CHAPTER 6

BOILER EFFICIENCY

6.1 Introduction
Boiler operation is very complex and plays very important role in sugar mill. Sugar mill
requires steam for the process and electric power for auxiliary consumption. Most of the
sugar mills have cogeneration plant. Bagasse being by-product of sugar mill is used as a
fuel to fire boilers in sugar mills. The heat generated by the combustion of fiiel in
furnace of the boiler produces required steam for process and power generation. Boiler
is single most expensive item in a sugar mill. Because of high operating temperature and
pressure it is imperative to control it precisely to ensure safe, efficient and 'clean
operation'.
In the past the fuel requirements for most of the sugar mills were easily met by the
bagasse available in house. In most of the cases bagasse used to be surplus after meeting
needs of the mill. However, with increase in cost of fossil fuel and electricity coupled to
economic growth resulted in to the increased demand for bagasse as an alternative fuel.
As a result more mills find themselves a shortage of bagasse and have to resort to
alternative fuel in the form of coal. This development led to an increasing awareness for
energy conservation and obviously focus shifted to enhancing boiler efficiency. Boiler
operation is very complex as it is linked to many process parameters, its configuration
and on the physical and chemical properties of the fuel. The combustion process
produces required heat for steam conversion and releases gases in the form of flue gas.
Stoichiometric or Theoretical Combustion is the ideal combustion process where fuel is
burned completely. The stoichiometric ratio is the perfect ideal fuel ratio where the
chemical mixing proportion is correct when all fuel and air burned is consumed without
any excess left over. The complete combustion of bagasse releases gases like Carbon
dioxide, Water vapor. Nitrogen oxide and Oxygen. Combustion process in the boiler
depends on many process parameters like moisture content in fuel, proper fuel to excess
air ratio and ambient temperature of air and fuel. Any imbalance in these process
parameters will lead to incomplete combustion. Incomplete combustion will release

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gases like CO2, Carbon and soot particles when flue gas is released in air. Therefore
boiler operation needs to be properly controlled and needs to be handled carefiilly.
The scope of the research is limited to theoretical analysis of enhancing thermal
efficiency of boiler by optimizing calorific value of fuel, predicting combustion
temperature and excess air required for complete combustion. However, general aspect
like boiler Configuration contributing to over all operational efficiency is covered in
short.
6.2 Boiler Configuration
The main components of a modem boiler are: the grate, fuel feeders, combustion
chamber or furnace, water or mud drum, steam drum, main bank, super heater,
economizer, air heater, scrubber, induced draught (ID) fan, forced draught (FD) fan,
secondary air (SA) fan, boiler feed water pumps etc. The area of research is to enhance
calorific value of fuel by pre drying using microwave dryer. The thermal efficiency of
the boiler is analyzed.
6.3 Boiler Efficiency
Boiler efficiency is very complex function and it is linked to many process parameters
• Moisture Content in fuel, (Bagasse)
• Ambient temperature of fuel and excess air
• Ratio of excess air to the theoretical quantity of air
• The furnace temperature
• Coefficient taking in account losses due to radiation-P
• Coefficient taking in to account unborn solids-a
• Coefficient taking in to account incomplete combustion-t]
• Heat losses in Flue gases
6.4 Stoichiometric combustion or Theoretical combustion
It is ideal combustion process where fuel is burned completely. A complete combustion
is a process burning all Carbon (C) to CO2, All Hydrogen (H) to H2O and Sulfur (S) to
SO2 if any. Sugarcane bagasse does not have sulfur content. With unbumed components
in the exhaust gas (Flue gas) such as C, CO, H, the combustion process is incomplete
and not stoichiometric.

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The combustion process can be expressed as follows:
[C + H (fuel)] + [O2 + N2 (Air)] < (Combustion Process) > [CO2 + H2O + N2 (Heat)]
(6.1)
Where C = Carbon; H = Hydrogen; O = Oxygen; N = Nitrogen
To determine the excess air or excess fuel for a combustion system the stoichiometric
air-fuel ratio is considered first. The Stoichiometric combustion is shown in Fig. 6.1
[153]. The stoichiometric ratio is the perfect ideal fuel ratio where the chemical mixing
proportion is correct and where all fuel and air used is consumed without any excess left
over. In practice process heating equipment are rarely run that way. 'On-ratio'
combustion used in boilers and high temperature process furnaces usually incorporates a
modest amount of excess air - about 10 to 30% more than what is needed to bum the
fuel completely.
If insufficient amount of air is supplied to the burner, unbumed fuel, soot, smoke and
CO exhaustsfi"omthe boiler - resulting in heat transfer surface fouling, pollution, lower
combustion efficiency, flame instability and a potential for explosion.
To avoid inefficient and unsafe conditions boilers normally operate at an excess air
level. This excess air level also provides protection fi-om insufficient oxygen conditions
caused by variations in fuel composition and 'operating slops' in the fuel-air control
system.
• If air content is higher than the stoichiometric ratio - the mixture is said to be
fuel-lean.
• If air content is less than the stoichiometric ratio - the mixture is fuel-rich.

