Unit 1

Concepts and Definitions of IOT

The internet of things, or IoT, is a system of interrelated computing devices, mechanical and digital
machines, objects, animals or people that are provided with unique identifiers (UIDs) and the
ability to transfer data over a network without requiring human-to-human or human-to-computer
interaction. A thing in the internet of things can be a person with a heart monitor implant, a farm
animal with a biochip transponder, an automobile that has built-in sensors to alert the driver when
tire pressure is low or any other natural or man-made object that can be assigned an IP address and
is able to transfer data over a network.

Increasingly, organizations in a variety of industries are using IoT to operate more efficiently,
better understand customers to deliver enhanced customer service, improve decision-making and
increase the value of the business.

History of IoT

Kevin Ashton, co-founder of the Auto-ID Center at MIT, first mentioned the internet of things in
a presentation he made to Procter & Gamble (P&G) in 1999. Wanting to bring radio frequency ID
(RFID) to the attention of P&G's senior management, Ashton called his presentation "Internet of
Things" to incorporate the cool new trend of 1999: the internet. MIT professor Neil Gershenfeld's
book, When Things Start to Think, also appearing in 1999, didn't use the exact term but provided
a clear vision of where IoT was headed.

IoT has evolved from the convergence of wireless technologies, microelectromechanical systems
(MEMS), microservices and the internet. The convergence has helped tear down the silos between
operational technology (OT) and information technology (IT), enabling unstructured machine-
generated data to be analyzed for insights to drive improvements.

Although Ashton's was the first mention of the internet of things, the idea of connected devices
has been around since the 1970s, under the monikers embedded internet and pervasive computing.
The first internet appliance, for example, was a Coke machine at Carnegie Mellon University in
the early 1980s. Using the web, programmers could check the status of the machine and determine
whether there would be a cold drink awaiting them, should they decide to make the trip to the
machine.

IoT evolved from machine-to-machine (M2M) communication, i.e., machines connecting to each
other via a network without human interaction. M2M refers to connecting a device to the cloud,
managing it and collecting data.

Taking M2M to the next level, IoT is a sensor network of billions of smart devices that connect
people, systems and other applications to collect and share data. As its foundation, M2M offers
the connectivity that enables IoT.

The internet of things is also a natural extension of SCADA (supervisory control and data
acquisition), a category of software application program for process control, the gathering of data
in real time from remote locations to control equipment and conditions. SCADA systems include
hardware and software components. The hardware gathers and feeds data into a computer that has
SCADA software installed, where it is then processed and presented it in a timely manner. The
evolution of SCADA is such that late-generation SCADA systems developed into first-generation
IoT systems.

The concept of the IoT ecosystem, however, didn't really come into its own until the middle of
2010 when, in part, the government of China said it would make IoT a strategic priority in its five-
year plan.

The origin of IOT

Most of you have probably heard the Internet of Things, or the IoT, mentioned but have you ever
wondered what it means and where it all began?
Well here’s my version of it:
In 1999, the Auto-ID Centre was founded, which subsequently formed a unique partnership
between around 100 international companies and 7 of the world’s leading research Universities,
including the MIT and University of Cambridge. Kevin Ashton, Professor Sanjay Sarma and David
Brock were the early co-founders and I became involved as European Research Director a year
later setting up the European side of things and pushing the industrial research.
The Auto-ID Centre’s aim was to investigate and understand what came next after the barcode –
and particularly what an electronic barcode would look like. Sanjay came to see me in Cambridge
in March, 2000. We discussed barcodes and RFID as an electronic replacement and I think my
initial comment was that it all seemed a reasonably dull research activity! I was of course later
forced to eat my words as the project expanded but also in our research we realised that RFID was
actually a solution to a manufacturing control problem we had been trying to resolve – how to
establish an Internet connection for parts and products while they were being made. My other
memory from Sanjay’s visit was that he was struggling with the challenge of getting a bowl of
pasta with an RFID tag to communicate with a microwave oven (!) – he had to do a demo for
Procter & Gamble (P&G) the next day at the Judge Business School in Cambridge and it had been
hard hacking into the controls of the microwave to make it all work.
The focus of the Centre from the beginning was to research ways in which an electronic tag could
be put on every single object in the world, allowing each to be uniquely tracked and potentially
controlled – and to do so in the most cost effective way. We realised that to make RFID cheap we
needed the smallest chip possible – Silicon was/is expensive – and thus we needed to put all stored
data in memory elsewhere. The Internet was the obvious place to start, hence the phrase “Internet
of Objects” or “Internet of Things” became a clear reference point and the origin of the internet of
things that we refer to today.
I believe the term “Internet of Things” was in fact coined by Kevin Ashton in 1999 during a
presentation he made at P&G. Around that time, he observed that we were developing an extension
of the Internet to accommodate Things and hence the term “Internet of Things” evolved. He was
certainly using it in Auto ID Centre talks quite regularly by 2000. Not that anything is ever really
new – people had been connecting objects to networks long before that! The famous Cambridge
Computer Lab coffee pot back in 1993 was an early example.

