally stable (D) none of these
MCQ 6.1.37 A causal LTI system is described by the difference equation y [n]
= x [ n ] + y [ n - 1]
Consider the following statement
1. Impulse response of the system is h [n] = u [n]
2. The system is BIBO stable
3. For an input x [n] = (0.5) n u [n], system output is y [n] = 2u [n] - (0.5) n u [n]
i. n
Which of the above statements is/are true?
(A) 1 and 2 (B) 1 and 3
(C) 2 and 3
.c o (D) 1, 2 and 3
a
MCQ 6.1.38 Match List I (system transfer function) with List II (property of system) and
i
choose the correct answer using the codes given below
d
o
List-I (System transfer function) List-II (Property of system)
.
P. H (z) =
nz3
(z - 1.2) 3
, ROC : z > 1.2 1. Non causal but stable
w w
Q. H (z) = z2
(z - 1.2) 3
, ROC : z < 1.2 2. Neither causal nor stable
S2 : H (z) = 2 -3 z 1+-12 4
-3z - 2z + 3 +z
1 + 12 z-2 - 43 z-1
S 3 : H (z) = -1
z ^1 - 13 z-1h^1 - 12 z-1h
Which of the above systems is/are causal?
(A) S1 only (B) S1 and S2
(C) S1 and S 3 (D) S1, S2 and S 3
i. n
(C) z-k , all z (D) zk , all z
o
MCQ 6.1.43
c
1 , 1 ,
.
(A) z >1 (B) z <1
1 - z-1 1 - z-1
(C) z ,
d
1 - z-1 1 - z-1
o
The z -transform of b 1 l (u [n] - u [n - 5]) is
n
MCQ 6.1.44
n
4
.
5 5
z - (0.25) z5 - (0.25) 5
(A) 4 , z > 0.25 (B) , z > 0. 5
w
z (z - 0.25) z 4 (z - 0.25)
w
z5 - (0.25) 5 z5 - (0.25) 5
(C) 3 , z < 0.25 (D) , all z
z (z - 0.25) z 4 (z - 0.25)
MCQ 6.1.45
w
The z -transform of b 1 l u [- n] is
(A) 4z , z > 1
4
n
(B) 4z , z <1
4z - 1 4 4z - 1 4
(C) 1 , z >1 (D) 1 , z <1
1 - 4z 4 1 - 4z 4
The z -transform of b 2 l is
n
MCQ 6.1.47
3
(A) - 5z , -3 < z <-2
(2z - 3) (3z - 2) 2 3
(B) - 5z , 2< z <3
(2z - 3) (3z - 2) 3 2
(C) 5z , 2< z <2
(2z - 3) (3z - 2) 3 3
(D) 5z , -3 < z <-2
(2z - 3) (3z - 2) 2 3
i. n
(D) 2z2 + 4z + 5 + 7z-1 + z-3, 0< z <3
o
MCQ 6.1.51 The z -transform of x [n] = {1, 0, - 1, 0, 1, - 1} is
.c
-
(A) 1 + 2z-2 - 4z-4 + 5z-5, z ! 0
a
(B) 1 - z-2 + z-4 - z-5, z ! 0
i
(C) 1 - 2z2 + 4z 4 - 5z5, z ! 0
d
o
(D) 1 - z2 + z 4 - z5, z ! 0
MCQ 6.1.52
. n
The time signal corresponding to z2 - 3z , 1 < z < 2 is
z2 + 32 z - 1 2
w
(A) - 1n u [n] - 2n + 1 u [- n - 1] 1
(B) - n u [n] - 2n + 1 u [n + 1]
2 2
w w
(C) 1n u [n] + 2n + 1 u [n + 1]
2
3z2 - 14 z
(D) 1n u [n] - 2-n - 1 u [- n - 1]
2
i. n
(D) d [- n - 6] + d [- n - 2] + 3d [- n] + 2d [- n - 3] + d [- n - 4]
o
MCQ 6.1.59 The time signal corresponding to 1 , z > 1 is
1- z 1 -2 2
.c
4
a
(B) b 1 l u [n]
2n
(A) *
i
0, otherwise 4
d
2-n, n odd, n > 0
(C) * (D) 2-n u [n]
0,
no n even
.
MCQ 6.1.60 The time signal corresponding to 1 , z < 1 is
1 - 14 z-2 2
w
3
(A) - / 22 (k + 1) d [- n - 2 (k + 1)]
w
k=0
w
3
(B) - / 22 (k + 1) d [- n + 2 (k + 1)]
k=0
3
(C) - / 22 (k + 1) d [n + 2 (k + 1)]
k=0
3
(D) - / 22 (k + 1) d [n - 2 (k + 1)]
k=0
2
x2 [n] =- 2n u [- n - 1] + 1n u [- n - 1]
2
x 3 [n] =- 2n u [- n - 1] - 1n u [n]
2
i. n
Following figure shows the three different region. Choose the correct for the
ROC of signal
.c o
i a
o d
. n
w w R1 R2 R3
w
(A) x 1 [n] x 2 [ n] x 3 [n]
(B) x 2 [ n] x 3 [n] x 1 [n]
(C) x 1 [n] x 3 [n] x 2 [ n]
(D) x 3 [n] x 2 [ n] x 1 [n]
For three different ROC consider there different solution of signal x [n] :
(a) z > 1 , x [n] = ; n1- 1 - b - 1 l E u [n]
n
2 2 3
(b) z < 1 , x [n] = ; -n -11 + b - 1 l E u [- n + 1]
n
3 2 3
(c) 1 < z < 1 , x [n] =- n1- 1 u [- n - 1] - b - 1 l u [n]
n
3 2 2 3
Correct solution are
(A) (a) and (b)
(B) (a) and (c)
(C) (b) and (c)
(D) (a), (b), (c)
MCQ 6.1.66 If x [n] is right-sided, X (z) has a signal pole and x [0] = 2, x [2] = 1 , then x [n]
2
is
u [ - n] u [n]
(A) (B)
2n - 1 2n - 1
u [ - n] u [ - n]
(C) n + 1 (D) a n + 1
2 2
i. n
(B) 1 + 1 , 1< z <1
1 - 12 z-1 1 - 14 z-1 4 2
(C) 1
1- 2z1 -1 -
.co 1 , z >1
1 - 14 z-1 2
a
(D) None of the above
di
o
Common Data For Q. 68 - 73:
.n
Given the z -transform pair x [n]
Z z2 ,
z2 - 16
z <4
MCQ 6.1.68
(A) 2 z
ww
The z -transform of the signal x [n - 2] is
4 (z + 2) 2
w
(B)
z - 16 (z + 2) 2 - 16
(z - 2) 2
(C) 2 1 (D)
z - 16 (z - 2) 2 - 16
i. n
(C) b 3 l n2 u [n]
n
(D) 6n n2 u [n]
2
.c
(A) n2 3-n u [- n] (B) n2 3-n u [- n]
a
(C) 12 3 n u [n] (D) 12 3 n u [- n]
1 1
i
n n
MCQ 6.1.76
o d
The time signal corresponding to d X (z) is
dz
. n
3 n-1
(A) (n - 1) 3 u [n - 1]
(B) n3 3n u [n - 1]
w w
(C) (1 - n) 3 3n - 1 u [n - 1]
(D) (n - 1) 3 3n - 1 u [n]
w
MCQ 6.1.77
(A) 1 (x [n + 2] - x [n - 2])
2
2
2
-2
The time signal corresponding to b z - z l X (z) is
(B) x [n + 2] - x [n - 2]
3 2 4 3 2 4
(C) 1 ;5 b 1 l - 2 b - 1 l E u [n] (D) 1 ;5 b 1 l + 2 b 1 l E u [n]
n n n n
3 2 4 3 2 4
2 2 2
(C) ;10 b 1 l - 7 (2) nE u [n] (D) ;10 (2n) - 7 b 1 l E u [n]
2 n
2 2
MCQ 6.1.81 A system has impulse response h [n] = ( 12 ) n u [n]. The output y [n] to the input
x [n] is given by y [n] = 2d [n - 4]. The input x [n] is
(A) 2d [- n - 4] - d [- n - 5]
(B) 2d [n + 4] - d [n + 5]
(C) 2d [- n + 4] - d [- n + 5]
(D) 2d [n - 4] - d [n - 5]
i. n
MCQ 6.1.82 A system is described by the difference equation
y [n] = x [n] - x [n - 2] + x [n - 4] - x [n - 6]
.co
The impulse response of system is
(A) d [n] - 2d [n + 2] + 4d [n + 4] - 6d [n + 6]
a
(B) d [n] + 2d [n - 2] - 4d [n - 4] + 6d [n - 6]
di
(C) d [n] - d [n - 2] + d [n - 4] - d [n - 6]
o
(D) d [n] - d [n + 2] + d [n + 4] - d [n + 6]
MCQ 6.1.83
.n
The impulse response of a system is given by h [n] = 3n u [n - 1]. The difference
w
4
equation representation for this system is
w
(A) 4y [n] - y [n - 1] = 3x [n - 1]
w
(B) 4y [n] - y [n + 1] = 3x [n + 1]
(C) 4y [n] + y [n - 1] =- 3x [n - 1]
(D) 4y [n] + y [n + 1] = 3x [n + 1]
MCQ 6.1.84 The impulse response of a system is given by h [n] = d [n] - d [n - 5]. The
difference equation representation for this system is
(A) y [n] = x [n] - x [n - 5]
(B) y [n] = x [n] - x [n + 5]
(C) y [n] = x [n] + 5x [n - 5]
(D) y [n] = x [n] - 5x [n + 5]
2 2
(C) - 2n u [- n - 1] - b - 1 l u [n] (D) 2n u [n] - b 1 l u [n]
n n
2 2
2
MCQ 6.1.87 The transfer function of a causal system is H (z) = 2 5z . The impulse
z -z-6
response is
(A) (3n + (- 1) n 2n + 1) u [n]
(B) (3n + 1 + 2 (- 2) n) u [n]
(C) (3n - 1 + (- 1) n 2n + 1) u [n]
(D) (3n - 1 - (- 2) n + 1) u [n]
z (3z - 2)
MCQ 6.1.88 The transfer function of a system is given by H (z) = 2 . The system
z - z - 14
is
i. n
(A) causal and stable
(B) causal, stable and minimum phase
(C) minimum phase
(D) none of the above
.c o
i a
The z -transform of a signal x [n] is X (z) = 3
d
MCQ 6.1.89 . If X (z) converges
1 - 103 z-1 + z-2
on the unit circle, x [n] is
1
n o
u [ n] - 3
n+3
1 n+3
u [ n] - 3 u [ - n]
.
(A) - u [- n - 1] (B)
3n - 1 (8) 8 n-1
3 (8) (8)
w
n+3 n+3
(C) n -11 u [n] - 3 u [- n] (D) - n -11 u [n] - 3 u [- n]
3 (8) (8) 3 (8) (8)
w
MCQ 6.1.90
w
The transfer function of a system is H (z) =
(A) stable
4z-1 ,
^1 - 14 z h
-1 2
z > 1 . The h [n] is
4
(B) causal
(C) stable and causal
(D) none of the above
n
(A) 2^ - 2h
(1 + (- 1) n) u [n] + 1 d [n] (B) 2 (1 + (- 1) n) u [n] + 1 d [n]
n
2
2 2 2
n
(C) 2^ - 2h
(1 + (- 1) n) u [n] - 1 d [n]
(D) 2 [1 + (- 1) n] u [n] - 1 d [n]
n
2
22 2
MCQ 6.1.93 The system diagram for the transfer function H (z) = 2 z . is shown
z +z+1
below.
i. n
.co
ia
od
The system diagram is a
(A) Correct solution
.n
(B) Not correct solution
w
(C) Correct and unique solution
w
(D) Correct but not unique solution
w
***********
Page 536
Chap 6 EXERCISE 6.2
The Z-Transform
QUES 6.2.3 The z -transform of a discrete time signal x [n] is X (z) = z + 1 . Then,
z (z - 1)
x [0] + x [1] + x [2] = _______
QUES 6.2.4 If x [n] = an u [n], then the z -transform of x [n + 3] u [n] will be ak a z k,
z-k
where k = _______
i. n
-9
QUES 6.2.5 The inverse z -transform of a function X (z) = z is an - k u [n - k ] where
z-a
o
the value of k is _______
.c
-2
X (z) be a z -transform pair, where X (z) = z . What will be
Z
QUES 6.2.6 Let x [n]
z-3
i a
the value of x [5] ?
d
QUES 6.2.7 The z -transform of a discrete time sequence y [n] = n [n + 1] u [n] is kz k
o
(z - 1) k + 1
such that the value of k is _______
. n
A signal x [n] has the following z -transform X (z) = log (1 - 2z), ROC : z <
QUES 6.2.8 1
2
. Let the signal be
w w x [n] 1 b 1 l u [ a - n]
n 2
n
w
what is the value of a in the expression ?
Z
QUES 6.2.9 Let x [n] X (z) be a z -transform pair. Consider another signal y [n]
defined as
y [n] = * 6 @
x n/2 , if n is even
0, if n is odd
The z -transform of y [n] is X (z k ) such that the value of k is _______
QUES 6.2.10 Let X (z) be z -transform of a discrete time sequence x [n] = (- 12 ) 2 u [n].
Consider another signal y [n] and its z -transform Y (z) given as Y (z) = X (z3)
. What is the value of y [n] at n = 4 ?
QUES 6.2.11 Let h [n] = {1, 2, 0, - 1, 1} and x [n] = {1, 3, - 1, - 2} be two discrete time
sequences. What is the value of convolution y [n] = h [n] * x [n] at n = 4 ?
