Digital communication system block

diagram

Multiplexing

Multiplexing TDM

• Transmission of information from one or more sources to one or more • 2 or more signals or bit streams are transferred apparently simultaneously
destination over the same transmission medium (facility) as sub-channels in one communication channel,

• Three most predominant methods of multiplexing signals are: o But are physically taking turns on the channel

o Time-division multiplexing (TDM)
o Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)
o Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM)
• The time domain is divided into several recurrent timeslots of fixed length,
one for each sub-channel
o A sample byte or data block of sub-channel 1 is transmitted during
timeslot 1, sub-channel 2 during timeslot 2, etc

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 TDM frame Encoding technique used in TDM

• PCM
o Most prevalent

• DS-0 channel (digital signal level 0)

o Fundamental building block for most TDM systems in the US

o Uses an 8-kHz sample rate & an 8-bit PCM code, which reproduces a 64
kbps PCM line speed

• Consists of one timeslot per sub-channel

8000 samples 8 bits
line speed = x
• After the last sub-channel the cycle starts all over again with a new frame second sample
= 64, 000 bps

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Why 64 kbps? For a 2 channel per frame PCM-TDM system

• The digitization standard in the PSTN uses a sampling rate of 8 kSps

• The 64 kbps value is achieved by the application of the sampling theorem

• In the PSTN, there are 256 quantization intervals

o Allows sufficiently fine quantization of the input amplitude range

2 channels 8000 samples 8 bits
line speed = x x
o Each quantized sample is encoded as an 8-bit word frame second sample
= 128 kbps
• So a sampling rate of 8 kSps x 8-bit = 64 kbps

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 T Carrier Systems TDM systems in North America

• T carriers are used for transmission of PCM-encoded TDM signals

• T carriers utilize line-encoded signals & metallic cables

o These cables have been conditioned to meet the relatively high

bandwidths require for high-speed digital transmission

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T1 Digital Carrier T1 Digital Carrier

• Has been the North American digital multiplexing standard since 1963

• Recognized by ITU-T as Recommendation G.733.

• T1 stands for transmission one

• Uses PCM-encoded analog signals (24 voice-band channels)

o Each voice band channel occupies 300 to 3000 Hz

• The length of T1 carrier systems typically range from about 1 mile to over 50
miles

• The output of the multiplexer is simply multiplexed first-level digital signal

(DS level 1)

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 T1 Digital Carrier Framing bit in T1 Digital Carrier
• The system does not become a T1 carrier until it is line encoded & placed on
special conditioned cables called T1 lines

• The length of T1 carrier systems typically range from about 1 mile to over 50
miles • 1 framing bit is added to each frame

• One 64-kbps PCM-encoded sample is transmitted for each voice-band channel • Recovered in the receiver for frame & sample synchronization
during each frame (a frame time of 125 µs)

o The line speed is • As a result, each frame contains 193 bits,

o Line speed for T1 digital carrier system:

24 channels 8 bits 192 bits
x =
frame sample frame
193 bits 8000 frames
x = 1.544 Mbps
frame second
192 bits 8000 frames
x = 1.536 Mbps
frame second
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Line encoding used for telephone line Line encoding used for telephone line
transmissions transmissions

BPRZ-AMI has the best over-all characteristics, & is therefore, the most
commonly used format

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Regenerative repeaters in T Carrier Systems Line encoding & repeater spacing used by
T1 Carrier Systems

• Placed at periodic intervals to minimize errors as digital signals deteriorate • BPRZ-AMI encoding for older systems
as they propagate along the line
• Binary eight zero substitution (B8ZS) for newer systems
• Implemented as a threshold detector
o Ensures sufficient transition occur in the data to maintain clock
o Compares the sampled voltage received to a reference level & synchronization

o Determines whether the bit is logic 1 or logic 0. o Whenever eight consecutive 0s are encountered, one of two special
pattern is substituted
• Spacing of repeaters is designed to maintain adequate SNR for error-free
performance • Regenerative repeaters placed every 3000, 6000 or 9000 feet (typical
distances of manholes)

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B8ZS B8ZS alternative

Polarity of Preceding Pulse Substitution
- (Logic 0) 0 0 0 - + 0 + -
+ (Logic 1) 0 0 0 + - 0 - + Bit positions 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Original data 0 0 0 - 0 + - 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Bit positions 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 8 zeros
Original waveform
Original data 0 0 0 + 0 - + 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
8 zeros
Original waveform Substituted Pattern
0 0 0 - 0 + - 0 0 0 - + 0 + -
Substituted Pattern
Substituted waveform
0 0 0 + 0 - + 0 0 0 + - 0 - +