How IoT works

An IoT ecosystem consists of web-enabled smart devices that use embedded processors, sensors
and communication hardware to collect, send and act on data they acquire from their
environments. IoT devices share the sensor data they collect by connecting to an IoT gateway or
other edge device where data is either sent to the cloud to be analyzed or analyzed locally.
Sometimes, these devices communicate with other related devices and act on the information they
get from one another. The devices do most of the work without human intervention, although
people can interact with the devices -- for instance, to set them up, give them instructions or access
the data.

The connectivity, networking and communication protocols used with these web-enabled devices
largely depend on the specific IoT applications deployed.
Components of IOT

With the changing scope of applications of internet shifting towards making physical world
smarter there is no doubt that people will witness a shift in the number of connected devices soon.
Within 5 years it is estimated that 50 billion devices will be online. What’s more interesting is of
these devices the mostly will be conventional physical objects. PCs, laptops and smart devices
which dominate the internet at present will be dwarfed by these physical objects. The prerequisites
of Internet of Things are many. Still the main components can be categorized into three categories
i.e. intelligence, sensing and communication.

Internet of Things is going to sustain a $14 trillion market which means scope of this tech is no
very large. After understanding internet of things definition you should know about the
fundamentals of IoT architecture which is important to start building applications and devices.

There is no limit to applications provided prerequisites of Internet of Things are met.

Healthcare, personal security, home automation, industrial automation, traffic control and
environment monitoring all can be done more efficiently using this IoT tech.
Intelligence and Sensing

Wireless networks are utmost important for the success of the IoT infrastructure. Sensors should
be able to communicate without constraints of physical wiring. It makes them more independent
as well as increases their domain use. Sensing of capabilities of the IoT nodes should not only be
efficient but also exhibit power use efficiency. The smart connected devices will be lying down
dormant for most of the period. They will activate only when there is need to read or send data or
to make a decision. In simple words 90% of their time sensors will not need power for relaying
data or carry out any high power-consuming function. This requires the intelligent hardware to
have ultra-low energy consuming sleep mode capability. Many companies are already producing
microcontrollers sporting this requirement. One important factor affecting the power efficiency
of IoT devices is the architecture. While 32bit cores low cost microcontrollers have the
advantage of being more compatible to large number of open-source software still they have high
power consumption. Atmel, Texas Instruments, Freescale, and STMicroelectronics are offering
such microcontrollers that make application building very fast. However the 8-bit
AVR platform from Atmel still makes it obvious that there is scope of improvement in existing
architectures.

Smart Communication

To lower the power consumption by an IoT node only hardware changes is not the way. Smart
communication protocols like ZigBee help in making exchange of data between devices less
power consuming.

ZigBee

A low power consuming IEEE 802.15.4(2003) standard based specification, ZigBee is a brain
child of 16 automation companies. What makes it novel is the use of mesh networking which
makes utilization of communication resources much more efficient. ZigBee based IoT nodes can
connect to central controller making use of in-between nodes for propagating the data. It makes
transmission and handling of data robust.

Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE)

Nokia originally introduced this protocol as Wibree in 2006. Also known as Bluetooth Smart this
protocol provides the same range coverage with much reduced power consumption as the
original Bluetooth. It has similar bandwidth with narrow spacing as used by ZigBee. Low power
latency and lower complexity makes BLE more suitable to incorporate into low cost
microcontrollers. As far as application is concerned BLE is in healthcare sector. As wearable
health monitors are becoming prevalent the sensors of these devices can easily communicate
with a smart phone or any medical instrument regularly using BLE protocol.

Wi-Fi

Counted as the most mature wireless radio technology, Wi-Fi is predominant communication
technology chosen for IoT applications. Already existing protocols like WPS make the
integration of internet of things devices easier with the existing network. If we talk about
transmission then Wi-Fi offers the best power-per-bit efficiency. However power consumption
when devices are dormant is much higher with conventional Wi-Fi designs. The solution is
provided by protocols like BLE and ZigBee that reduce power consumption by sensors when
devices are dormant.

The ideal solution is to mix the two technologies for optimum power utilization. GainSpan’s
GS2000 is one such tech which used both ZigBee and Wi-Fi. It makes optimum use of power by
putting the device into energy-saving standby mode when no data transmission is taking place.
Only when device is awaked or checked for connection failure the high power consumption
connection of Wi-Fi is used. BLE and Wi-Fi together can be used without interference as they
are compliable to coexistence protocols. The Bluegiga APx4 is one such solution which supports
both BLE and Wi-Fi and is based on 450MHz ARM9 processor.

Most important use of Wi-Fi is in the applications where IP stack compliance is needed and there
is high data transmission. For instance in applications sharing audio, video or remote device
controlling.

As the prerequisites of internet of things are scaling up, companies are working on more
integrated solutions. But even at present there are many solutions available for anyone who is
trying to build up internet of things applications around the major three IoT components.
Vendors like Atmel, STMicroelectronics, Texas Instruments, CSR and Freescale are offering
many integrated microcontrollers and support chipsets making application building a lot easier
based on protocols like ZigBee, BLE and Wi-Fi.

Requirements/Benefits of IoT

The internet of things offers a number of benefits to organizations, enabling them to:

 monitor their overall business processes;

 improve the customer experience;

 save time and money;

 enhance employee productivity;

 integrate and adapt business models;

 make better business decisions; and

 generate more revenue.

IoT encourages companies to rethink the ways they approach their businesses, industries and
markets and gives them the tools to improve their business strategies.

IOT Standards
Most of the current machine-to-machine (M2M) connectivity is working over the 2G GPRS
standard, requiring 2G EDGE coverage and SIM cards. As operators phase out some 2G networks,
in part to reduce cost, new standards have emerged in the past five years: Zigbee, LoRa, LTE-M,
Wi-Fi 802.11ah (HaLow) and 802.11af (White-Fi).

Depending on the application, security needs and cost factors, some are better than others.

Here are the most popular standards, their features and advantages:

Zigbee: proprietary, short-range, inexpensive and basically secure

The Zigbee trademark is owned by the Zigbee Alliance, a group of companies that maintain and
publish the Zigbee standard. The alliance publishes application profiles that enable the creation of
interoperable products using the specification.
According to their website, hundreds of millions of devices using Zigbee technology are deployed
worldwide, with over 2,200 products certified. Zigbee was conceived in 1998, standardized in
2003 and revised in 2006. Its name comes from the waggle dance of the honey bee.

Zigbee is a very popular option for IoT device manufacturers. It provides most of the basic features
(connectivity, range, security) that they look for and, as an open-industry standard, it allows
interoperability with any Zigbee-certified device.

The biggest complaint from OEMs is the cost of joining the alliance, the certification and lack of
open GPL license. OEMs must become members of the alliance to use its technology.

Zigbee is a low-power, low-data-rate, close-proximity ad hoc wireless network, supporting mesh

network topology. It is especially suited for home and office applications, where devices are
located in a small area. It only works in distances from 10 to 100 meters line-of-sight. It uses the
IEEE 802.15 WPAN specification, providing data rates of 250 kbps, 40 kbps and 20 kbps.