Excess F u e l Excess Air

Fig. 6.1: Stoichiometric combustion

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6.5 Fuel
The composition of fiiel plays a major role in assessing its calorific value and
calculating thermal efficiency of the boiler. To optimize boiler efficiency it is essential
to analyze physical, proximate and ultimate analysis of fuel.
6.6 Fuel Properties
The fuel components are usually divided in to ash, moisture and other constituents. In
spite of diversity of milling plants and machines employed, the physical composition of
bagasse varies between rather narrow limits. The most important property of bagasse;
from the point of view of steam production is its moisture content. Physical analysis
describes the fuel component in terms of their quantities. It is used to calculate the
calorific value. Physical and chemical composition of bagasse are given Table 6.1 and
Table 6.2 respectively.

Bagasse constituents Bagasse %

Fiber (F) 45-55
Ash (E) 2-3
Moisture(wet)(w) 45-50
Total 100

Table 6.1: Physical Composition of bagasse

Bagasse constituents Bagasse- %

Carbon 47
Hydrogen 6.5
Oxygen 44
Ash 2.5

Table 6.2: Chemical Properties of bagasse

Value N.C.V of bagasse is lower than G.C.V. Another formula to determine G.C.V of
bagasse is suggested by Hessey [6th Congr. I.S.S.C.T; p 1054] is as follows. This
formula is determined experimentally and verified
G.C.V. =8345-22*s-83.45*w (6.2)
N.C.V. = 7789-22*s-88.27*w (6.3)

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Where w = moisture % bagasse.
s = sucrose % of bagasse.
Another formula to determine G.C.V is as follows:
G.S.V = 8280(1-w) in BThU/lb (6.4)
G.S.V = 4600(l-w) in kcal/kg (6.5)
Where w = moisture content of bagasse relative to unity
For example when bagasse is having 45% moisture then w = 0.45.
[55]
Net Calorific Value (N.C.V.) of wet bagasse is given in Table 6.3

N.C.V m.units Br.Unit

kcal/kg BThU/lb
4250-4850*w 7650-8730*w

Table 6.3 Net calorific value of wet bagasse

6.7 The Ultimate analysis
The uhimate analysis is the analysis of the fuel into its basic chemical elements. This
analysis is used to get the theoretical air needed for combustion based on stoichiometric
equations of various elements. It also provides a means to determine the quantity and
combustion of the flue gases. It forms the comer stone for deriving the boiler efficiency
using loss methods.
6.8 The Proximate Analysis:
The proximate analysis is defined as the part of the fuel that gasifies below 750°C,
called volatiles, in relation to the fixed carbon. It provides an indication of its
combustion properties especially combustion stability. This property is particularly
important for coal and used to a lesser extent for bagasse.
6.9 Calorific Value
It is the heat produced by unit mass of bagasse when used as fiiel to fire boilers.
Calorific value of bagasse depends on its moisture content. Fig. 6.2 shows the
improvement in calorific value of bagasse with reduction in its moisture content. The
net saving of bagasse is also shown. As bagasse is having large percent of moisture

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present, its N.C.V is relatively low. Higher percentage of moisture may lead to low
furnace temperature hence lower steam production per unit consumption of bagasse. It
also results in to incomplete combustion resulting in emission of CO and shoots
particulate in the air. Combustion temperature T in the bagasse furnace is readily
calculated from the fact that the heat developed in combustion is recovered in the gases
passing from furnace to the boiler. For wet bagasse as fuel, it is necessary to take in to
account the heat losses due to water vapor produced by combustion of the hydrogen
constituent of bagasse and water vapor originating due to moisture in bagasse. Net
Calorific Value of bagasse takes in to account the latent heat of vaporization of water
due to Hydrogen content of bagasse as well as heat losses due to moisture content in
bagasse, from the point of view of steam production.

Caloriflc value of bagasse

8000 -| r 60
l_JCalorific Value -1

7000 -
e£ • • i Incremental calorific _ fl >" - 50
^ 6000 - value
- 40 5t
^ 5000 -
>
1 4000 - - 30 ^
>
g 3000 -
1 1 - 20 1
13 2000 -
u 1 J - 10
1000 -
1 1 U
n -- 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0
Moisture % (Wet basis)

Fig. 6.2: Calorific value of wet bagasse.