QUES 6.2.12 A discrete time sequence is defined as follows
1, n is even
x [n] = )
0, otherwise
What is the final value of x [n] ?
QUES 6.2.13 Let X (z) be the z -transform of a DT signal x [n] given as
X (z) = 0.5z2
(z - 1) (z - 0.5)
i. n
h1 [n] = d [n] + 1 d [n - 1] and h2 [n] = b 1 l u [n]
n
where,
2 2
.co
If an input x [n] = cos (np) is applied, then output y [n] = k cos np where the
constant k is _______
a
The block diagram of a discrete time system is shown in the figure below
i
QUES 6.2.17
od
.n
The system is BIBO stable for | a |< _______
QUES 6.2.18
ww
Let x [n] = d [n - 1] + d [n + 2]. If unilateral z -transform of the signal x 6n@ be
X (z) = z k
w
then, the value of constant k is _______
QUES 6.2.19 The unilateral z -transform of signal x [n] = u [n + 4] is 1 such that the
1 + a/z
value of a is _______
QUES 6.2.20 If z -transform is given by X (z) = cos (z-3), z > 0 , then what will be the
value of x [12] ?
QUES 6.2.21 The z -transform of an anticausal system is X (z) = 12 - 21z 2 . What will
3 - 7z + 12z
be the value of x [0] ?
QUES 6.2.22 The system y [n] = cy [n - 1] - 0.12y [n - 2] + x [n - 1] + x [n - 2] is stable if
c < _______
***********
Page 538
Chap 6 EXERCISE 6.3
The Z-Transform
MCQ 6.3.2 Which of the following expression is correct for the bilateral z -transform of
x [n] ?
3 3
(A) / x [ n] z n
(B) / x [ n] z
-n
n=0 n=0
3 3
(C) / x [ n] z n
(D) / x [ n] z -n
n =- 3 n =- 3
i. n
MCQ 6.3.3 The unilateral z -transform of sequence x [n] is defined as
3 3
(A) / x [ n] z n (B) / x [ n] z n
(C)
n=0
3
/ x [ n] z -n
.c o (D)
n =- 3
3
/ x [ n] z -n
i a
n=0 n =- 3
MCQ 6.3.4 The z -transform of a causal signal x [n] is given by
d
3 3
(A) / x [ n] z n
(B) / x [ n] z n
n =- 3
n o n=0
.
3 3
(C) / x [ n] z -n
(D) / x [ n] z -n
w
n =- 3 n=0
MCQ 6.3.5 For a signal x [n], its unilateral z -transform is equivalent to the bilateral z
w
-transform of
(A) x [n] r [n] (B) x [n] d [n]
MCQ 6.3.6
w(C) x [n] u [n] (D) none of these
The ROC of z -transform X (z) is defined as the range of values of z for which
X (z)
(A) zero (B) diverges
(C) converges (D) none
MCQ 6.3.8 If x [n] is a right-sided sequence, and if the circle z = r0 is in the ROC, then
(A) the values of z for which z > r0 will also be in the ROC
(B) the values of z for which z < r0 will also be in the ROC
(C) both (A) & (B)
(D) none of these
MCQ 6.3.13 Which of the following statement about ROC is not true ?
(A) ROC never lies exactly at the boundary of a circle
i. n
(B) ROC consists of a circle in the z -plane centred at the origin
(C) ROC of a right handed finite sequence is the entire z -plane except z = 0
.co
(D) ROC contains both poles and zeroes
a
MCQ 6.3.14 The z -transform of unit step sequence is
(A) 1
(C) z -z 1
di (B) z -1 1
(D) 0
MCQ 6.3.15
no
The ROC for the z -transform of the sequence x [n] = u [- n] is
(A) z > 0
w
(C) z > 1. (B) z < 1
(D) does not exist
w
Z
MCQ 6.3.16 Let x [n] X (z), then unilateral z -transform of sequence x1 [n] = x [n - 1]
w
will be
(A) X1 (z) = z-1 X (z) + x [0]
(B) X1 (z) = z-1 X (z) - x [1]
(C) X1 (z) = z-1 X (z) - x [- 1]
(D) X1 (z) = z-1 X [z] + x [- 1]
Z
MCQ 6.3.17 Let x [n] X (z), the bilateral z -transform of x [n - n 0] is given by
(A) zX (z) (B) zn X (z)
0
Page 540 MCQ 6.3.20 If x [n] and y [n] are two discrete time sequences, then the z -transform of
Chap 6 correlation of the sequences x [n] and y [n] is
The Z-Transform (A) X (z-1) Y (z-1) (B) X (z) Y (z-1)
(C) X (z) * Y (z) (D) X * (z) Y * (z-1)
MCQ 6.3.23 Which of the following schemes of system realization uses separate delays for
input and output samples ?
(A) parallel form (B) cascade form
i. n
(C) direct form-I (D) direct form-II
o
MCQ 6.3.24 The direct form-I and II structures of IIR system will be identical in
.c
(A) all pole system
(B) all zero system
(C) both (A) and (B)
i a
d
(D) first order and second order systems
o
n
MCQ 6.3.25 The number of memory locations required to realize the system,
.
-2 -3
H (z) = 1 + 3z -2+ 2z-4 is
w
1 + 2z + z
(A) 5 (B) 7
w
MCQ 6.3.26
w
(C) 2 (D) 10
***********
i. n
MCQ 6.4.3 The z -transform F (z) of the function f (nT) = anT is
o
GATE EC 1999
(A) z (B) z
z - aT z + aT
(C) z
z - a-T
a.c (D) z
z + a-T
MCQ 6.4.4
di
The discrete-time signal x [n]
Z
/
X (z) = n3= 0 2 +3 n z2n , where
n
denotes
o
GATE EE 2006 a transform-pair relationship, is orthogonal to the signal
n
n
(A) y1 [n] ) Y1 (z) = n3= 0 ` 2 j z - n
/
.
( B )
3n
/
y2 [n] ) Y2 (z) = n = 0 (5 - n) z
3 - (2n + 1)
ww
(C) y3 [n] ) Y3 (z) = / n3=- 3 2 - n z - n (D) y4 [n] ) Y4 (z) = 2z - 4 + 3z - 2 + 1
w
MCQ 6.4.5 Which one of the following is the region of convergence (ROC) for the
IES E & T 1994 sequence x [n] = bn u [n] + b-n u [- n - 1]; b < 1 ?
(A) Region z < 1
(B) Annular strip in the region b > z > 1
b
(C) Region z > 1
(D) Annular strip in the region b < z < 1
b
MCQ 6.4.6 Assertion (A) : The signals an u [n] and - an u [- n - 1] have the same z
IES EC 2002 -transform, z/ (z - a).
Reason (R) : The Reason of Convergence (ROC) for an u [n] is z > a ,
whereas the ROC for an u [- n - 1] is z < a .
(A) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(B) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A
(C) A is true but R is false
(D) A is false but R is true
i. n
GATE EC 2001 (A) z > 1 (B) z < 1
(C) (Real part of z ) > 0 (D) (Real part of z ) < 0
MCQ 6.4.12
.c o
Match List I (Discrete Time signal) with List II (Transform) and select the
a
correct answer using the codes given below the lists :
i
IES EC 2005
List I
o
A. Unit step function d 1. 1
List II
. n
B. Unit impulse function 2. z - cos wT
w
2
z - 2z cos wT + 1
w
C. sin wt, t = 0, T, 2T 3. z
z-1
MCQ 6.4.14 Which one of the following represents the impulse response of a system
IES E & T 1997 defined by H (z) = z-m ?
(A) u [n - m] (B) d [n - m]
(C) d [m] (D) d [m - n]
MCQ 6.4.16 The z -transform X (z) of a sequence x [n] is given by X [z] = 1 -0.25z . It is given
-1
GATE EC 2007 that the region of convergence of X (z) includes the unit circle. The value of
x [0] is
(A) - 0.5 (B) 0
(C) 0.25 (D) 05
MCQ 6.4.17 If u (t) is the unit step and d (t) is the unit impulse function, the inverse z
GATE EE 2005 -transform of F (z) = z +1 1 for k > 0 is
(A) (- 1) k d (k) (B) d (k) - (- 1) k
(C) (- 1) k u (k) (D) u (k) - (- 1) k
^2z - 6 h
5
MCQ 6.4.18 For a z -transform X (z) =
^z - 2 h^z - 3 h
i. n
1 1
IES EC 2002
Match List I (The sequences) with List II (The region of convergence ) and
o
select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists :
List I
a.c List II
i
A. [(1/2) n + (1/3) n] u [n] 1. (1/3) < z < (1/2)
od
B. (1/2) n u [n] - (1/3) n u [- n - 1]
C. - (1/2) n u [- n - 1] + (1/3) n u [n]
2.
3.
z < (1/3)
z < 1/3 & z > 1/2
.n
D. - [(1/2) n + (1/3) n] u [- n - 1] 4. z > 1/2
w
Codes :
wA B C D
(B)
(C)
w
(A) 4
(D) 1
1
4
2
3
3
2
1
4
1
4
3
2
2
3
MCQ 6.4.19 Which one of the following is the inverse z -transform of
IES EC 2005
X (z) = z , z <2 ?
(z - 2) (z - 3)
(A) [2n - 3n] u [- n - 1] (B) [3n - 2n] u [- n - 1]
(C) [2n - 3n] u [n + 1] (D) [2n - 3n] u [n]
MCQ 6.4.20 Given X (z) = z with z > a , the residue of X (z) zn - 1 at z = a for
2
GATE EE 2008 n $ 0 will be (z - a)
(A) an - 1 (B) an
(C) nan (D) nan - 1
1 1
MCQ 6.4.21 Given X (z) = 2
+ 3
, a and b < 1 with the ROC specified as
1 - az-1 1 - bz-1
GATE IN 2004
a < z < b , then x [0] of the corresponding sequence is given by
(A) 1 (B) 5
3 6
(C) 1 (D) 1
2 6
Page 544 -3
MCQ 6.4.22 If X (z) = z + z-1 then x [n] series has
Chap 6 z+z
IES EC 2002
The Z-Transform (A) alternate 0’s (B) alternate 1’s
(C) alternate 2’s (D) alternate - 1’s
MCQ 6.4.23 Consider the z -transform x (z) = 5z2 + 4z-1 + 3; 0 < z < 3. The inverse z
GATE EC 2010 - transform x [n] is
(A) 5d [n + 2] + 3d [n] + 4d [n - 1] (B) 5d [n - 2] + 3d [n] + 4d [n + 1]
(C) 5u [n + 2] + 3u [n] + 4u [n - 1] (D) 5u [n - 2] + 3u [n] + 4u [n + 1]
.c o
Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given
List I
i a List II
A. an u [n]
o d 1. az-1
(1 - az-1) 2
, ROC : z > a
. n
B. - an u [- n - 1] 2. 1 , ROC : z > a
w
(1 - az-1)
w
n
C. - na u [- n - 1] 3. 1 , ROC : z < | a
(1 - az-1)
w D. nan u [n]
Codes :
4. az-1
(1 - az-1) 2
, ROC : z < | a
A B C D
(A) 2 4 3 1
(B) 1 3 4 2
(C) 1 4 3 2
(D) 2 3 4 1
MCQ 6.4.27 Algebraic expression for z -transform of x [n] is X [z]. What is the algebraic
IES EC 2007 expression for z -transform of {e j w n x [n]}
0
?
(A) X (z - z 0) (B) X (e-j w z)
0
(C) X (e jw z)
0
(D) X (z) e j w z
0
MCQ 6.4.28 Given that F (z) and G (z) are the one-sided z -transforms of discrete time
IES E & T 1997 functions f (nT) and g (nT), the z -transform of / f (kT) g (nT - kT) is given
by
(A) / f (nT) g (nT) z-n (B) / f (nT) z-n / g (nT) z-n
(C) / f (kT) g (nT - kT) z-n (D) / f (nT - kT) g (nT) z-n
A. a n u [ n] 1. az
(z - a) 2
B. an - 2 u [n - 2] 2. ze-j
ze-j - a
C. e jn an 3. z
z-a
i. n
(B) 2 3 4 1
(C) 3 4 2 1
(D) 1 4 2 3
MCQ 6.4.30
given below :
.co
The output y [n] of a discrete time LTI system is related to the input x [n] as
a
IES EC 2005
i
3
y [n] = / x [k ]
d
k=0
o
Which one of the following correctly relates the z -transform of the input and
n
output, denoted by X (z) and Y (z), respectively ?
.
(A) Y (z) = (1 - z-1) X (z) (B) Y (z) = z-1 X (z)
w
X (z) dX (z)
(C) Y (z) = (D) Y (z) =
1-z -1 dz
MCQ 6.4.31
IES EC 2010
ww
Convolution of two sequence x1 [n] and x2 [n] is represented as
(A) X1 (z) * X2 (z)
(C) X1 (z) + X2 (z)
(B) X1 (z) X2 (z)
(D) X1 (z) /X2 (z)
1z-1 (1 - z-4)
MCQ 6.4.32 The z -transform of a signal is given by C (z) = . Its final value is
4 (1 - z-1) 2
GATE EC 1999
(A) 1/4 (B) zero
(C) 1.0 (D) infinity
MCQ 6.4.36 The impulse response of a discrete system with a simple pole shown in the
IES EC 2000 figure below. The pole of the system must be located on the
i. n
.c o
(A) real axis at z =- 1
i a
d
(B) real axis between z = 0 and z = 1
o
(C) imaginary axis at z = j
. n
(D) imaginary axis between z = 0 and z = j
w
MCQ 6.4.37 Which one of the following digital filters does have a linear phase response ?