The low data rates and proximity allow devices using smaller batteries to last for years rather than
weeks. And with Zigbee Pro’s Green Power feature, it is possible to operate battery-less devices,
such as door locks, switches and environmental sensors.

Last year, Zigbee celebrated its 15th anniversary and launched its anticipated IoT basic language,
Dotdot, which makes it possible for smart objects to work together on any network. Dotdot is not
limited to Zigbee; it can work together on Zigbee, IP and other networks. Recently, the Zigbee
Alliance also announced Dotdot over Thread, an IPV6 protocol to connect home devices.

LoRa: proprietary, long-range, inexpensive and secure

Similar to Zigbee, LoRaWan is a proprietary technology, open global standard, defined and
controlled by the LoRa Alliance, a nonprofit organization.
The main difference is that, while Zigbee is a short-range IoT protocol aimed at connecting a
number of devices in close proximity, LoRa focuses on wide-area networks.

Especially suited for long-range communications, LoRa uses unlicensed sub-gigahertz radio
frequency bands like 169 MHz, 433 MHz, 868 MHz (Europe) and 915 MHz (North America). The
low bands allow for data rates from 0.3 kbps to 50 kbps.

LoRa is the preferred choice for deploying a large number of non-critical sensors and control
devices in large areas. Its use of unlicensed radio makes it the perfect choice for city-wide
environmental sensors, streetlamp control and monitoring, basic control units for agricultural
farms and monitoring of small objects.

The LoRa Alliance argues that the standard can also be used for critical infrastructure. Confidential
personal data or critical functions for society need secure communication. That is why the protocol
can use 64-bit and 128-bit keys for network, application and device encryption.

Marketed as the new standard for most M2M applications, its use of unlicensed radio based on
picocells and gateways that can be installed independently of the cellular carriers makes LoRa very
attractive to OEMs deploying IoT devices in a wide area.

Like Zigbee, LoRaWan is not a fully open protocol and requires membership in the LoRa Alliance
to be used.

Its main drawback is the lack of hardware security. M2M devices have been using cellular carrier’s
Subscriber Identity Modules (SIM) chips that can be used to store and certify encryption keys.
LoRaWan uses software-based encryption.

Also, interoperability between LoRa devices is not guaranteed, as every OEM can implement the
radio features of the standard in its own operating system.
LTE-M: the cellular carrier’s solution to replace M2M
Long-Term Evolution for Machines (LTE-M) is the M2M industry answer to IoT using secured
cellular networks for long-range communications. It is a cellular carrier’s wireless system, backed
by the industry association GSMA and the 3GPP standards organization. (LTE is what is
commonly known as 4G cellular networks.)
One of the main advantages of LTE-M is the potential for worldwide connectivity, and it is the
only system suitable for tracking moving objects over long distances.

According to the GSMA: “The technology provides improved both indoor and outdoor coverage,
supports massive numbers of low throughput devices, low delay sensitivity, ultra-low device cost,
low device power consumption and optimised network architecture.”

Because it is working over cellular networks, LTE-M can be used to monitor, control and receive
information from IoT devices loaded into most forms of transportation, such as trucks, trains,
boats, etc. When an LTE network is not available, the system can fall back to WCDMA (3G) or
GPRS/EDGE (2G) to maintain connectivity.

LTE-M also provides location services, based on cell-tower positioning, without the need of using
satellite-based systems such as GPS or Galileo. This feature is an important cost savings for OEMs
that need a basic location system for their devices.

The biggest advantage of LTE-M, however, is security. Cellular-connected devices need to be

fitted with a SIM chip. It can be embedded in the circuit board and provisioned at the factory or
receive the carrier keys and signature later. Once the SIM is provisioned with the embedded keys,
it is not possible to modify those keys without having physical access to the device.

SIMs are secure modules that can provide NSA Suite B AES-256 encryption and Identity
Certification.