After taking in to account the heat lost in converting water in to water vapor, the
following losses are to be taken into account:
• Sensible heat lost in the flue gases
• Losses by radiation
• Losses in unburned solids
• Loss by incomplete combustion of carbon giving CO instead of CO2

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6.10 Sensible heat loss (q)
Net Calorific Value of bagasse, already takes in to account the loss of heat of water
vapor passing with flue gases to the chimney. Out of the losses to be accounted, the
most important loss is the sensible heat lost in these flue gases. Table 6.4 gives the
sensible heat lost at different moisture % and at different excess air ratios for 1kg of
bagasse.
The composition of flue gases and the specific heat of its component gases are known.
From these inputs corresponding heat loss can be obtained. Flue gases during bagasse
combustion at 50% (wet basis) moisture content and 45% (wet basis) moisture content
are given in Table 6.5 and Table 6.6 respectively. The mean specific heat of the flue
gases is between 32°F (0°C) and the flue gas temperature, which varies only slighfly
because this temperature itself is very less. In modem installation, with economizer or
air heater, it is easy to obtain flue gas temperature below 190°C. There is little interest
going below 135°C which may be considered as the lower economic limit. Conversely,
it would be only a very old or inadequate installation which would allow the gases to
leave at temperature greater than 284°C.
Fig. 6.4 shows flue gases during bagasse combustion as a function of excess air % and
fig. 6.5 shows Carbon dioxide and Oxygen % in flue gases as a function of excess air %.
The weight of flue gases depends on moisture content in the bagasse as well as on
quantity of excess air in the boiler. For 1 Kg of bagasse, when burnt, the following
constituent of flue gases is obtained by weight.
Weight of bagasse: 1kg, moisture =0.50, excess air % m=1.5

w = moisture % m = excess air Vo Pg = weight of flue gas- kg

0.50 n 5J1

Boiler efficiency: All the above factors affect the efficiency of the boiler. Optimizing
bagasse fired boiler efficiency is shown in Figure 6.6 and optimizing combustion
temperature by controlling bagasse moisture is shown in Figure 6.7.

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 moisture Excess air moisture w.r.t Excess Flue gas q- sensible
(wet basis) m% unity( w) air,(m) temperature heat lost
w% t°C Kcal/Kg
50 100 0.5 1 165 116.38

45 150 0.45 1.5 135 156.71

40 135 0.4 1.35 135 153.80

35 125 0.35 1.25 135 154.21

30 125 0.3 1.25 135 165.97

25 125 0.25 1.25 135 177.73

Table 6.4: Sensible heat lost at different moisture % and at different excess air ratios.

q-sensible heat loss

200
180
160
-Moisture %(Wet basis)
140
A * 4
120 •m % Excess air
100
80 •t°C Flue Gases
60
40 -q-sensible Heat lost
kcal/kg
20
0
1 2 3 4 5 6

Fig. 6.3: Sensible heat lost

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M Excess Pg w N2 02 H20 C02 C02% 02% N2%
air%
1 0 3.875 0.5 2.210 0.000 0.7925 0.86 22.2 0.0 57.0
1.1 10 4.163 0.5 2.431 0.067 0.7925 0.86 20.7 1.6 58.4
1.2 20 4.450 0.5 2.652 0.133 0.7925 0.86 19.3 3.0 59.6
1.3 30 4.738 0.5 2.873 0.200 0.7925 0.86 18.2 4.2 60.6
1.4 40 5.025 0.5 3.094 0.266 0.7925 0.86 17.1 5.3 61.6
1.5 50 5.313 0.5 3.315 0.333 0.7925 0.86 16.2 6.3 62.4
1.6 60 5.600 0.5 3.536 0.399 0.7925 0.86 15.4 7.1 63.1
1.7 70 5.888 0.5 3.757 0.466 0.7925 0.86 14.6 7.9 63.8
1.8 80 6.175 0.5 3.978 0.532 0.7925 0.86 13.9 8.6 64.4
1.9 90 6.463 0.5 4.199 0.599 0.7925 0.86 13.3 9.3 65.0
2 100 6.750 0.5 4.420 0.665 0.7925 0.86 12.7 9.9 65.5

Table 6.5: Flue gases during bagasse combustion

Flue gases-bagasse combustion

•H20

•C02%

•02%

•N2
« > > > I
20 40 60 80 100 120
Excess air % (m)

Fig. 6.4: Flue gases during bagasse combustion as a function of excess air%
Bagass weight= 1 kg, w=0.45
m Excess Pg w N2 02 H20 C02 C02% 02% N2%
Air%
1 0 4.163 0.45 2.431 0.000 0.77175 0.946 22.8 0.0 58.4
1.1 10 4.479 0.45 2.674 0.073 0.77175 0.946 21.2 1.6 59.7
1.2 20 4.795 0.45 2.917 0.146 0.77175 0.946 19.8 3.1 60.8
1.3 30 5.111 0.45 3.160 0.219 0.77175 0.946 18.6 4.3 61.8
1.4 40 5.428 0.45 3.403 0.293 0.77175 0.946 17.5 5.4 62.7
1.5 50 5.744 0.45 3.647 0.366 0.77175 0.946 16.5 6.4 63.5
1.6 60 6.060 0.45 3.890 0.439 0.77175 0.946 15.6 7.2 64.2
1.7 70 6.376 0.45 4.133 0.512 0.77175 0.946 14.9 8.0 64.8
1.8 80 6.693 0.45 4.376 0.585 0.77175 0.946 14.2 8.7 65.4
1.9 90 7.009 0.45 4.619 0.658 0.77175 0.946 13.5 9.4 65.9
2.0 100 7.325 0.45 4.862 0,732 0.77175 0.946 12.9 10.0 66.4