(A) y [n] + y [n - 1] = x [n] - x [n - 1]
w
IES EC 2001
w
(C) y [n] = 1/6 (x [n] + 2x [n - 1] + 3x [n - 2])
(D) y [n] = 1/4 (x [n] + 2x [n - 1] + x [n - 2])
MCQ 6.4.38 The poles of a digital filter with linear phase response can lie
IES EC 2001 (A) only at z = 0
(B) only on the unit circle
(C) only inside the unit circle but not at z = 0
(D) on the left side of Real (z) = 0 line
MCQ 6.4.39 The impulse response of a discrete system with a simple pole is shown in the
IES EC 2001 given figure
MCQ 6.4.40 The response of a linear, time-invariant discrete-time system to a unit step
IES EC 2002 input u [n] is the unit impulse d [n]. The system response to a ramp input
nu [n] would be
(A) u [n] (B) u [n - 1]
3
(C) nd [n] (D) / kd [n - k]
k=0
i. n
(A) A (zI - B) -1 C + D (B) B (zI - C ) -1 D + A
(C) C (zI - A) -1 B + D (D) D (zI - A) -1 C + B
MCQ 6.4.42
co
What is the number of roots of the polynomial F (z) = 4z3 - 8z2 - z + 2 , lying
.
a
IES EC 2004 outside the unit circle ?
i
(A) 0 (B) 1
(C) 2
od (D) 3
n
n
MCQ 6.4.43 y [ n] = / x [k]
.
k =- 3
IES EC 2004
w
Which one of the following systems is inverse of the system given above ?
(A) x [n] = y [n] - y [n - 1] (B) x [n] = y [n]
MCQ 6.4.44
IES EC 2006 ww
(C) x [n] = y [n + 4] (D) x [n] = ny [n]
For the system shown, x [n] = kd [n], and y [n] is related to x [n] as
y [n] - 12 y [n - 1] = x [n]
MCQ 6.4.45 Unit step response of the system described by the equation
IES EC 2010 y [n] + y [n - 1] = x [n] is
(A) z2 (B) z
(z + 1) (z - 1) (z + 1) (z - 1)
z (z - 1)
(C) z + 1 (D)
z-1 (z + 1)
MCQ 6.4.46 Unit step response of the system described by the equation
IES EC 2011 y [n] + y [n - 1] = x [n] is
(A) z2 (B) z
(z + 1) (z - 1) (z + 1) (z - 1)
(z + 1) z (z - 1)
(C) (D)
(z - 1) (z + 1)
Page 548 MCQ 6.4.47 System transformation function H (z) for a discrete time LTI system expressed
Chap 6 IES EC 2011 in state variable form with zero initial conditions is
The Z-Transform (A) c (zI - A) -1 b + d (B) c (zI - A) -1
(C) (zI - A) -1 z (D) (zI - A) -1
MCQ 6.4.48 A system with transfer function H (z) has impulse response h (.) defined
GATE EC 2009 as h (2) = 1, h (3) =- 1 and h (k) = 0 otherwise. Consider the following
statements.
S1 : H (z) is a low-pass filter.
S2 : H (z) is an FIR filter.
Which of the following is correct?
(A) Only S2 is true
(B) Both S1 and S2 are false
(C) Both S1 and S2 are true, and S2 is a reason for S1
(D) Both S1 and S2 are true, but S2 is not a reason for S1
i. n
(A) (0.2) n u [n]
(B) (0.2) n u [- n - 1]
(C) - (0.2) n u [n]
(D) - (0.2) n u [- n - 1]
.c o
MCQ 6.4.50
i a
A sequence x (n) with the z -transform X (z) = z 4 + z2 - 2z + 2 - 3z-4 is
d
GATE EC 2003 applied as an input to a linear, time-invariant system with the impulse
o
response h [n] = 2d [n - 3] where
n
1, n = 0
.
d [n] = )
0, otherwise
w w
The output at n = 4 is
(A) - 6 (B) zero
w
(C) 2 (D) - 4
MCQ 6.4.52 H (z) is a transfer function of a real system. When a signal x [n] = (1 + j) n
GATE EE 2008 is the input to such a system, the output is zero. Further, the Region of
convergence (ROC) of ^1 - 12 z - 1h H(z) is the entire Z-plane (except z = 0 ). It
can then be
inferred that H (z) can have a minimum of
(A) one pole and one zero
(B) one pole and two zeros
(C) two poles and one zero
(D) two poles and two zeros
(A) b 1 l u [n]
n
a
(B) -b 1 l u [- n - 1]
n
a
(C) an u [n]
(D) an u [- n - 1]
MCQ 6.4.54 Assertion (A) : A linear time-invariant discrete-time system having the
IES E & T 1998 system function
H (z) = z 1 is a stable system.
z+ 2
Reason (R) : The pole of H (z) is in the left-half plane for a stable system.
(A) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(B) Both A and R are true but R is NOT a correct explanation of A
i. n
(C) A is true but R is false
(D) A is false but R is true
MCQ 6.4.55
IES EC 1999
.co
Assertion (A) : An LTI discrete system represented by the difference equation
y [n + 2] - 5y [n + 1] + 6y [n] = x [n] is unstable.
ia
Reason (R) : A system is unstable if the roots of the characteristic equation
d
lie outside the unit circle.
(A) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
no
(B) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A.
w.
(C) A is true but R is false.
(D) A is false but R is true.
MCQ 6.4.56
IES EC 1999
ww
Consider the following statements regarding a linear discrete-time system
H (z) = z2 + 1
(z + 0.5) (z - 0.5)
1. The system is stable
2. The initial value h (0) of the impulse response is - 4
3. The steady-state output is zero for a sinusoidal discrete time input of
frequency equal to one-fourth the sampling frequency.
Which of these statements are correct ?
(A) 1, 2 and 3
(B) 1 and 2
(C) 1 and 3
(D) 2 and 3
MCQ 6.4.57 Assertion (A) : The discrete time system described by y [n] = 2x [n] + 4x [n - 1]
IES EC 2005 is unstable, (here y [n] is the output and x [n] the input)
Reason (R) : It has an impulse response with a finite number of non-zero
samples.
(A) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(B) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A
(C) A is true but R is false
(D) A is false but R is true
Page 550 MCQ 6.4.58 If the impulse response of discrete - time system is h [n] =- 5n u [- n - 1],
Chap 6 GATE EC 2002 then the system function H (z) is equal to
(A) - z and the system is stable
The Z-Transform
z-5
(B) z and the system is stable
z-5
(C) - z and the system is unstable
z-5
(D) z and the system is unstable
z-5
MCQ 6.4.59 H (z) is a discrete rational transfer function. To ensure that both H (z) and
GATE IN 2010 its inverse are stable its
(A) poles must be inside the unit circle and zeros must be outside the unit
circle.
(B) poles and zeros must be inside the unit circle.
(C) poles and zeros must be outside the unit circle
(D) poles must be outside the unit circle and zeros should be inside the unit
circle
MCQ 6.4.60
i. n
Assertion (A) : The stability of the system is assured if the Region of
o
IES EC 2002 Convergence (ROC) includes the unit circle in the z -plane.
.c
Reason (R) : For a causal stable system all the poles should be outside the
unit circle in the z -plane.
i a
(A) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
d
(B) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A.
o
(C) A is true but R is false
n
(D) A is false but R is true
MCQ 6.4.61
w.
Assertion (A) : For a rational transfer function H (z) to be causal, stable and
causally invertible, both the zeros and the poles should lie within the unit
w
IES EC 2002
circle in the z -plane.
w
Reason (R) : For a rational system, ROC bounded by poles.
(A) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(B) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A
(C) A is true but R is false
(D) A is false but R is true
2 - 34 z-1
MCQ 6.4.62 The transfer function of a discrete time LTI system is H (z) =
1 - 34 z-1 + 18 z-2
GATE EC 2010
Consider the following statements:
S1: The system is stable and causal for ROC: z > 1/2
S2: The system is stable but not causal for ROC: z < 1/4
S3: The system is neither stable nor causal for ROC: 1/4 < z < 1/2
Which one of the following statements is valid ?
(A) Both S1 and S2 are true (B) Both S2 and S3 are true
(C) Both S1 and S3 are true (D) S1, S2 and S3 are all true
(A) 0, 1, 2, 3 or 4
(B) either 2 or 4
(C) 2
(D) 4
MCQ 6.4.65 Consider the compound system shown in the figure below. Its output is equal
IES EC 2000 to the input with a delay of two units. If the transfer function of the first
system is given by
H1 (z) = z - 0.5 ,
z - 0.8
i. n
.co
a
then the transfer function of the second system would be
i
-2 -3 -2 -3
(A) H2 (z) = z - 0.2z-1 (B) H2 (z) = z - 0.8z-1
d
1 - 0.4z 1 - 0.5z
o
-1 -3 -2 -3
(C) H2 (z) = z - 0.2z-1 (D) H2 (z) = z + 0.8z-1
n
1 - 0.4z 1 + 0.5z
MCQ 6.4.66
GATE EC 2011
w.
Two systems H1 (z ) and H2 (z ) are connected in cascade as shown below. The
overall output y [n] is the same as the input x [n] with a one unit delay. The
w
transfer function of the second system H2 (z ) is
w
1 - 0.6z-1 z-1 (1 - 0.6z-1)
(A) (B)
z-1 (1 - 0.4z-1) (1 - 0.4z-1)
z-1 (1 - 0.4z-1) 1 - 0.4 z-1
(C) (D)
(1 - 0.6z-1) z-1 (1 - 0.6z-1)
MCQ 6.4.67 Two discrete time system with impulse response h1 [n] = d [n - 1] and
GATE EC 2010 h2 [n] = d [n - 2] are connected in cascade. The overall impulse response of
the cascaded system is
(A) d [n - 1] + d [n - 2] (B) d [n - 4]
(C) d [n - 3] (D) d [n - 1] d [n - 2]
MCQ 6.4.68 A cascade of three Linear Time Invariant systems is causal and unstable.
GATE EE 2009 From this, we conclude that
(A) each system in the cascade is individually causal and unstable
(B) at least on system is unstable and at least one system is causal
(C) at least one system is causal and all systems are unstable
(D) the majority are unstable and the majority are causal
Page 552 MCQ 6.4.69 The minimum number of delay elements required in realizing a digital filter
Chap 6 IES EC 2001 with the transfer function
The Z-Transform
H (z) = 1 + az-1 + bz-2
1 + cz-1 + dz-2 + ez-3
(A) 2 (B) 3
(C) 4 (D) 5
(A) 1.0, 0.7 and - 0.13 (B) - 0.13, 0.7 and 1.0
(C) 1.0, - 0.7 and 0.13 (D) 0.13, - 0.7 and 1.0
MCQ 6.4.71
i. n
A digital filter having a transfer function H (z) =
p 0 + p1 z-1 + p 3 z-3
is
o
1 + d 3 z-3
implemented
.c
GATE IN 2010
i a
The number of delay units required in Direct Form-I and Direct Form-II
d
realizations are, respectively
o
(A) 6 and 6 (B) 6 and 3
n
(C) 3 and 3 (D) 3 and 2
MCQ 6.4.72
w.
Consider the discrete-time system shown in the figure where the impulse
response of G (z) is g (0) = 0, g (1) = g (2) = 1, g (3) = g (4) = g = 0
w
GATE EE 2007
w
This system is stable for range of values of K
(A) [- 1, 12 ] (B) [- 1, 1]
(C) [- 12 , 1] (D) [- 12 , 2]
MCQ 6.4.73 In the IIR filter shown below, a is a variable gain. For which of the following
GATE IN 2006 cases, the system will transit from stable to unstable condition ?
MCQ 6.4.75 Which one of the following rules determines the mapping of s -plane to z
IES EC 2007 -plane ?
(A) Right half of the s -plane maps into outside of the unit circle in z -plane
i. n
(B) Left half of the s -plane maps into inside of the unit circle
o
(C) Imaginary axis in s -plane maps into the circumference of the unit circle
c
(D) All of the above
MCQ 6.4.76
ia.
Assertion (A) : The z -transform of the output of an ideal sampler is given by
d
Z [f (t)] = K 0 + K1 + K22 + .... + Knn
IES EC 2008
z z z
o
Reason (R) : The relationship is the result of application of z = e-sT , where
n
.
T stands for the time gap between the samples.
(A) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
ww
(B) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A
(C) A is true but R is false
MCQ 6.4.77
IES EC 2010
w
(D) A is false but R is true
MCQ 6.4.79 A casual, analog system has a transfer function H (s) = s +a a . Assuming a
2 2
***********
Page 554
Chap 6 SOLUTIONS 6.1
The Z-Transform
i. n
SOL 6.1.2 Option (A) is correct.
x [n] = b 1 l = b 1 l u [ n ] + b 1 l u [ - n - 1]
|n | n -n
o
We have
2 2 2
.c
3
z -transform is X (z) = / x [ n] z -n
i a
n =- 3
3 3
1 -n -n 1 n -n
/ b 2 l z u [ - n - 1] + / b 2 l z u [ n]
d
=
o
n =- 3 n =- 3
-1 3
1
/ b 21z l
-n n
/ b2l z +
-n
n
=
.
n =- 3 n=0
3 3
/ b 12 z l + / b 21z l
n n
w
=
n=1 n=0
w
14
42II
4
43 14
42I
4
43
w
1
= 1 + 2z = z - z
1 - 21z 1 - 12 z z - 12 z - 2
Series I converges, if 1 z < 1 or z < 2
2
Series II converges, if 1 < 1 or z > 1
2z 2
ROC is intersection of both, therefore ROC : 1 < z < 2
2
SOL 6.1.3 Option (D) is correct.