Another advantage is the ability to remain connected even during a power failure. As it is
connected to cellular networks, it doesn’t require an Access Point (AP) and, as long as the IoT
device battery is functioning, it can remain connected.

That’s why cellular-based IoT connectivity is widely used for critical applications such as power
grids, home and office security, fleet management, etc.
The only catch is ongoing costs. To use the system, a subscription with one of the cellular carriers
is required, and a SIM needs to be present in every connected device.

White-Fi and HaLow: low-cost, unlicensed spectrum, extended range, but low-security
IEEE 802.11af (White-Fi) and IEEE 802.11ah (HaLow) are the most sought-after solutions for
connectivity. Both use previously licensed spectrum and do not interfere with traditional Wi-Fi
signals in the 2.4-GHz and 5-GHz bands nor with 2G and 3G cellular networks. Some of the
spectrum is shared with some LTE channels used in the United States.
White-Fi makes use of the digital dividend of frequencies freed up when broadcast television
moved to digital terrestrial and some of the previous UHF channels ceased to operate. The use of
the digital dividend spectrum is regulated differently in the U.S. and Europe, and the connected
devices need to look for available frequencies at regular intervals.

HaLow extends Wi-Fi into the 900-MHz band, enabling the low power connectivity necessary for
applications, including sensors and wearables. Because this frequency is freely available for basic
communications, HaLow is the preferred Wi-Fi standard for IoT.

The biggest problem for HaLow is that unlicensed spectrum is not harmonized across the globe:
HaLow operates at 900 MHz in the U.S., 850 MHz in Europe and 700 MHz in China and does not
even have operating spectrum in many countries.

Due to the nature of the low-frequency bands, neither technology is suitable for high-speed or
high-volume data transmission. They can be used, however, to provide connectivity for a
significant number of devices deployed in a wide area.

Low speeds are acceptable over these distances because of the lack of interference. HaLow
provides for data rates as low as 150 Kbps.

Sub-1-GHz connectivity is also critical for the new generation of low-power-consumption devices,
with a battery life of several years instead of weeks. That battery performance is necessary for the
billions of sensors and monitoring devices deployed in cities around the world.

HaLow also offers several power-saving features, such as Target Wake Time (TWT) and Traffic
Indication Map (TIM), enabling the IoT devices to communicate at selected intervals, thus saving
battery power.
Last year, the IEEE introduced another Wi-Fi standard for IoT: 802.11ax. Its advantage over
HaLow is the use of the 2.4-GHz and 5-GHz frequency bands, common on most Wi-Fi access
points.

Overall, 802.11ax is better-suited to local-range IoT than HaLow. The expectations for 802.11ax
are high due to its network access enhancements, which will naturally provide secondary benefits
of IoT enablement.

Security is the biggest issue. Wi-Fi lacks the protection of the secure element and hardware
encryption provided by SIMs on cellular networks. To deploy hundreds or thousands of wireless
sensors in a wide area, however, White-Fi and HaLow can provide low-cost connectivity and good
performance.

IOT enabling technologies

A. BIG DATA

As more things (or “smart objects”) are connected to the IoT, more data is collected from them in
order to perform analytics to determine trends and associations that lead to insights. For example,
an oil well equipped with 20-30 sensors can generate 500,000 data points every 15 seconds20, a
jetliner with 6,000 sensors generates 2.5 terabytes of data per day, and the more than 46 million
smart utility meters installed in the U.S. generate more than 1 billion data points each day. Thus,
the term “big data” refers to these large data sets that need to be collected, stored, queried, analyzed
and generally managed in order to deliver on the promise of the IoT — insight!