Substituted waveform
Bipolar violations

Bipolar violations
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 TDM systems in North America T2 Carrier Systems

• TDM of 96 64-kbps voice or data channels into a single 6.312 Mbps data
signal over a twisted-pair copper wire

o Up to 500 miles over a special low capacitance metallic cable

• Use BPRZ-AMI or B6ZS encoding

o Because of higher transmission rate, clock synchronization is even more

critical than with T1 carrier

o A sequence of six consecutive logic zeros could be sufficient to cause loss

of clock synchronization

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B6ZS encoding example TDM systems in North America

Polarity of Preceding Pulse Substitution
- 0 - + 0 + -
+ 0 + - 0 - +
Bit positions 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Original data + 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 - + 0 - 0 0 0 +
6 zeros
Original waveform

Substituted Pattern
+ 0 + - 0 - + 0 - + 0 - 0 0 0 +

Substituted waveform

Bipolar violations
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 T3 Carrier Systems B3ZS

Number of B bits Pattern Polarity Coded

since last V of last B

• Multiplex of 672 64-kbps voice or data channels for transmission over a odd 00V + 0 0 +
single coaxial cable
- 0 0 -
even B0V + - 0 -
• Use binary three zero substitution (B3ZS)
- + 0 +

o Substitutions are made for any occurrence of three consecutive zeros

B = Valid bipolar signal
o The pattern chosen should cause a bipolar error in the 3rd substituted V = Bipolar violation
bit

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Example of B3ZS substitution TDM systems in North America

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 T4M Carrier Systems TDM systems in North America

• T4M carriers time-division multiplex 4032 64-kbps voice or data channels for
transmission over a single T4M coaxial cable up to 500 miles

• The transmission rate is sufficiently high that a substitute line encoding

patterns are impractical

• T4M carriers transmit scrambled unipolar NRZ digital signals

o The scrambling & descrambling are performed at subscriber’s terminal

equipment

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T5 Carrier Systems European Digital Carrier System

• T5 carrier time-division multiplexed 8064 64 kbps voice or data channels &

transmit at a 560.16 Mbps rate over a single coaxial cable
In Europe, a different version of T carrier lines is used, called E-lines

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 E1 TDM TDM systems in Europe

• 30 voice band channels are time-division multiplexed into each E1 frame

• Each time slot has eight bits

• Line speed:

8 bits 32 timeslots 256 bits

x =
timeslot frame frame

256 bits 8000 frames

Linespeed = x = 2.048Mbps
frame second

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Digital carrier frame synchronization Added-Digit Framing

methods • A special framing digit (framing pulse) is added to each frame

o Consequently, for an 8-kHz sample rate, 8000 digits are added each
second
• Added-digit framing
• With T1 carriers, an alternating 1/0 frame- synchronizing pattern is used
• Robbed-digit framing
• To acquire frame synchronization, the digital terminal receiver searches
• Added-channel framing through the incoming data until it finds the framing bit pattern

• Statistical framing • Initial frame synch depends on:

o Total frame time
• Unique-line coding framing o Number of bits per frame &
o Period of each bit

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 Maximum average synchronization time Robbed-Digit Framing
in Added-Digit Framing

synchronization time = 2 NT = 2 N 2tb

• When a short frame is used, added-digit framing is inefficient
where:
N = number of bits per frame o This occurs with single-channel PCM systems
T = frame period of N tb
tb = bit time • An alternative solution is to replace the LSB of every nth frame with a
framing bit
For the T1 carrier: N=193, T = 125 µs, & tb = 0.648 µs
o The nth frame is selected to optimize the efficiency
A maximum of 74,498 bits must be tested & the maximum average synch
time is 48.25 ms

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Added-Channel Framing Average number of bits to acquire synch

in Added-Channel Framing
N2
2 ( 2 K − 1)
• Similar to added-digit framing except that digits are added in group of
words instead of as individual bits
where:
• The European TDM scheme uses added-channel framing N = number of bits per frame

K = number of bits in the synchronizing word

o One of the 32 time slots in each frame is dedicated a unique
synchronizing bit sequence For the E1 32-channel system, N=256, K = 8

Average number of bits needed to acquire frame synchronization is 128.5

At 2.048 Mbps, the synch time is approximately 62.7 µs

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 Statistical Framing Unique-line Code Framing