3
X (z) = / x [ n] z -n
n =- 3
3 3
1 n -n 1 n -n
= / b 2 l z u [ - n - 1] + / b 3 l z u [ n]
n =- 3 n =- 3
-1 3
1 -n
/ b 31z l
n n
= / b2l z +
n =- 3 n=0
3 3
2z +
/ b 31z l 1
n
= / (2z) n
+ =
1 - 2z 1 - 13 z-1
n=1 n=0 S I 14243 II
Series I converges, when 2z < 1 or z < 1
2
Series II converges, when 1 < 1 or z > 1
3z 3
n =- 3
3 3
= / an z-n u [n] + /a -n -n
z u [ n]
n =- 3 n =- 3
3 3
1 1
= / (az -1 n
) + / (az) -n
= +
1 - az-1 1 - (az) -1
n=0 n=0
14 2I
4 3 1 44 2 44 3
II
-1
Series I converges, if az < 1 or z > a
Series II converges, if (az) -1 < 1 or az > 1 or z > 1
a
So ROC is interaction of both
ROC : z > max e a , 1 o
a
i. n
SOL 6.1.5 Option (C) is correct.
(P " 4) x1 [n] = u [n - 2]
co
X1 (z) =
.
3
/ u [n - 2] z
n =- 3
-n
=
3
/z
n=2
-n
= z-2
1 - z-1
, z >1
(Q " 1)
ia x2 [n] =- u [- n - 3]
d
3
X2 [z] =- / u [ - n - 3] z -n
o
n =- 3
n
-3 3
=- /z -n
=- /z m
Let, n =- m
w. n =- 3
1-z
3
= - z = -2 1 -1 ,
z (1 - z )
m=3
z <1
(R " 3)
ww X 3 (z) =
n
x 3 [n] = (1) u [n + 4]
3
/ u [n + 4] z
n =- 3
-n
= /z
3
n =- 4
-n
4
= z -1 = -4 1 -1 , z >1
1-z z (1 - z )
n
(S " 2) x 4 [n] = (1) u [- n]
3
= / u [ - n] z -n
n =- 3
0
1 = - z-1 ,
3
= /z -n
= /z m
=
1 - z 1 - z-1
z <1
n =- 3 m=0
= 1 , z >1
1 - e jp z-1
= z jp = z a e jp =- 1
z-e z+1
SOL 6.1.7 Option (D) is correct.
We can write, transfer function
H (z) = Az2
(z - 2) (z - 3)
Page 556
H (1) = A = 1 or A = 2
Chap 6 (- 1) (- 2)
The Z-Transform 2z2
so, H (z) =
(z - 2) (z - 3)
H (z) 2z
=
z (z - 2) (z - 3)
H (z) = - 4z + 6z From partial fraction
(z - 2) (z - 3)
We can see that for ROC : z > 3 , the system is causal and unstable because
ROC is exterior of the circle passing through outermost pole and does not
include unit circle.
so, h [n] = [(- 4) 2n + (6) (3) n] u [n], z > 3 (P " 2)
For ROC 2 < z < 3 , The sequence corresponding to pole at z = 2
corresponds to right-sided sequence while the sequence corresponds to pole
at z = 3 corresponds to left sided sequence
h [n] = (- 4) 2n u [n] + (- 6) 3n u [- n - 1] (Q " 4)
For ROC : z < 2 , ROC is interior to circle passing through inner most pole,
hence the system is non causal.
i. n
h [n] = (4) 2n u [- n - 1] + (- 6) 3n u [- n - 1] (R " 3)
o
For the response
.c
h [n] = 4 (2) u [- n - 1] + (- 6) 3n u [n]
n
o 2 3
X (z) = c1 + z + z + z + .....m + b1 + 1 + 1 12 + .....l
. n 2! 3! z 2! z
w
2 3 -2
= c1 + z + z + z + ....m + b1 + z-1 + z + ....l
2! 3! 2!
SOL 6.1.9 w w
Taking inverse z -transform
x [n] = d [n] + 1
Option (A) is correct.
n!
2 z (z + 5)
X (z) = 2 z + 5z =
z - 2z - 3 (z - 3) (z + 1)
X (z) z+5
= = 2 - 1 By partial fraction
z (z - 3) (z + 1) z-3 z+1
Thus X (z) = 2z - z
z-3 z+1
Poles are at z = 3 and z =- 1
ROC : z < 1, which is not exterior of circle outside the outermost pole
z = 3 . So, x [n] is anticausal given as
SOL 6.1.11
i. n
Option (C) is correct.
.co
X (z) = 2z - z
z-3 z+1
If ROC is 1 < z < 3 , x [n] is two sided with anticausal part 2z , z < 3
a
z-3
i
and causal part - z , z >1
d
z+1
no
w.
ww
x [n] =- 2 (3) n u [- n - 1] - (- 1) n u [n]
= 0.7z-1
1 - 0.7z-1
ROC : 0.7z-1 < 1 or z > 0.7
3 -2
X2 (z) = / (- 0.4) n z-n u [- n - 2] = / (- 0.4) n -n
z
n =- 3 n =- 3
3
= / (- 0.4) -m m
z Let n =- m
m=2
3
- (0.4) -1 z
= / [(- 0.4) -1 z ] m =
1 + (0.4) -1 z
m=2
ROC : (0.4) -1 z < 1 or z < 0.4
The ROC of z -transform of x [n] is intersection of both which does not exist.
SOL 6.1.13 Option (D) is correct.
i. n
SOL 6.1.16 Option (C) is correct.
For positive shift
o
Z
If, x [n] X (z)
.c
x [n - n 0] z-n X (z), n 0 $ 0
Z
then, 0
i
x [ n - 1]
a z-1 a z k = 1
Z
So
z-1 z-1
For negative shift
o d n0 - 1
/ x [n] z
n
x [n + n 0] zn e X (z) - -m
o, n0 > 0
Z 0
.
m=0
z ^X (z) - x [0]h
w
x [ n + 1]
Z
SOL 6.1.17 w
and
w x [ n + 1]
Region of convergence for I series is z > 0.4 and for II series it is z < 2.5
. Therefore, Xe (z) has ROC 0.4 < z < 2.5
SOL 6.1.18 Option (B) is correct.
(P " 4) y [n] = n (- 1) n u [n]
We know that
(- 1) n u [n]
Z 1 , z >1
1 + z-1
Z
If x [n] X (z)
Z dX (z)
then, nx [n] -z (z -domain differentiation)
dz
(1 - z-1)
Again applying z -domain differentiation property
- nu [- n - 1] z d : - 1-1 D, ROC : z < 1
Z
dz 1 - z
i. n
=
1 + z-1
(S " 1) y [n] = nu [n]
We know that
.co u [n]
Z 1 , ROC : z > 1
1 - z-1
ia z d b 1 -1 l, ROC : z > 1
Z
so, nu [n]
dz 1 - z
d
-1
= z , ROC : z > 1
o
Y (z)
(1 - z-1) 2
SOL 6.1.19
.n
Option (A) is correct.
w
Its difficult to obtain z -transform of x [n] directly due to the term 1/n .
Let y [n] = nx [n] = (- 2) -n u [- n - 1]
w
So z -transform of y [n]
n =- 3 n =- 3
3
/ x [n] a z k = X a z k, ROC : aRx
-n
=
n =- 3
a a
SOL 6.1.21 Option (B) is correct.
Using time shifting property of z -transform
Z
If, x [n] X (z), ROC : Rx
Chap 6
The Z-Transform
with same ROC except the possible deletion or addition of z = 0 or z = 3.
So, ROC for x [n - 2] is Rx (S1, R1)
Similarly for x [n + 2], ROC : Rx (S2, R1)
Using time-reversal property of z -transform
Z
If, x [n]X (z), ROC : Rx
x [- n] X b 1 l, ROC : 1
Z
then,
z Rx
x [- n] Xb 1 l,
Z
For S 3 ,
z
Because z is replaced by 1/z , so ROC would be z < 1 (S 3, R 3)
a
S 4 :(- 1) n x [n]
Using the property of scaling in z -domain, we have
Z
If, x [n] X (z), ROC : Rx
an x [n] Xa z k
Z
then,
a
i. n
z is replaced by z/a so ROC will be Rx
a
X a z k, a = 1
o
n
(- 1) x [n]
Z
Here
1
.c
so, ROC : z > a (S 4, R1)
SOL 6.1.22 Option (D) is correct.
i a
Time scaling property :
If,
o d x [n]
Z
X (z)
. n X (z2)
Z
then, x [n/2] (P " 2)
w
Time shifting property :
w
Z
If, x [n] X (z)
x [ n - 2] u [ n - 2 ] z-2 X (z)
Z
w
then, (Q " 1)
For x [n + 2] u [n] we can not apply time shifting property directly.
Let, y [ n ] = x [ n + 2] u [ n ]
= an + 2 u [n + 2] u [n] = an + 2 u [n]
3 3
so, Y (z) = / y [n] z -n
= /a n + 2 -n
z
n =- 3 n=0
3
=a 2
/ (az -1 n
) = a2 X (z) (R " 4)
n=0
2n
Let, g [ n] = b x [n]
3 3
G (z) = / g [n] z-n = /b 2n
an z-n u [n]
n =- 3 n =- 3
3 n
= / a b bz
n
2
z
l = Xb b 2 l (S " 3)
n=0
n =- 3
3
= / x [ k] z -k/2
Put 2n = k or n = k , k is even
k =- 3
2
Since k is even, so we can write
i. n
By taking z -transform of both the sequences
X (z) = (- 1 + 2z-1 + 0 + 3z-3)
.co
H (z) = 2z2 + 3
Convolution of sequences x [n] and h [n] is given as
ia y [n] x [n ] * h [n]
d
Applying convolution property of z -transform, we have
o
Y (z) = X (z) H (z)
n
= (- 1 + 2z-1 + 3z-3) (2z2 + 3) =- 2z2 + 4z - 3 + 12z-1 + 9z-3
or,
w
SOL 6.1.26
The z -transform of signal x)[n] is given as follows
w Z {x)[n]} =
3
/x
n =- 3
Let z -transform of x [n] is X (z)
[n] z-n =
)
/ 6x [n] (z )
3
n =- 3
) -n
@
)
...(1)
3
X (z) = / x [ n] z -n
n =- 3
Taking complex conjugate on both sides of above equation
3
X)(z) = / [ x [ n] z -n )
]
n =- 3
Replacing z " z), we will get
3
6x [n] (z ) @
)
X)(z)) = / ) -n
...(2)
n =- 3
Comparing equation (1) and (2)
Z {x)[n]} = X)(z))
SOL 6.1.27 Option (B) is correct.
By taking z -transform on both sides of given difference equation
Y (z) - 1 z-1 6Y (z) + y [- 1] z @ = X (z)
2
Let impulse response is H (z), so the impulse input is X (z) = 1
H (z) - 1 z-1 6H (z) + 3z @ = 1
2
H (z) [1 - 1 z-1] = 5
Page 562
Chap 6 2 2
The Z-Transform 5/2
H (z) = = 5b z 1 l
1 - 12 z-1 2 z- 2
h [ n] = 5 b 1 l , n $ 0
n
2 2
SOL 6.1.28 Option (B) is correct.
h [n] = (2) n u [n]
Taking z -transform
Y (z)
H (z) = z =
z - 2 X (z)
so, (z - 2) Y (z) = zX (z)
or, (1 - 2z-1) Y (z) = X (z)
Taking inverse z -transform
y [n] - 2y [n - 1] = x [n]
i. n
h [ n] = d [ n] - b - 1 l u [n]
n
o
z -transform of h [n]
.c
1
H (z) = 1 - z = 2 = Y (z)
a
z + 12 z + 12 X (z)
1
i 1
bz + 2 l Y (z) = 2 X (z)
d
o
1 -1 1 -1
b1 + 2 z l Y (z) = 2 z X (z)
. n
Taking inverse z -transform
w w y [n] + 1 y [n - 1] = 1 x [n - 1]
2 2
y [n] + 0.5y [n - 1] = 0.5x [n - 1]
SOL 6.1.30
w
Option (C) is correct.
We have y [n] - 0.4y [n - 1] = (0.4) n u [n]
Zero state response refers to the response of system with zero initial condition.
So, by taking z -transform
Y (z) - 0.4z-1 Y (z) = z
z - 0.4
Y (z) = z2
(z - 0.4) 2
Taking inverse z -transform
y [n] = (n + 1) (0.4) n u [n]
SOL 6.1.31 Option (B) is correct.
Zero state response refers to response of the system with zero initial conditions.
Taking z -transform
Y (z) - 1 z-1 Y (z) = X (z)
2
Y (z) = a z k X (z)
z - 0.5
For an input x [n] = u [n], X (z) = z
z-1
i. n
Y (z) = H (z) X (z)
2z (z - 1)
= (z + 2)
o
(z + 2) 2
c
2z (z - 1)
.
= = 2z - 6z
(z + 2) z+2
ia
Taking inverse z -transform
SOL 6.1.33
od y [n] = 2d [n + 1] - 6 (- 2) n u [n]
Option (B) is correct.
.n
Poles of the system function are at z = ! j ROC is shown in the figure.
ww
w
Causality :
We know that a discrete time LTI system with transfer function H (z) is
causal if and only if ROC is the exterior of a circle outside the outer most
pole.
For the given system ROC is exterior to the circle outside the outer most
pole (z = ! j). The system is causal.
Stability :
A discrete time LTI system is stable if and only if ROC of its transfer
function H (z) includes the unit circle z = 1.