Further compounding the technical challenges of big data is the fact that IoT systems must deal
with not only the data collected from smart objects, but also ancillary data that is needed

to properly perform such analytics (e.g., public and private data sets related to weather, GIS,
financial, seismic, map, GPS, crime, etc.). Thus, as more smart objects come online, at least three
metrics (“the three V’s”) are typically used by IoT operators to describe the big data they handle:
volume (i.e., the amount of data they collect from their IoT sensors measured in gigabytes,
terabytes and petabytes); velocity (i.e., the speed at which data is collected from the sensors); and
variety (i.e., the di ering types of structured and unstructured data collected, especially when
compared to video and picture files as is typical within the consumer Internet).
B. DIGITAL TWIN

Another consequence of the growing and evolving IoT is the concept of a “digital twin,”
introduced in 2003 by John Vickers, manager of NASA’s National Center for Advanced
Manufacturing. The concept refers to a digital copy of a physical asset (i.e., a smart object within
the IoT), that lives and evolves in a virtual environment over the physical asset’s lifetime. That is,
as the sensors within the object collect real-time data, a set of models forming the digital twin is
updated with all of the same information. Thus, an inspection of the digital twin would reveal the
same information as a physical inspection of the smart object itself – albeit remotely. The digital
twin of the smart object can then be studied to not only optimize operations of the smart object
through reduced maintenance costs and downtime, but to improve the next generation of its design.

C. CLOUD COMPUTING

As the word “cloud” is often used as a metaphor for the Internet, “cloud computing” refers to
being able to access computing resources via the Internet rather than traditional systems where
computing hardware is physically located on the premises of the user and any software applications
are installed on such local hardware. More formally, “cloud computing” is defined as:

“[A] model for enabling ubiquitous, convenient, on-demand network access to a shared pool
of configurable computing resources (e.g., networks, servers, storage, applications, and services)
that can be rapidly provisioned and released with minimal management e ort or service provider
interaction.”

Cloud computing – and its three service models of Software as a Service (SaaS), Platform as a
Service (PaaS) and Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) – are important to the IoT because it allows
any user with a browser and an Internet connection to transform smart object data

into actionable intelligence. That is, cloud computing provides “the virtual infrastructure for utility
computing integrating applications, monitoring devices, storage devices, analytics tools,
visualization platforms, and client delivery… [to] enable businesses and users to access [IoT-
enabled] applications on demand anytime, anyplace and anywhere.”
D. SENSORS

Central to the functionality and utility of the IoT are sensors embedded in smart objects. Such
sensors are capable of detecting events or changes in a specific quantity (e.g., pressure),
communicating the event or change data to the cloud (directly or via a gateway) and, in some
circumstances, receiving data back from the cloud (e.g., a control command) or communicating
with other smart objects. Since 2012, sensors have generally shrunk in physical size and thus have
caused the IoT market to mature rapidly. More specifically: “Technological improvements created
microscopic scale sensors, leading to the use of technologies like Microelectromechanical systems
(MEMS). This meant that sensors were now small enough to be embedded into unique places like
clothing or other [smart objects].”

E. COMMUNICATIONS

With respect to sending and receiving data, wired and wireless communication technologies have
also improved such that nearly every type of electronic equipment can provide data connectivity.
This has allowed the ever-shrinking sensors embedded in smart objects to send and receive data
over the cloud for collection, storage and eventual analysis.

The protocols for allowing IoT sensors to relay data include wireless technologies such as RFID,
NFC, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE), XBee, ZigBee, Z-Wave, Wireless M-Bus,
SIGFOX and NuelNET, as well as satellite connections and mobile networks using GSM, GPRS,
3G, LTE, or WiMAX. Wired protocols, useable by stationary smart objects, include Ethernet,
HomePlug, HomePNA, HomeGrid/G.hn and LonWorks, as well as conventional telephone lines.

F. ANALYTICS SOFTWARE

Within the IoT ecosystem, Application Service Providers (ASPs) – which may or may not di er
from the companies who sell and service the smart objects – provide software to companies that
can transform “raw” machine (big) data collected from smart objects into actionable intelligence
(or insight). Generally speaking, such software performs data mining and employs mathematical
models and statistical techniques to provide insight to users. That is, events, trends and patterns
are extracted from big data sets in order to present the software’s end-users with insight
in the form of portfolio analysis, predictions, risk analysis, automations and corrective,
maintenance and optimization recommendations. In many cases, the ASPs may provide general
analytical software or software targeting specific industries or types of smart objects.