• No adding or robbing bits is done

• Example • Some property of the framing bit is different from the data bits
o With the gray code, the 2nd bit is a logic 1 in the central half of the code
range & a logic 0 at the extremes
• The framing bit is made either higher or lower in amplitude or with a
different time duration
• Gray code: an encoding of numbers so that adjacent numbers have a
single digit differing by 1
• With this scheme, either added-digit or added-word framing can be used

o A signal that has a centrally peaked amplitude distribution generates a

high probability of a logic 1 in the second digit • The disadvantage is the generation & recognition of the unique bit is a added
processing requirement

o Hence, the second digit of a given channel can be used for the framing
bit

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Bit versus word interleaving Bit interleaving

• When two or more PCM systems are combined by TDM, it is necessary to

interleave the transmission from the various terminals in the time domain

• 2 methods of interleaving PCM transmissions are

o Bit interleaving

o Word interleaving

• T1 carrier systems use word interleaving

o 8-bit samples from each channel are interleaved into a single 24 channel
TDM frame

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Word interleaving Statistical TDM

• An alternative to synchronous TDM is called statistical TDM

o In synchronous TDM, most of the time of transmission, there are no data

being transferred in either direction even if all the terminals are active

o A lot of time wasted within each TDM frame

• Statistical TDM is used more often for the transmission of data

o Aka asynchronous TDM or intelligent TDM

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Synchronous TDM Statistical TDM

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 Disadvantages of statistical TDM FDM

• Multiple sources that originally occupied the same frequency spectrum are
each converted to a different frequency band

• Length of a frame varies

• After conversion the signals are transmitted simultaneously over a single
transmission medium
• Positional significance of each time slot is lost

• The frequencies are chosen to avoid adjacent channel interference

• Address information is required to ensure proper delivery

o So many relatively narrow-bandwidth channels can be transmitted over a

• More overhead per time slot for statistical TDM because each slot must carry single wide-bandwidth transmission system
an address as well as data
• To receive a particular channel, a receiver is simply tuned to the frequency
band associated with the transmissions of the channel

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FDM pros & cons FDM block diagram

• Allows engineers to transmit multiple data streams simultaneously over the

same channel, at the expense of bandwidth

o FDM provides a trade-off: faster data or less bandwidth

• To demultiplex an FDM signal requires a series of bandpass filters to isolate

each individual signal.

o Bandpass filters are relatively complicated & expensive, therefore the

receivers in an FDM system are generally expensive

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 FDM spectrum AT&T’s FDM Hierarchy

• AT&T’s nationwide communications network

• Subdivided into 2 classifications

o Short-haul – short distance

o Long-haul – long distance

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AT&T’s long-haul FDM hierarchy Message Channel

• Basic building block of the FDM hierarchy

• Any transmissions that utilize voice band frequencies from 0 to 4 kHz

• The basic voice-band (VB) circuit is called a basic 3002 channel & is actually
bandlimited to approximately a 300-Hz to 3000-Hz frequency band

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 Basic Group Basic Supergroup

• Formed by multiplexing 5 groups containing 12 channels each for a

combined bandwidth of 240 kHz

• Supergroup has a capacity of 60 VB channels

• Next higher level in the FDM hierarchy above the basic message channel

• Consists of 12 VB message channels multiplexed together by stacking them

next to each other in the frequency domain B = 5 groups x 48kHz / group = 240kHz
• Twelve 4-kHz VB channels occupy a bandwidth of 48 kHz
or
5 groups x 12 channels / group x 4kHz / channel = 240kHz
• The 12-channel modulating block is called an A-type (analog) channel bank

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Basic Mastergroup Mastergroups can be multiplexed further

to form:
• Next higher level formed by frequency-division multiplexing 10 supergroups
together

• Combined capacity of 600 VB channels & a bandwidth of 2.4 MHz

• Typically, 3 mastergroups are multiplexed together & placed on a single

microwave or satellite radio channel
• Jumbogroups (3600 VB channels)
o The capacity is 1800 VB channels for a combined bandwidth of 7.2 MHz.
• Multijumbogroups (7200 VB channels)

B = 600 channels x 4kHz / channel = 2.4MHz • Superjumbogroups (10,800 VB channels)

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 Composite (total) baseband Formation of Groups & Supergroups

• FDM uses single-sideband suppressed carrier (SSBSC) modulation

• The carrier frequency for the channel banks are determined by:

• Final output of the FDM multiplexer fc = 112 − 4n kHz

• The formation of the composite baseband signal can include channel, group,
supergroup, & mastergroup banks, depending on the capacity of the system where n = number of channels

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Formation of a Group Formation of a Group

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Channel Carrier Frequencies Formation of Groups & Supergroups