The given system is unstable because ROC does not include the unit circle.
Impulse Response :
H (z) = 2 z
z +1
We know that
Page 564
sin (W0 n) u [n]
Z z sin W0 , z >1
2
Chap 6 z - 2z cos W0 + 1
The Z-Transform Here z2 + 1 = z2 - 2z cos W0 + 1
So 2z cos W0 = 0 or W0 = p
2
Taking the inverse Laplace transform of H (z)
h [n] = sin a p n k u [n]
2
SOL 6.1.34 Option (D) is correct.
Statement (A), (B) and (C) are true.
SOL 6.1.35 Option (D) is correct.
First we obtain transfer function (z -transform of h [n]) for all the systems and
then check for stability
1
z
(A) H (z) = 3 1 2
^z - 3 h
Stable because all poles lies inside unit circle.
h [ n] = 1 d [ n]
i. n
(B)
3
1
/ h [n] =
3
(absolutely summable)
Thus this is also stable.
(C)
.c o
h [ n] = d [ n] - b - 1 l u [n]
n
a
3
d i
H (z) = 1 - z 1
z+ 3
o
Pole is inside the unit circle, so the system is stable.
n
.
(D) h [n] = [(2) n - (3) n] u [n]
w
H (z) = z - z
z-2 z-3
SOL 6.1.36 w
Poles are outside the unit circle, so it is unstable.
w
Option (B) is correct.
By taking z -transform
(1 + 3z-1 + 2z-2) Y (z) = (2 + 3z-1) X (z)
So, transfer function
Y (z) (2 + 3z-1) 2z2 + 3z
H (z) = = =
X (z) (1 + 3z-1 + 2z-2) z2 + 3z + 2
H (z)
or = 2 2z + 3 = 1 + 1 By partial fraction
z z + 3z + 2 z+2 z+1
Thus H (z) = z + z
z+2 z+1
Both the poles lie outside the unit circle, so the system is unstable.
SOL 6.1.37 Option (B) is correct.
y [ n ] = x [ n ] + y [ n - 1]
Put x [n] = d [n] to obtain impulse response h [n]
h [ n ] = d [ n ] + h [ n - 1]
For n = 0 , h [ 0 ] = d [ 0 ] + h [ - 1]
h [ 0] = 1 ( h [- 1] = 0 , for causal system)
n = 1, h [ 1] = d [ 1 ] + h [ 0 ]
i. n
H (z) = z
z-1
o
System pole lies at unit circle z = 1, so the system is not BIBO stable.
SOL 6.1.38
a.c
Option (C) is correct.
(P " 3) ROC is exterior to the circle passing through outer most pole at
unstable.
di
z = 1.2 , so it is causal. ROC does not include unit circle, therefore it is
o
(Q " 1) ROC is not exterior to the circle passing through outer most pole
n
.
at z = 1.2 , so it is non causal. But ROC includes unit circle, so it is stable.
(R " 2), ROC is not exterior to circle passing through outermost pole z = 0.8
also.
ww
, so it is not causal. ROC does not include the unit circle, so it is unstable
w
(S " 4), ROC contains unit circle and is exterior to circle passing through
outermost pole, so it is both causal and stable.
SOL 6.1.39 Option (D) is correct.
P (z - 0.9)
H (z) =
z - 0.9 + Pz
P (z - 0.9) z - 0.9
= = P
(1 + P) z - 0.9 1 + P f z - 0.9 p
1+P
Pole at z = 0. 9
1+P
For stability pole lies inside the unit circle, so
z <1
or 0. 9 < 1
1+P
0.9 < 1 + P
P > - 0.1 or P < - 1.9
SOL 6.1.40 Option (A) is correct.
For a system to be causal and stable, H (z) must not have any pole outside
the unit circle z = 1.
z- 1 z - 12
S1 : H (z) = 2 1 2 3 =
^z - 4 h^z + 4 h
1 3
z + 2 z - 16
one pole is at z =- 4/3 , which is outside the unit circle, so it is not causal.
S 3 : one pole is at z = 3, so it is also non-causal.
SOL 6.1.41 Option (D) is correct.
3 3
X (z) = / x [n] z-n = / d [n - k] z-n = z-k, z ! 0
n =- 3 n =- 3
ROC : We can find that X (z) converges for all values of z except z = 0 ,
because at z = 0 X (z) " 3.
SOL 6.1.42 Option (D) is correct.
3 3
X (z) = / x [n] z-n = / d [n + k] z-n = zk , all z
n =- 3 n =- 3
ROC : We can see that above summation converges for all values of z .
SOL 6.1.43 Option (A) is correct.
3 3
/ x [n] z-n = / u [n] z-n
i. n
X (z) =
n =- 3 n =- 3
3
1
/z
o
-n
= =
1 - z-1
S
.c
n=0
I
ROC : Summation I converges if z > 1, because when z < 1, then
i a
3
/z -n
" 3.
d
n=0
SOL 6.1.44 Option (D) is correct.
n o
X (z) =
3
/ x [ n] z -n
w. =
n =- 3
/
3
1 n
b 4 l (u [n] - u [n - 5]) z
-n
w
n =- 3
4
/ b 14 z-1l
n
= u [n] - u [n - 5] = 1, for 0 # n # 4
w
n=0
1 44 2
I
44 3
1 - ^ 14 z-1h5 z5 - (0.25) 5
= = 4 , all z
1 - ^ 14 z-1h z (z - 0.5)
ROC : Summation I converges for all values of z because n has only four
value.
SOL 6.1.45 Option (D) is correct.
3 3
1 n
X (z) = / x [ n] z -n
= / b 4 l u [- n] z
-n
n =- 3 n =- 3
0 0
= / b 1 z-1 l = / ^4z h-n
n
n =- 3
4 n =- 3
/ (4z) m = 1 -1 4z , z <1
3
= Taking n "- m ,
m=0
4
14 2I
43
ROC : Summation I converges if 4z < 1 or z < 14 .
SOL 6.1.46 Option (B) is correct.
3 3
X (z) = / x [ n] z -n
= / 3 u [- n - 1] z
n -n
n =- 3 n =- 3
-1 n
/ (3z-1) n = / b 13 z l
3
= u [- n - 1] = 1, n # - 1
n =- 3 n=1
14
42I
4
43
m=1
3 n=0
3
/ b 23 z l / b 23 z-1l
3 m 3 n
= +
m=1 n=0
1 44 2
I
44 3 1 44 2
II
44 3
2
z 1
= +
3
^ - 3 h ^ 3z h
2 -1
2
1 z 1 -
i. n
= -1 1
3 -1 +
^1 - 2 z h ^ 1 - 3z h
2 -1
o
ROC : Summation I converges if 23 z < 1 or z < 23 and summation II
.c
converges if 23 z-1 < 1 or z > 23 . ROC of X (z) would be intersection of
a
both, that is 23 < z < 23
SOL 6.1.48
di
Option (B) is correct.
o
j ^ hn
+ e-j^ hn
p p
u [ n]
3 2
.n 1 j^ hn 1 -j^ hn
p p
= e u [n] + e 3
u [n] 3
2 2
ww X [z] = 1
1 44 2
1 +
2 >1 - e z-1 1 - e- z-1 H
jp
44 3 1 44 2
3
1
44 3
jp
3
w
I II
a n u [ n]
Z 1 , z > a
1 - az-1
2 - z-1 6e- + e @
jp jp
= 1>
2 1 - z-1 ^e + e- h + z-2 H
3 3
, z >1
jp jp
3 3
(2z - 1)
=z 2 , z >1
2 (z - z + 1)
jp
ROC : First term in X (z) converges for z > e & z > 1. Similarly II term 3
jp
also converges for z > e- & z > 1, so ROC would be simply z > 1.
3
ROC : X (z) is finite over entire z plane except z = 0 and z = 3 because when
z = 0 negative power of z becomes infinite and when z " 3 the positive
powers of z tends to becomes infinite.
SOL 6.1.50 Option (D) is correct.
x [n] = 2d [n + 2] + 4d [n + 1] + 5d [n] + 7d [n - 1] + d [n - 3]
X (z) = 2z2 + 4z + 5 + 7z-1 + z-3, 0 < z < 3 d [n ! n 0] z! n
Z 0
ROC : X (z) has only negative powers of z , therefore transform X (z) does not
converges for z = 0 .
SOL 6.1.52 Option (A) is correct.
Using partial fraction expansion, X (z) can be simplified as
2
X (z) = 2 z - 3z = 1 - 3z-1
z + 32 z - 1 1 + 32 z-1 - z-2
(1 - 3z-1)
(1 + 2z-1) (1 - 12 z-1)
= 2 - 1
1 + 2z-1 1 - 12 z-1
S I 142 43
II
Poles are at z =- 2 and z = 2 . We obtain the inverse z -transform using
1
i. n
relationship between the location of poles and region of convergence as shown
in the figure.
.c o
i a
o d
. n
w w
w
ROC : 12 < z < 2 has a radius less than the pole at z =- 2 therefore the I
term of X (z) corresponds to a left sided signal
2 Z-1
i. n
x [n] = : 49 (- 4) n + 47 4nD u [n]
32 32
SOL 6.1.54
.co
Option (C) is correct.
Using partial fraction expansion X (z) can be simplified as
ia
4 3 2
X (z) = 2z - 22z - 2z
d
z -1
o
-1
= ; 2 - 2z - 2z-2 z2
1 - z-2 E
.n = ;2 + 1 -1 + - 1-1 E z2
w
1+z 1-z
Poles are at z =- 1 and z = 1. Location of poles and ROC is shown in the
w
following figure
ROC : z > 1 has radius grater than both the poles at z =- 1 and z = 1,
therefore both the terms in X (z) corresponds to right sided sequences.
1 Z -1
(- 1) n u [n] (right-sided)
1 + z-1
1 Z -1
u [ n] (right-sided)
-1
1-z
Now, using time shifting property the complete inverse z -transform of X (z)
is
x [n] = 2d [n + 2] + ((- 1) n - 1) u [n + 2]
i. n
x [n] = d [n + 6] + d [n + 2] + 3d [n] + 2d [n - 3] + d [n - 4]
o
SOL 6.1.59 Option (A) is correct.
.c
X (z) = 1 , z >1
1- z 1 -2 2
a
4
i
1 -2
The power series expansion of X (z) with z > 1
2 or 4z < 1 is written as
d
-2 -2 2 -2 3
X (z) = 1 + z + b z l + b z l + .......
o
4 4 4
n
3 3
/ b 14 z / b 14 l z
k k
l =
.
-2 -2k
=
k=0 k=0
w
1 -2
Series converges for 4z < 1 or z > 12 . Taking inverse z -transform we get
w x [n] = / b 1 l d [n - 2k]
3 k -1
z-2k
Z
d [n - 2k]
4
w
k=0
1 ,
n
= *b 4 l
2
n even and n $ 0
0, n odd
2-n, n even and n $ 0
=*
0, n odd
SOL 6.1.60 Option (C) is correct.
X (z) = 1 , z <1
1 - 14 z-2 2
Since ROC is left sided so power series expansion of X (z) will have positive
powers of z , we can simplify above expression for positive powers of z as
2
X (z) = - 4z 2 , z < 1
1 - (2z) 2
The power series expansion of X (z) with z < 12 or 4z2 < 1 is written as
X (z) =- 4z2 [1 + (2z) 2 + (2z) 4 + (2z) 6 + .......]
3 3
X (z) =- 4z2 / ^2z h 2k
=- / 22 (k + 1) z2 (k + 1)
k=0
k=0
i. n
a b
X (z) = 1 -1 + ...(1)
^1 - z h ^ 1 - 2z-1h
o
3
1 44 2 44 3 1 44 2 44 3
c
I II
.
Poles are at z = 13 and z = 2 . We obtain the inverse z -transform using
a
relationship between the location of poles and region of convergence as shown
ROC : z > 2
di
in following figures.
no
w.
ww
ROC is exterior to the circle passing through right most pole so both the
term in equation (1) corresponds to right sided sequences
x1 [n] = a b 1 l u [n] + b (2) n u [n]
n
3
ROC : 1 < z < 2
3
Page 572
Chap 6
The Z-Transform
Since ROC has greater radius than the pole at z = 13 , so first term in equation
(1) corresponds to right-sided sequence
a -1
z
a b 1 l u [n]
n
(right-sided)
^1 - 3 z h
1 -1 3
ROC z < 2 has radius less than the pole at z = 2 , so the second term in
equation (1) corresponds to left sided sequence.
b -1
z
b (2) n u [n - 1]
i. n
-1 (left-sided)
(1 - 2z )
x2 [n] = a b 1 l u [n] + b (2) n u [n - 1]
n
So,
o
3
ROC : z < 1
.c
3
i a
o d
. n
w w
w
ROC is left side to both the poles of X (z), so they corresponds to left sided
signals.
x 3 [n] = a b 1 l u [- n - 1] + b (2) n u [- n - 1]
n
3
All gives the same z -transform with different ROC so, all are the solution.
SOL 6.1.63 Option (C) is correct.
The z -transform of all the signal is same given as
X (z) = 1 - 1
1 - 2z-1 1 - 12 z-1
Poles are at z = 2 and z = 12 . Now consider the following relationship between
ROC and location of poles.