Table 6.6: Composition of flue gases at different excess air % (Bagasse moisture 45%
(wet basis)

Bagasse combustion-Excess air %

(C02,02)

Moisture (w =0.45) on unity basis.

•C02

•02

Fig. 6.5: Carbon dioxide and Oxygen % in flue gase as a function of Excess air %

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 Optimizing boiler efficiency
moisture % (wet basis) •m % Excess air Excess air
t=°c Flue gas Temp °c •q Sensible Heat lost k cal/kg
% saving bagasse '% Boiler Efficiency
250
129 182 184 188 190 191
200 •^ K

i50 A IDO ii iDO A 150 A IDO A IDO A 150

120

s
8 10

Fig: 6.6 Optimizing bagasse fired boiler efficiency by controlling its

Process parameters

Optimizing combustion temperature

h - Moisture % (Wet basis) H ^ Excess air%
h—Increase in combustion temp% )(• Boiler efficiency %
160
140 •g^
120
100
— ^ ds
80
60 1560°C
50 » " T ^ a^
40
20 \(^n•r

0 m^^r^j - 1 T- T

Fig: 6.7 Optimizing combustion temperature of boiler and its efficiency

by controlling moisture content in bagasse

ns
6.11 Conclusion
The efficiency of bagasse fired boiler is very complex, as it depends on many process
parameters as well as on physical, thermal and Ihemical properties of the fuel.
Theoretical analysis is carried out to find effect of moisture content in bagasse on boiler
efficiency.
• Excess air ratio plays very important role in ensuring complete combustion
process resulting into clean boiler operation. If an insufficient amount of air is
supplied to the burner, unbumed fuel, soot, smoke and carbon monoxide
exhausts from the boiler resulting in heat transfer, surface fouling, pollution,
lower combustion efficiency, flame instability and a potential for explosion.
• The presence of higher excess air results into lower combustion temperature,
lower Carbon Dioxide % and excess Oxygen % in the flue gases. This results in
to excess energy consumption for air handling equipments and overall boilers
efficiency rolls off. [Refer Figure 6.5]
• Boiler efficiency greatly depends on moisture content in bagasse. Higher
percentage of moisture may lead to low ftimace temperature hence lower steam
production per unit consumption of bagasse. It also results in to incomplete
combustion resulting in emission of CO and shoots particulate in the air.

• T = t° + °*^o Governing equation [54] for combustion

temperature.
• From the governing equation of combustion temperature it is clear that
combustion temperature increase when ambient temperature of air and fuel
increases. The combustion temperature is directly proportional to N.C.V of
bagasse, which is linked to its moisture content. Higher moisture will lower
combustion temperature greatly on account of the additional water vapor present
and more so since the specific heat of water vapor is nearly double that of other
gases present in flue gas. Combustion temperature decreases as excess air
increases. [Refer Figure 6.7]
• It is possible to optimize the boiler efficiency by modelling N.C.V of bagasse,
excess air used and initial temperature of fuel and air entering boiler.

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• By controlling process parameters the complex boiler efficiency can be
optimized as shown in the graph [Fig. 6.6]. By bringing down moisture content
in bagasse from initial 50% to 30% and reducing excess air from 150% to 125%,
the overall efficiency improved by 30% (from 50% to 83%). During this process
the combustion temperature has increased by 37.77%. It is important to note that
the flue gas temperature also has gone down fi-om 162°C to 135°C. It means
nearly 16.4% reduction in flue gas temperature coupled with 42% saving in
bagasse consumption and reducing power energy by 25 % reduction in excess
air. Beyond these points efficiency improvements slow down as moisture
evaporation process slow down. Therefore there is no point in drying bagasse
beyond 30% moisture. Further improvements in boiler efficiency takes place at
very slow rate hence not viable. [Refer Figure 6.6]
• By optimizing process parameters in the sugar mill the boiler efficiency
improves significantly ensuring complete combustion and hence 'clean
operation', reduced discharged flue gas temperature and nearly 42-45% saving in
fuel is possible. The efficiency of bagasse fired boiler is very complex as it
depends on many process parameters as well as on physical, thermal and
chemical properties of the fiiel.

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