• Mathematically, the output of a channel bandpass filter is

fout = ( fc − 4kHz ) to fc
• For channel 5,

fc = 112 − 4 ( 5) = 92kHz
fout = 92kHz − 4kHz = 88kHz to 92kHz

• The output spectrum for a group is 60-108 kHz

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Formation of a supergroup Formation of a supergroup

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 Group carrier frequencies Formation of Groups & Supergroups
• The group carrier frequencies are determined by

fc = 372 + 48n kHz

• Mathematically, the output of a group bandpass filter is

fout = ( fc − 108kHz ) to ( fc − 60kHz )

• For Group 3,

fc = 372 + 48 ( 3) = 516kHz
fout = 516kHz − ( 60kHz to 108kHz ) ) = 408kHz to 456kHz
• The output spectrum for a supergroup is 312-552 kHz

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Formation of a Mastergroup U600 Mastergroup

• Formed with a supergroup bank & combining network

• 10 supergroups are combined to form a mastergroup

• Two types of mastergroup: L600 & U600 types • The frequency spectrum for each supergroup is 312 kHz to 552 kHz

• L600 mastergroup • Guardbands

o Used for low-capacity microwave systems
• U600
o Used for higher-capacity microwave radio systems
o Band of frequencies between any two adjacent supergroups that is free
from any desired signal
o 8 kHz between all supergroups except between 18 & D25, where it is 56
kHz

• Bandwidth is 2520 kHz (564 to 3084 kHz), which is greater than is necessary
to stack 600 VB channels (600 x4 kHz=2400 kHz)

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 Formation of a U600 Mastergroup Formation of a U600 Mastergroup

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U600 Mastergroup Carrier Frequencies The U600 Mastergroup

Output of a supergroup bandpass filter is

fout = ( fc − fs ) to fc

where fs = supergroup frequency spectrum (312 to 552 kHz)

For supergroup 14

fout = 1364kHz − ( 312kHz to 552kHz ) ) = 812kHz to 1052kHz

The output spectrum for a U600 mastergroup is 564-3084 kHz

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 The L600 Mastergroup L600 Mastergroup Carrier Frequencies

• 10 supergroups are combined as with U600 mastergroup, except that the

supergroup carrier frequencies are lower

• An L600 is not further multiplexed

o Maximum capacity for a microwave coaxial cable system using a single

mastergroup is 600 voice-band channels

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U600 Mastergroup Formation of a mastergroup radio channel

• Comprises either a
o Single L600 mastergroup or

o Up to 3 U600 mastergroups (18oo VB hannels)

• The composite FDM output is 564-8284 kHz using 3 U600 mastergroups

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 3 mastergroup radio channel 3 mastergroup radio channel

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AT&T’s FDM Hierarchy Summary North American FDM system summary

• 12 channels per group

• 5 groups per supergroup

• 10 super groups per mastergroup

• 6 master groups per jumbogroup

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 European CCITT (now ITU-T) FDM system Other FDM schemes summary

• L600 - 600 voice channels 60–2788 kHz

• 12 channels per group

• U600 - 600 voice channels 564–3084 kHz

• 5 groups per supergroup

• L3 - 1860 voice channels 312–8284 kHz,

• 5 super groups per mastergroup

o Comprised of 3 mastergroups & a supergroup

• 3 master groups per supermastergroup

• L4 - 3600 voice channels, comprised of six U600s

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Simplified FDM multiplexing &

WDM
demultiplexing

• A form of FDM

• Information signals occupy the same band of frequencies through the same
fiber at the same time without them interfering with each other

• Is coupling light at 2 or more discrete wavelengths into & out of an optical

fiber

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 FDM & WDM comparison FDM & WDM comparison

Feature FDM WDM

Frequency Radio frequencies Optical frequencies

Transmission line Cable or wireless Optical fiber

Info source Occupy same Occupy same

bandwidth bandwidth

Unique frequency Unique wavelength

Modulation

Transmission path of Same Different

each info source

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WDM wavelength spectrum WDM wavelength spectrum

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 Advantages of WDM Disadvantages of WDM

• Signals cannot be placed so close in the wavelength spectrum that they

• Enhanced capacity interfere with each other

• Optical communications networks use optical components which are • Signal strength is affected by fiber attenuation characteristics & the degree
simpler, more reliable than their electronic counterparts. of amplification, both of which are wavelength dependent

• Easy to reconfigure (i.e. adding or removing channels) • Limited to a 2-point circuit or combination of many point circuits that can go
only where the cables go

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