1. Since x1 [n] is right-sided signal, so ROC is region in z -plane having radius
greater than the magnitude of largest pole. So, z > 2 and z > 12 gives
R1 : z > 2
2. Since x2 [n] is left-sided signal, so ROC is the region inside a circle having
radius equal to magnitude of smallest pole. So, z < 2 and z < 12 gives
R2 : z < 12
3. Since x 3 [n] is double sided signal, So ROC is the region in z -plane such
1 + 76 z-1 2 -1
We have X (z) = =
1 -1 + 1 -1
^1 - z h^1 + z h
1 -1
2
1 -
1 -1
3
2 z 1 + 3z
2 3
2. ROC z < 3 is interior to the circle passing through left most poles, so
1
x [n] = ;-n2 + b - 1 l E u [- n - 1]
n
2 3
3. ROC 3 < z < 2 is interior to the circle passing through pole at z = 12
1 1
i. n
so the first term in equation (1) corresponds to a right sided sequence,
while the ROC is exterior to the circle passing through pole at z = - 13 , so
o
the second term corresponds to a left sided sequence. Therefore, inverse
c
z -transform is
SOL 6.1.65
od
Option (A) is correct.
The location of poles and the ROC is shown in the figure. Since the ROC
.n
includes the point z = 34 , ROC is 12 < z < 1
ww
w
X (z) = A + B
1 - 12 z-1 1 + z-1
ROC is exterior to the pole at z = 12 , so this term corresponds to a right-sided
sequence, while ROC is interior to the pole at z =- 1 so the second term
corresponds to a left sided sequence. Taking inverse z -transform we get
x [n] = An u [n] + B (- 1) n u [- n - 1]
2
For n = 1, x [1] = A (1) + B # 0 = 1 & A = 1& A = 2
2 2
For n =- 1, x [- 1] = A # 0 + B (- 1) = 1 & B =- 1
So, x [n] = n1- 1 u [n] - (- 1) n u [- n - 1]
2
SOL 6.1.66 Option (B) is correct.
Page 574 Let, x [n] = Cpn u [n] (right-sided sequence having a single pole)
Chap 6
x [0] = 2 = C
The Z-Transform
x [2] = 1 = 2p2 & p = 1 ,
2 2
x [n] = 2 b 1 l u (n)
n
So,
2
SOL 6.1.67 Option (D) is correct.
-1
/ b 12 z-1l 1 -1 n
3 n
X (z) = + / b4z l
n=0 n =- 3
n
= / b 1 z-1 l + / (4z) m = 1 1
n 3
-
n=0
2 m=1
1
1- z-1
1 - 1 z-1
1 44 2
I
44 3 1 4 2
II
4 3 2 4
ROC : Summation I converges if 12 z-1 < 1 or z > 12 and summation II
converges if 4z < 1 or z < 14 . ROC would be intersection of both which
does not exist.
i. n
x [n]
Z z2 , ROC z < 4
z2 - 16
o
2
x [n - 2] z-2 c 2 z m = 2 1
Z
(Time shifting property)
.c
z - 16 z - 16
Option (B) is correct.
a
SOL 6.1.69
i z2 , ROC z < 4
Z
x [n]
d
2
z - 16
o
1 x [n] Z (2z) 2 z2
= (Scaling in z -domain)
n
2n (2z) 2 - 16 z2 - 4
SOL 6.1.70
w.
Option (C) is correct.
z2 , ROC z < 4
w
Z
x [n]
z2 - 16
w
( z1 ) 2
x [- n]
Z
(Time reversal property)
( z1 ) 2 - 16
( z1 ) 2 z2
( z ) - 16 ;z2 - 16 E
x [- n] * x [n] = 1 2 G
Z
(Time convolution property)
Z z2
257z2 - 16z 4 - 16
SOL 6.1.71 Option (A) is correct.
x [n]
Z z2 , ROC z < 4
z2 - 16
2
-z d 2 z
Z
nx [n] (Differentiation in z -domain)
dz z - 16
Z 32z2
(z - 16) 2
2
Z z
(z - 16) 2
2
i. n
SOL 6.1.75 Option (B) is correct.
Z-1
X (z) 3 n n 2 u [n]
o
Xb 1 l
Z-1
3(- n) (- n) 2 u [- n] (Time reversal)
c
z
ia. Z-1
3-n n2 u [- n]
d
SOL 6.1.76 Option (C) is correct.
o
Z-1
X (z) 3 n n 2 u [n]
n- z d X (z)
Z-1
.
nx [n] (Differentiation in z -domain)
dz
w
z-1 :- z d X (z)D
Z-1
(n - 1) x [n - 1] (Time shifting)
dz
So,
ww dX (z)
dz
Z-1
Z-1
- (n - 1) x [n - 1] - z-1 :- z d X (z)D =
- (n - 1) 3n - 1 (n - 1) 2 u [n - 1]
dz
dX (z)
dz
Z-1
- (n - 1) 3 3n - 1 u [n - 1]
SOL 6.1.77 Option (A) is correct.
1 z2 X (z) Z-1 1 x [n + 2] (Time shifting)
2 2
1 z-2 X (z) Z-1 1 x [n - 2] (Time shifting)
2 2
z2 - z-2 X (z) Z-1 1 (x [n + 2] - x [n - 2]) (Linearity)
2 2
SOL 6.1.78 Option (B) is correct.
Z-1
X (z) 3 n n 2 u [n]
Z-1
X (z) X (z) x [n ] * x [n ] (Time convolution)
i. n
h [n] = ;10 (2) n - 7 b 1 l E u [n]
n
2
Option (D) is correct.
o
SOL 6.1.81
.c
We have h [n] = ( 12 ) n u [n]
a
and y [n] = 2d [n - 4]
d i
Taking z -transform of above we get
o
H (z) = 1
1 - 12 z-1
and
. n
Y (z) = 2z-4
w
Y (z)
Now X (z) = = 2z-4 - z-5
H (z)
w w
Taking inverse z -transform we have
x [n] = 2d [n - 4] - d [n - 5]
i. n
Y (z) 1 - 0.3z-1 + 0.02z-2
H1 (z) = 1 =
X (z) 1 - 0.2z-1
o
(1 - 0.2z-1) (1 - 0.1z-1)
= = (1 - 0.1z-1)
c
(1 - 0.2z-1)
d
X (z)
o
Y3 (z) = 0.5z-1 Y (z) + 0.4X (z) - 0.3z-1 X (z)
n
Y (z) 0.4 - 0.3z-1
.
H 3 (z) = 3 =
X (z) 1 - 0.5z-1
SOL 6.1.86
ww
H1 (z) = H2 (z), so y1 and y2 are equivalent.
w
We have H (z) = 1 + 1
1 - 2z-1 1 + 12 z-1
Poles of H (z) are at z = 2 and z = - 12 . Since h [n] is stable, so ROC includes
unit circle z = 1 and for the given function it must be 12 < z < 2 . The
location of poles and ROC is shown in the figure below
Page 578 2. ROC is exterior to the circle passing through pole at z =- 12 , so this term
Chap 6 corresponds to a right-sided signal.
The Z-Transform
1 -1 n
b 2 l u [ n]
Z-1
(right-sided)
1 + 12 z-1
Impulse response,
h [n] =- (2) n u [- n - 1] + b - 1 l u [n]
n
2
SOL 6.1.87 Option (B) is correct.
We have H (z) = 5z2 = 5z2
z - z - 6 (z - 3) (z + 2)
2
= 5 3 2
-1 -1 = -1 +
(1 - 3z ) (1 + 2z ) 1 - 3z 1 + 2z-1
Since h [n] is causal, therefore impulse response is obtained by taking right-
sided inverse z -transform of the transfer function X (z)
h [n] = [3n + 1 + 2 (- 2) n] u [n]
i. n
Zero at : z = 0 , 2 , poles at z = 1 ! 2
3 2
o
(1) For a causal system all the poles of transfer function lies inside the unit
.c
circle z = 1. But, for the given system one of the pole does not lie
inside the unit circle, so the system is not causal and stable.
i a
(2) Not all poles and zero are inside unit circle z = 1, the system is not
d
minimum phase.
SOL 6.1.89
n o
Option (A) is correct.
.
- 38 27
X (z) = + 8
1 - 13 z-1 1 - 3z-1
w w
Poles are at z = 13 and z = 3 . Since X (z) converges on z = 1, so ROC must
include this circle. Thus for the given signal ROC : 13 < z < 3
w
ROC is exterior to the circle passing through the pole at z = 13 so this term
will have a right sided inverse z -transform. On the other hand ROC is interior
to the circle passing through the pole at z = 3 so this term will have a left
sided inverse z -transform.
n+3
x [n] =- n 1- 1 u [n] - 3 u [- n - 1]
3 8 8
SOL 6.1.90 Option (C) is correct.
Since ROC includes the unit circle z = 1, therefore the system is both stable
i. n
SOL 6.1.93 Option (D) is correct.
Y (z) = X (z) z-1 - {Y (z) z-1 + Y (z) z-2}
o
Y (z) z-1 z
= =
c
X (z) 1 + z-1 + z-2 z2 + z + 1
drawn.
ia.
So this is a solution but not unique. Many other correct diagrams can be
d
***********
no
w.
ww
Page 580
Chap 6 SOLUTIONS 6.2
The Z-Transform
= 1 = 2z ...(1)
1- 1 2z - 1
2z
From the given question, we have
X (z) = az ...(2)
az - 1
So, by comparing equations (1) and (2), we get a = 2
SOL 6.2.2 Correct answer is - 1.125 .
i. n
The z -transform of given sequence is
X (z) = z3 + z2 - z1 - z0
o
= z 3 + z2 - z - 1
.c
X b 1 l = b 1 l + b 1 l - b 1 l - 1 =- 1.125
3 2
Now
2 2 2 2
SOL 6.2.3 Correct answer is 3.
i a
o
z (z - 1)
d
X (z) = z + 1 =- 1 + 2
z z-1
n
=- 1 + 2z-1 a z k
.
By partial fraction
z z-1
w
Taking inverse z -transform
=- d [n - 1] + 2u [n - 1]
w
x [n]
x [ 0] =- 0 + 0 = 0
wThus, we obtain
x [ 1]
x [ 2]
=- 1 + 2 = 1
=- 0 + 2 = 2
x [ 0] + x [ 1] + x [ 2] = 3
SOL 6.2.4 Correct answer is 3.
x [n] = an u [n]
Let, y [n] = x [n + 3] u [n] = an + 3 u [n + 3] u [n]
= an + 3 u [n] u [n + 3] u [n] = u [n]
3 3 3
Y (z) = / y [n] z -n
= / an + 3 z-n u [n] = /a n + 3 -n
z
n =- 3 n =- 3 n=0
3
1 z
=a 3
/ (az -1 n
) = a3
1 - az-1 = a a z - a k
3
...(1)
n=0
From the given question, we have
Y (z) = a k a z k ...(2)
z-a
So, by comparing equations (1) and (2), we get k = 3
NOTE :
Do not apply time shifting property directly because x [n] is a causal signal.
an u [n]
Z z The Z-Transform
z-a
an - 10 u [n - 10]
Z z-10 z (time shifting property)
z-a
So, x [n] = an - 10 u [n - 10] ...(1)
From the given question, we have
x [n] = a n - k u [ n - k ] ...(2)
So, by comparing equations (1) and (2), we get
k = 10
SOL 6.2.6 Correct answer is 9.
We know that a n u [ n]
Z z
z-a
or 3 n u [ n]
Z z
z-3
i. n
3 n - 3 u [ n - 3] z-3 a z k
Z
z-3
o
So x [ n ] = 3 n - 3 u [ n - 3]
c
x [5] = 32 u [2] = 9
SOL 6.2.7
ia.
Correct answer is 2.
d
y [ n ] = n [n + 1] u [ n ]
o
y [n] = n2 u [n] + nu [n]
n
z
.
Z
We know that u [n]
z-1
w
Applying the property of differentiation in z -domain
w
Z
If, x [n] X (z)
- z d X (z)
w
Z
then, nx [n]
dz
-z d a z k
Z
so, nu [n]
dz z - 1
or, nu [n]
Z z
(z - 1) 2
Again by applying the above property
- z d : z 2D
Z
n (nu [n])
dz (z - 1)
z (z + 1)
n 2 u [ n]
Z
(z - 1) 3
z z (z + 1) 2z2
So Y (z) = + = ...(1)
(z - 1) 2 (z - 1) 3 (z - 1) 3
From the given question, we have
x [n] = kz k ...(2)
(z - 1) k + 1
So, by comparing equations (1) and (2), we get
k =2
SOL 6.2.8 Correct answer is - 1.
Given that X (z) = log (1 - 2z), z < 1
2
Differentiating
1 - 12 z-1
nx [n] = b 1 l u [- n - 1]
n
Thus
2
x [ n ] = 1 b 1 l u [ - n - 1]
n
or, ...(1)
n 2
From the given question, we have
x [n] = 1 b 1 l u [ a - n]
n
...(2)
i. n
n 2
So, by comparing equations (1) and (2), we get a =- 1
SOL 6.2.9 Correct answer is 2.
Y (z) = /
3
x 9n C z-n
.c o
ia
n =- 3
2
3
/ x [ k] z Put n = k or n = 2k
d
-2k
=
2
o
k =- 3
= X (z2) ...(1)
. n
From the given question, we have
w
Y (z) = X (z k ) ...(2)
So, by comparing equations (1) and (2), we get k = 2
SOL 6.2.10
w w
Correct answer is 0.