G. EDGE DEVICES

Not shown in our simplistic IoT ecosystem is exactly how the smart objects embedded with sensors
connect via the Internet to the various service provider systems. The answer is via “edge devices”
– any device such
as a router, routing switch, integrated access device (IAD), multiplexer, or metropolitan area
network (MAN) and wide area network (WAN) access device which provides an entry point from
the global, public Internet into an ASP’s or other enterprise’s private network. In Industry 4.0,
these edge devices are becoming smarter at processing data before such data even reaches an
enterprise network’s backbone (i.e., its core devices and cloud data centers). For example, edge
devices may translate between di erent network protocols, and provide first-hop security, initial
quality of service (QoS) and access/ distribution policy functionality.

Consumer and enterprise IoT applications

There are numerous real-world applications of the internet of things, ranging from consumer IoT
and enterprise IoT to manufacturing and industrial IoT (IIoT). IoT applications span numerous
verticals, including automotive, telco, energy and more.

In the consumer segment, for example, smart homes that are equipped with smart thermostats,
smart appliances and connected heating, lighting and electronic devices can be controlled remotely
via computers, smartphones or other mobile devices.

Wearable devices with sensors and software can collect and analyze user data, sending messages
to other technologies about the users with the aim of making users' lives easier and more
comfortable. Wearable devices are also used for public safety -- for example, improving first
responders' response times during emergencies by providing optimized routes to a location or by
tracking construction workers' or firefighters' vital signs at life-threatening sites.
In healthcare, IoT offers many benefits, including the ability to monitor patients more closely to
use the data that's generated and analyze it. Hospitals often use IoT systems to complete tasks such
as inventory management, for both pharmaceuticals and medical instruments.

Smart buildings can, for instance, reduce energy costs using sensors that detect how many
occupants are in a room. The temperature can adjust automatically -- for example, turning the air
conditioner on if sensors detect a conference room is full or turning the heat down if everyone in
the office has gone home.

In agriculture, IoT-based smart farming systems can help monitor, for instance, light, temperature,
humidity and soil moisture of crop fields using connected sensors. IoT is also instrumental in
automating irrigation systems.
In a smart city, IoT sensors and deployments, such as smart streetlights and smart meters, can help
alleviate traffic, conserve energy, monitor and address environmental concerns, and improve
sanitation.

IoT security and privacy issues

The internet of things connects billions of devices to the internet and involves the use of billions
of data points, all of which need to be secured. Due to its expanded attack surface, IoT
security and IoT privacy are cited as major concerns.

One of the most notorious recent IoT attacks was Mirai, a botnet that infiltrated domain name
server provider Dyn and took down many websites for an extended period of time in one of the
biggest distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attacks ever seen. Attackers gained access to the
network by exploiting poorly secured IoT devices.

Because IoT devices are closely connected, all a hacker has to do is exploit one vulnerability to
manipulate all the data, rendering it unusable. And manufacturers that don't update their devices
regularly -- or at all -- leave them vulnerable to cybercriminals.

Additionally, connected devices often ask users to input their personal information, including
names, ages, addresses, phone numbers and even social media accounts -- information that's
invaluable to hackers.

However, hackers aren't the only threat to the internet of things; privacy is another major concern
for IoT users. For instance, companies that make and distribute consumer IoT devices could use
those devices to obtain and sell users' personal data.

Beyond leaking personal data, IoT poses a risk to critical infrastructure, including electricity,
transportation and financial services.

The future of IoT

There is no shortage of IoT market estimations. For example:

 Bain & Company expects annual IoT revenue of hardware and software to exceed $450 billion
by 2020.

 McKinsey & Company estimates IoT will have an $11.1 trillion impact by 2025.

 IHS Markit believes the number of connected IoT devices will increase 12% annually to reach
125 billion in 2030.

 Gartner assesses that 20.8 billion connected things will be in use by 2020, with total spend on
IoT devices and services to reach $3.7 trillion in 2018.