X (z) =
3
/ x [ n] z
n =- 3
-n
3 3
Y (z) = X (z3) = / x [n] (z3) -n = / x [ n] z -3n
n =- 3 n =- 3
3
= / x [k/3] z -k
Put 3n = k or n = k/3
k =- 3
= 1 lim (z - 1) 9 z + z C
2 z"1 z-1 z+1
z (z - 1)
= 1 lim =z +
2 z"1 (z + 1) G
= 1 (1) = 0.5
2
SOL 6.2.13
i. n
Correct answer is 0.5 .
o
From initial value theorem
c
x [0] = lim X (z)
.
z"3
0.5z2
a
= lim
i
z " 3(z - 1) (z - 0.5)
o
b z lb z l
z"3
1 - 1 -
SOL 6.2.14
.n
Correct answer is - 2.5 .
w
Taking z transform of input and output
X (z) = z
w
z - 0.5
w Y (z) = 1 - 2z-1 = z - 2
Transfer function of the filter
H (z) = Y (z) /X (z)
z
2
= b z - 2 lb z - 0.5 l = z - 2.52 z + 1
z z z
= 1 - 2.5z-1 + z-2
Taking inverse z -transform
h [n] = {1, - 2.5, 1}
-
Therefore h [1] =- 2.5
SOL 6.2.15 Correct answer is 4.
Comparing the given system realization with the generic first order direct
form II realization
i. n
H1 (z) = 1 + 1 z-1, H2 (z) = z 1
2 z- 2
The overall system function
H (z) = H1 (z) H2 (z)
.c
= b1 + 1 z-1 lb z 1 l =
o
^z + 2 h
1
i a z- 2 ^z - 2 h
1
d
Input, x [n] = cos (np)
o
- 1 + 12
So, z =- 1 and H (z =- 1) = =1
n
- 1 - 12 3
w.
Output of system
y [n] = H (z =- 1) x [n] = 1 cos np ...(1)
w
3
From the given question, we have
w y [n] = k cos np
So, by comparing equations (1) and (2), we get
k = 1 = 0.3333
...(2)
3
SOL 6.2.17 Correct answer is 1.
From the given block diagram
Y (z) = az-1 X (z) + az-1 Y (z)
Y (z) (1 - az-1) = az-1 X (z)
Transfer function
Y (z) -1
= az -1
X (z) 1 - az
For stability poles at z = 1 must be inside the unit circle.
So a <1
SOL 6.2.18 Correct answer is - 2 .
3 3
X+ (z) = / x [n] z-n = / d [n - 2] z-n = z-2 ...(1)
n=0 n=0 3
/ f [n] d [n - n ] = f [n ]
0 0
n =- 3
From the given question, we have
X+ (z) = z-2 ...(2)
i. n
k=0
k
/ ((-2k1))!
3
Thus, X (z) = cos (z-3) = (z-3) 2k , z >0
o
k=0
c
Taking inverse z -transform we get
ia. x [n] = /
3
(- 1) k
k = 0 (2k) !
d [n - 6k]
d
Now for n = 12 we get, 12 - 6k = 0 & k = 2
Thus,
no x [12] =
(- 1) 2
4!
= 1 = 0.0417
24
SOL 6.2.21
w.
Correct answer is 4.
For anticausal signal initial value theorem is given as,
SOL 6.2.22
c ! c2 - 0.48 < 1
2
Solving this inequality, we get c < 1.12 .
***********
Page 586
Chap 6 SOLUTIONS 6.3
The Z-Transform
Answers
1. (B) 5. (C) 9. (A) 13. (D) 17. (C) 21. (C) 25. (B)
2. (D) 6. (C) 10. (C) 14. (C) 18. (A) 22. (D) 26. (B)
3. (C) 7. (D) 11. (C) 15. (B) 19. (A) 23. (C)
4. (D) 8. (A) 12. (A) 16. (D) 20. (B) 24. (C)
***********
i. n
.c o
i a
o d
. n
w w
w
/ ; / d [n - k] z-nE
3 3 3
X (z) = / x [n] z-n =
i. n
k=0 n =- 3 k = 0
o
3
X (z) = / z-k =
(1 - 1 /z) (z - 1)
c
k=0
SOL 6.4.3
We have
ia.
Option (A) is correct.
f (nT) = anT
d
Taking z -transform we get
o
3 3
F (z) = / anT z-n = / (aT ) n z-n
.n
n =- 3 n =- 3
T n
/ b az l =
z
3
=
w
n=0 z - aT
w
SOL 6.4.4 Option ( ) is correct.
w
SOL 6.4.5 Option (A) is correct.
x [n] = bn u [n] + b-n u [- n - 1]
z -transform of x [n] is given as
3
X (z) = / x [n] z-n
n =- 3
3 3
= / bn u [n] z-n + / b-n u [- n - 1] z-n
n =- 3 n =- 3
3 -1
= /b n -n
z + / b-n z-n
n=0 n =- 3
In second summation, Let n =- m
3 3
X (z) = / bn z-n + / bm zm
n=0 m=1
3 3
= / (bz ) + / (bz) m
-1 n
n=0 m=1
1 44 2
I
44 3 1 4 2
II
43
Summation I converges, if bz-1 < 1 or z > b
Summation II converges, if bz < 1 or z < 1
b
since b < 1 so from the above two conditions ROC : z < 1.
SOL 6.4.6 Option (B) is correct.
z -transform of signal an u [n] is
Page 588 3 3
Chap 6
X (z) = / an u [n] z-n = / (az-1) n u [n] = 1, n $ 0
n =- 3 n=0
The Z-Transform 1 44 2
I
44 3
= 1 = z
1 - az-1 z - a
Similarly, z -transform of signal an u [- n - 1] is
3
X (z) = / - an u [- n - 1] z-n
n =- 3
-1
=- / an z-n a u [- n - 1] = 1, n #- 1
n =- 3
Let n =- m , then
3 3
X (z) =- / a-m zm = - / (a-1 z) m
m=1 m=1
-1 1 44 42 44
43
=- a z = z II
1 - a-1 z z-a
z -transform of both the signal is same.
(A) is true
ROC : To obtain ROC we find the condition for convergences of X (z) for
both the transform.
i. n
Summation I converges if a-1 z < 1 or z > a , so ROC for an u [n] is z > a
Summation II converges if a-1 z < 1 or z < a , so ROC for - an u [- n - 1]
is z < a .
.c o
(R) is true, but (R) is NOT the correct explanation of (A).
SOL 6.4.7 Option (B) is correct.
i a
d
z - transform of x [n] is defined as
o
3
X (z) = / x [n] z-n
. n
n =- 3
3
= / x [n] r-n e-jWn Putting z = re jW
w
n =- 3
z -transform exists if X (z) < 3
wor
w /
3
n =- 3
x [n] r-n e-jWn < 3
/
3
x [n] r-n < 3
n =- 3
Thus, z -transform exists if x [n] r-n is absolutely summable.
SOL 6.4.8 Option (A) is correct.
x [n] = b 1 l u [n] - b 1 l u [- n - 1]
n n
3 2
Taking z transform we have
n=3 n n =- 1
X (z) = / b 13 l z-n - / 1 n -n
b2l z
n=0 n =- 3
n=3 n =- 1
/ b 13 z-1l 1 -1 n
n
= - / b2z l
n=0 n =- 3
i. n
n =- 3 n =- 3
3
= / (2z-1) n = 1 + 2z-1 + (2z-1) 2 + ...
o
n=0
c
1
.
=
1 - 2z-1
ia
the above series converges if 2z-1 < 1 or z > 2
d
Option (A) is correct.
SOL 6.4.11
We have
no h [ n] = u [ n]
.
3 3 3
H (z) = / x [ n] z -n
= / 1z -n
= / (z -1 n
)
w
n =- 3 n=0 n=0
H (z) is convergent if
w
3
/ (z-1) n < 3
w
n=0
and this is possible when z-1 < 1. Thus ROC is z-1 < 1 or z > 1
SOL 6.4.12 Option (B) is correct.
(Please refer to table 6.1 of the book Gate Guide signals & Systems by same
authors)
(A) u [n]
Z z (A " 3)
z-1
d [n]
Z
(B) 1 (B " 1)
(C) sin wt
Z z sin wT (C " 4)
2
t = nT z - 2z cos wT + 1
(D) cos wt
Z z - cos wT (D " 2)
t = nT z2 - 2z cos wt + 1
SOL 6.4.13 Option (A) is correct.
Inverse z -transform of X (z) is given as
x [n] = 1 # X (z) zn - 1 dz
2pj
SOL 6.4.14 Option (B) is correct.
H (z) = z-m
so h [n] = d [n - m]
That is wrong because here initial value theorem is not applicable because
signal x [n] is defined for n < 0 .
i a 1
1 + z- 1
.c
SOL 6.4.18 Option (C) is correct.
o d z ^2z - 56 h
n
X (z) =
. ^z - 2 h^z - 3 h
1 1
w
^2z - 6 h
5
X (z)
= = 11 + 11
z ^z - 2 h^z - 3 h ^z - 2 h ^z - 3 h
w
1 1
X (z) = z 1 + z 1
w
or ...(1)
^z - 2 h ^z - 3 h
S term I
S term II
x [n] =-b 1 l u [- n - 1] - b 1 l u [- n - 1]
n n
So, (D " 2)
2 3
ROC : 3 < z < 2 : ROC is outside to the pole z = 3 , so the second term
1 1 1
i. n
z = 12 , so First term of equation (1) corresponds to anticausal signal.
.co
ia
od
.n
ww
So,
w x [n] =-b 1 l u [- n - 1] + b 1 l u [n]
2
n
3
n
(C " 1)
ROC : z < 13 & z > 12 : ROC : z < 13 is inside the pole at z = 13 so second
term of equation (1) corresponds to anticausal signal. On the other hand,
ROC : z > 12 is outside to the pole at z = 12 , so the first term in equation
(1) corresponds to a causal signal.
x [n] = b 1 l u [n] - b 1 l u [- n - 1]
n n
So, (B " 3)
2 3
i. n
(1) corresponds to anticausal signals.
.c o
Since ROC is inside the innermost pole of X (z), both the terms in equation
a
x [n] =- 3n u [- n - 1] + 2n u [- n - n] = (2n - 3n) u [- n - 1]
SOL 6.4.20 Option (D) is correct.
d i
o
Given that X (z) = z , z >a
n
(z - a) 2
.
Residue of X (z) zn - 1 at z = a is
w w = d (z - a) 2 X (z) zn - 1 z = a
dz
= d (z - a) 2 z zn - 1
w
dz (z - a) 2 z=a
= zd n
= nz n-1
= nan - 1
dz z = a z=a
1 - az -1 2
ROC is inside to the pole at z = b , so the second term in X (z) corresponds
to a anticausal signal.
1
- 1 (b) n u [- n - 1]
3 Z-1
1 - bz -1 3
x [n] = 1 (a) n u [n] - 1 (b) n u [- n - 1]
2 3
x [0] = 1 u [0] - 1 u [- 1] = 1
2 3 2
SOL 6.4.22 Option (A) is correct.
(z + z-3) z (1 + z-4)
X (z) = =
(z + z-1) z (1 + z-2)
= (1 + z-4) (1 + z-2) -1
i. n
Writing binomial expansion of (1 + z-2) -1 , we have
X (z) = (1 + z-4) (1 - z-2 + z-4 - z-6 + ....)
a
3
i
X (z) = / x [n] z-n
d
n =- 3
Comparing above two
.
= "1, 0, - 1, 0, 2, 0, - 2, ....,
w
x [n] has alternate zeros.
w
SOL 6.4.23 Option (A) is correct.
Z-1
aZ ! a
w
We know that ad [n ! a]
Given that X (z) = 5z + 4z-1 + 3
2
i. n
= 1 , z < a (B " 3)
(1 - az-1)
(C)
We have,
x [n] =- nan u [- n - 1]
.c o
a
- an u [- n - 1] 1
i
Z
, z < a
(1 - az-1)
d
From the property of differentiation in z -domain
o
- nan u [- n - 1] - z d : 1 -1 D,
Z
z < a
n
dz 1 - az
w. Z az-1 ,
(1 - az-1) 2
z < a (C " 4)
w
(D) x [n] = nan u [n]
1
w
an u [n]
Z
We have, , z > a
(1 - az-1)
From the property of differentiation in z -domain
-z d ; 1
dz (1 - az-1)E
nan u [n]
Z
, z > a
Z az-1 , z > a (D " 1)
(1 - az-1) 2
SOL 6.4.27 Given that, z transform of x [n] is
3
X (z) = / x [n] z-n
n =- 3
jw0 n
z -transform of {x [n] e }
3 3
Y (z) = / x [n] e jw n z-n
0
= / x [n] (ze-jw ) -n
0
= X (zl) zl = ze -jw0
n =- 3 n =- 3
i. n
The convolution of a signal x [n] with unit step function u [n] is given by
3
y [n] = x [n] * u [n] = / x [k ]
o
k=0
c
Taking z -transform
d
SOL 6.4.32 Option (B) is correct.
o
From the property of z -transform.
.n
Z
x 1 [n] * x 2 [n] X1 (z) X2 (z)
w
SOL 6.4.33 Option (C) is correct.
Given z transform
ww z-1 (1 - z-4)
C (z) =
4 (1 - z-1) 2
Applying final value theorem
lim f (n) = lim (z - 1) f (z)
n"3 z"1
z-1 (1 - z-4)
lim (z - 1) F (z) = lim (z - 1)
z"1 z"1 4 (1 - z-1) 2
z-1 (1 - z-4) (z - 1)
= lim
z"1 4 (1 - z-1) 2
z-1 z-4 (z 4 - 1) (z - 1)
= lim
z"1 4z-2 (z - 1) 2
-3 (z - 1) (z + 1) (z2 + 1) (z - 1)
= lim z
z"1 4 (z - 1) 2
-3
= lim z (z + 1) (z2 + 1) = 1
z"1 4
i. n
SOL 6.4.37 Option (B) is correct.
We can see that the given impulse response is decaying exponential, i.e.
a
z-a
0 < a < 1.
d i
Pole of the transfer function is at z = a , which is on real axis between
SOL 6.4.38
n o
Option (A) is correct.
w.
y [ n ] + y [ n - 1] = x [ n ] - x [ n - 1]
Taking z -transform
w
Y (z) + z-1 Y (z) = X (z) - z-1 X (z)
w
(1 - z-1)
Y (z) = which has a linear phase response.
(1 + z-1)
SOL 6.4.39 Option (A) is correct.
For the linear phase response output is the delayed version of input multiplied
by a constant.
y [n] = kx [n - n 0]
kX (z)
Y (z) = kz-n X (z) =
0
zn 0
Pole lies at z = 0
SOL 6.4.40 Option (B) is correct.
Given impulse response can be expressed in mathematical form as
h [n] = d [n] - d [n - 1] + d [n - 2] - d [n - 3] + ....
By taking z -transform
H (z) = 1 - z-1 + z-2 - z-3 + z-4 - z-5 + ....
= (1 + z-2 + z-4 + ....) - (z-1 + z-3 + z-5 + ....)
-1 2
= 1 -2 - z -2 = 2 z - 2 z
1-z 1-z z -1 z -1
2
(z - z) z (z - 1)
= 2 = = z Pole at z =- 1
(z - 1) (z - 1 ) (z + 1 ) z+1
i. n
(z - 1)
Z-1
Y2 (z) y 2 [n]
.co 1
(z - 1)
Z -1
u [n - 1]
SOL 6.4.42
ia
Option (C) is correct.
d
Given state equations
o
s [n + 1] = As [n] + Bx [n] ...(1)
n
y [n] = Cs [n] + Dx [n] ...(2)
w.
Taking z -transform of equation (1)
zS (z) = AS (z) + BX (z)
Page 598 so y [ n ] = x [ n] * u [ n]
Chap 6
Taking z -transform on both sides
The Z-Transform
Y (z) = X (z) z = X (z) 1
(z - 1) (1 - z-1)
Transfer function,
Y (z) 1
H (z) = =
X (z) (1 - z-1)
Now consider the inverse system of H (z), let impulse response of the inverse
system is given by H1 (z), then we can write
H (z) H1 (z) = 1
X (z)
H1 (z) = = 1 - z-1
Y (z)
(1 - z-1) Y (z) = X (z)
Y (z) - z-1 Y (z) = X (z)
Taking inverse z -transform
y [n] - y [n - 1] = x [n]
.c
Taking z -transform on both sides
i a
Y (z) - 1 z-1 Y (z) = X (z)
2
Transfer function
o d
H (z) =
Y (z)
= 1
X (z) 1 - 12 z-1
. n
Now, for input x [n] = kd [n]Output is
w
Y (z) = H (z) X (z)
k
w
= X (z) = k
^1 - 12 z h
-1
w
Taking inverse z -transform
y [n] = k b 1 l u [ n] = k b 1 l ,
n n
n$0
2 2
SOL 6.4.46 Option (A) is correct.
y [ n ] + y [ n - 1] = x [ n ]
For unit step response, x [n] = u [n]
y [ n ] + y [ n - 1] = u [ n ]
Taking z -transform Y (z) + z-1 Y (z) = z
z-1
(1 + z-1) Y (z) = z
(z - 1)
(1 + z)
Y (z) = z
z (z - 1)
Y (z) = z2
(z + 1) (z - 1)
SOL 6.4.47 Option (A) is correct.
SOL 6.4.48 Option (A) is correct.
SOL 6.4.49 Option (A) is correct.
We have h (2) = 1, h (3) =- 1 otherwise h [k] = 0 . The diagram of response
i. n
Thus h [n] =- (0.2) n u [- n - 1]
SOL 6.4.51 Option (B) is correct.
We have
or
.co
h [n] = 3d [n - 3]
H (z) = 2z-3 Taking z transform
ia X (z) = z 4 + z2 - 2z + 2 - 3z-4
d
Now Y (z) = H (z) X (z)
o
= 2z-3 (z 4 + z2 - 2z + 2 - 3z-4)
n
= 2 (z + z-1 - 2z-2 + 2z-3 - 3z-7)
w.
Taking inverse z transform we have
y [n] = 2 [d [n + 1] + d [n - 1] - 2d [n - 2] + 2d [n - 3] - 3d [n - 7]]
SOL 6.4.52
w
At n = 4 ,
w
y [4] = 0
Option (A) is correct.
z -transform of x [n] is
X (z) = 4z - 3 + 3z - 1 + 2 - 6z2 + 2z3
Transfer function of the system
H (z) = 3z - 1 - 2
Output, Y (z) = H (z) X (z)
= (3z-1 - 2) (4z-3 + 3z-1 + 2 - 6z2 + 2z3)
= 12z-4 + 9z-2 + 6z-1 - 18z + 6z2 - 8z-3 - 6z-1 - 4 + 12z2 - 4z3
= 12z-4 - 8z-3 + 9z-2 - 4 - 18z + 18z2 - 4z3
Or sequence y [n] is
y [n] = 12d [n - 4] - 8d [n - 3] + 9d [n - 2] - 4d [n]
- 18d [n + 1] + 18d [n + 2] - 4d [n + 3]
y [n] =
Y 0, n < 0
So y [n] is non-causal with finite support.
SOL 6.4.53 Option (C) is correct.
Impulse response of given LTI system.
h [ n ] = x [ n - 1] ) y [ n ]
i. n
H (z) H1 (z) = 1
H1 (z) = 1 = 1
o
H (z) 1 - az-1
.c
-1
For stability H (z) = (1 - az ), z > a but in the inverse system z < a , for
stability of H1 (z).
so
i a
h1 [n] =- an u [- n - 1]
SOL 6.4.55 Option (C) is correct.
o zd
n
H (z) =
.
z + 12
z =- 1
w
Pole,
2
w
The system is stable if pole lies inside the unit circle. Thus (A) is true, (R)
w
is false.
SOL 6.4.56 Option (A) is correct.
Difference equation of the system.
y [n + 2] - 5y [n + 1] + 6y [n] = x [n]
Taking z -transform on both sides of above equation.
z2 Y (z) - 5zY (z) + 6Y (z) = X (z)
(z2 - 5z + 6) y (z) = X (z)
Transfer function,
Y (z)
H (z) = = 2 1 = 1
X (z) (z - 5z + 6) (z - 3) (z - 2)
Roots of the characteristic equation are z = 2 and z = 3
We know that an LTI system is unstable if poles of its transfer function
(roots of characteristic equation) lies outside the unit circle. Since, for the
given system the roots of characteristic equation lies outside the unit circle
(z = 2, z = 3) so the system is unstable.
SOL 6.4.57 Option (C) is correct.
System function, H (z) = z2 + 1
(z + 0.5) (z - 0.5)
Poles of the system lies at z = 0.5, z =- 0.5 . Since, poles are within the unit
1
b1 + z2 l
= lim =1
0.5 0.5
b1 + z lb1 - z l
z"3
i. n
Since Pole of H (z) lies inside the unit circle so the system is stable.
(A) is not True.
o
H (z) = 2 + 4z-1
c
Taking inverse z -transform
d
(R) is true.
SOL 6.4.59
no
Option (B) is correct.
.
For left sided sequence we have
1
w
- an u [- n - 1]
Z
where z < a
1 - az-1
w
Thus - 5n u [- n - 1]
Z 1 where z < 5
1 - 5z-1
or
w - 5n u [- n - 1]
Z z
z-5
where z < 5
Since ROC is z < 5 and it include unit circle, system is stable.
ALTERNATIVE METHOD :
h [n] =- 5n u [- n - 1]
3 -1 -1
H (z) = / h [n] z -n
= /-5 z n -n
=- / (5z -1 n
)
n =- 3 n =- 3 n =- 3
Let n =- m, then
-3 3
H (z) =- / (5z -1 -m
) = 1- / (5 -1
z) -m
n =- 1 m=0
i. n
for a system to be causal & stable these two conditions are satisfied if all the
poles are within the unit circle in z -plane.
SOL 6.4.62
(R) is false.
Option (B) is correct.
.c o
i a
We know that for a causal system, the ROC is outside the outermost pole.
d
For the system to be stable ROC should include the unit circle z = 1. Thus,
o
for a system to be causal & stable these two conditions are satisfied if all the
n
poles are within the unit circle in z -plane.
w.
(A) is true.
If the z -transform X (z) of x [n] is rational then its ROC is bounded by poles
w
because at poles X (z) tends to infinity.
(R) is true but (R) is not correct explanation of (A).
SOL 6.4.63
w
Option (C) is correct.
We have,
2 - 34 z - 1
H (z) =
1 - 34 z - 1 + 18 z - 2
= 1 1
1 -1 + By partial fraction
^1 - 2 z h ^1 - 14 z h
-1
2 4 4 2
System is not causal. ROC of H (z ) does not include unity circle, so it is not
stable and S 3 is True.
SOL 6.4.64 Option (C) is correct.
We have 2y [n] = ay [n - 2] - 2x [n] + bx [n - 1]
i. n
H1 (z) = az-2 + bz-1 + c
H2 (z) = pz-2 + qz-1 + r
o
Transfer function of the cascaded system
.c
H (z) = H1 (z) H2 (z)
a
= (az-2 + bz-1 + c) (pz-2 + qz-1 + r)
di = apz-4 + (aq + bp) z-3 + (ar + cp) z-2 + (br + qc) z-1 + cr
So, impulse response h [n] will be of order 4.
SOL 6.4.66
no
Option (B) is correct.
w.
Output is equal to input with a delay of two units, that is
y (t) = x (t - 2)
w
Y (z) = z-2 X (z)
w
Transfer function,
Y (z)
H (z) = = z-2
X (z)
For the cascaded system, transfer function
H (z) = H1 (z) H2 (z)
(z - 0.5)
z-2 = H (z)
(z - 0.8) 2
-1 -2 -2 -3
H2 (z) = z - 0.8z = z - 0.8z-1
z - 0.5 1 - 0.5z
SOL 6.4.67 Option (B) is correct.
y [n] = x [n - 1]
or Y (z) = z-1 X (z)
Y (z)
or = H (z) = z-1
X (z)
Now H1 (z) H2 (z) = z-1
1 - 0.4z-1
c 1 - 0.6z-1 m H2 (z) = z
-1
z-1 (1 - 0.6z-1)
H2 (z) =
(1 - 0.4z-1)
SOL 6.4.68 Option (C) is correct.
i. n
= (z2 + z1 + 1) (z3 + z2 + 1) H3 (z)
To make H (z) causal we have to take H3 (z) also causal.
o
Let H3 (z) = z-6 + z-4 + 1
.c
H (z) = (z2 + z1 + 1) (z3 + z2 + 1) (z-6 + z-4 + 1)
a
H (z) " causal
i
Similarly to make H (z) unstable atleast one of the system should be unstable.
d
o
SOL 6.4.70 Option (B) is correct.
n
1 + az-1 + bz-2
.
H (z) =
1 + cz-1 + dz-2 + ez-3
w
We know that number of minimum delay elements is equal to the highest
power of z-1 present in the denominator of H (z).
SOL 6.4.71
System Function
Y (z) a0
H (z) = =
X (z) 1 - a1 z-1 - a2 z-2
= 1
1 - a1 z-1 - a2 z-2
a0 a0 a0
Comparing with given H (z)
1 =1&a =1
0
a0
- a1 =- 0.7 & a1 = 0.7
a0
- a2 = 0.13 & a2 =- 0.13
a0
SOL 6.4.72 Option (B) is correct.
Let, M " highest power of z-1 in numerator.
N " highest power of z-1 in denominator
Number of delay elements in direct form-I realization equals to M + N
i. n K ! K 2 + 4K # 2
o
K2 + 4K # 2 - K
c
K2 + 4K # 4 - 4K + K2
ia. 8K # 4
K # 1/2
SOL 6.4.74
od
Option (B) is correct.
n
Input-output relationship of the system
w. y [n] = x [n] + ay [n - 1]
Taking z -transform
w
Y (z) = X (z) + z-1 aY (z)
Transform Function,
w Y (z)
= 1
X (z) 1 - z-1 a
Pole of the system (1 - z-1 a) = 0 & z = a
For stability poles should lie inside the unit circle z < 1 so a < 1.
SOL 6.4.75 Option (D) is correct.
The relation ship between Laplace transform and z -transform is given as
X (s) = X (z) z = est
z = esT ...(1)
jW
We know that z = re ...(2)
and s = s + jw (3)
From equation (1), (2) and (3), we can write
z = re jW = e(s + jw) T = esT e jwT
From above relation we can find that z = esT and W = wT . It is concluded
that,
• If s = 0 then z = 1, the jw-axis of s -plane maps into unit circle.
• If s < 0 , z < 1, it implies that left half of s -plane maps into inside of
unit circle _ z < 1i.
• Similarly, if s > 0 , z > 1 which implies that right half of s -plane maps
into outside of unit circle.
i. n
into outside of unit circle.
SOL 6.4.77 Option (C) is correct.
Ideal sampler output is given by
f (t) =
3
.c o
/ Kn d [t - nTs]
i a
n=0
where Ts " sampling period
n " integer
o d
f (t) = K 0 d [n] + K1 d [n - 1] + K2 d [n - 2] + ...
. n
Z [f (t)] = K 0 + K1 z-1 + K2 z-2 + ... + Kn z-n
w
SOL 6.4.78 Option (B) is correct.
w
We know that X (s) = X (z) z = e sT
w
so, z = esT
ln z = sT
s = ln z
T
SOL 6.4.79 Option (D) is correct.
SOL 6.4.80 Option (C) is correct.
H (s) = a
s + a22
***********