Unit 2
IOT physical entities

Sensors:

Generally speaking, a sensor is a device that is able to detect changes in an environment. By itself,
a sensor is useless, but when we use it in an electronic system, it plays a key role. A sensor is able
to measure a physical phenomenon (like temperature, pressure, and so on) and transform it into an
electric signal. These three features should be at the base of a good sensor:

 It should be sensitive to the phenomenon that it measures

 It should not be sensitive to other physical phenomena

 It should not modify the measured phenomenon during the measurement process

There is a wide range of sensors we can exploit to measure almost all the physical properties
around us. A few common sensors that are widely adopted in everyday life include thermometers,
pressure sensors, light sensors, accelerometers, gyroscopes, motion sensors, gas sensors and many
more. A sensor can be described using several properties, the most important being:

 Range: The maximum and minimum values of the phenomenon that the sensor can
measure.

 Sensitivity: The minimum change of the measured parameter that causes a detectable
change in output signal.

 Resolution: The minimum change in the phenomenon that the sensor can detect.

 The development of prototyping boards and the low price of sensors allow us easily use
them in IoT projects. There are several prototyping boards on the market, suited for
 different projects depending on features and specifications. In this context, we will consider
the two most popular boards: the Arduino Uno and Raspberry Pi 2.

 Before diving into the details on how to use sensors with these boards, it is important to
note that every sensor has its own operating voltage range. This parameter is very important
because the voltage supplied by the board must not be higher than the maximum voltage
allowed by the sensor. Therefore, it is important to read the sensor data sheet carefully
before connecting it to the board to avoid damage. The same principle is valid for the output
signal, which must be lower than the maximum voltage that the board can tolerate.

Actutator

A better term for a sensor is a transducer. A transducer is any physical device that converts one
form of energy into another. So, in the case of a sensor, the transducer converts some physical
phenomenon into an electrical impulse that can then be interpreted to determine a reading. A
microphone is a sensor that takes vibrational energy (sound waves), and converts it to electrical
energy in a useful way for other components in the system to correlate back to the original sound.
Another type of transducer that you will encounter in many IoT systems is an actuator. In simple
terms, an actuator operates in the reverse direction of a sensor. It takes an electrical input and turns
it into physical action. For instance, an electric motor, a hydraulic system, and a pneumatic system
are all different types of actuators.
In a typical IoT system, a sensor may collect information and route to a control center where a
decision is made and a corresponding command is sent back to an actuator in response to that
sensed input. Later, we will discuss where the control center resides in the greater IoT system.
Gateways

An Internet of Things (IoT) gateway is a physical device or software program that serves as the
connection point between the cloud and controllers, sensors and intelligent devices. All data
moving to the cloud, or vice versa, goes through the gateway, which can be either a dedicated
hardware appliance or software program. An IoT gateway may also be referred to as an intelligent
gateway or a control tier.

Some sensors generate tens of thousands of data points per second. A gateway provides a place to
preprocess that data locally at the edge before sending it on to the cloud. When data is aggregated,
summarized and tactically analyzedat the edge, it minimizes the volume of data that needs to be
forwarded on to the cloud, which can have a big impact on response times and network
transmission costs.

Another benefit of an IoT gateway is that it can provide additional security for the IoT network
and the data it transports. Because the gateway manages information moving in both directions, it
can protect data moving to the cloud from leaks and IoT devices from being compromised by
malicious outside attacks with features such as tamper detection, encryption, hardware random
number generators and crypto engines.

NFC readers and tags

A near field communication tag (NFC tag) is a sticker or wristband with small microchips that can
be read by in range mobile devices. Information is stored in these microchips.

A NFC tag has the ability to send data to other mobile phones with NFC capabilities. NFC tags
also perform a variety of actions, such as changing handset settings or launching a website.

Many of today's smartphones have built-in NFC capabilities, and smartphone users can purchase
and acquire tags online. The amount of information stored on a NFC tag depends on the tag type,
as tag memory capacity varies by tag. For example, a tag can store a phone number or URL.

A modern example of a commonly used NFC tag function is mobile payment processing, where
users swipe or flick a mobile phone on a NFC reader. Google's version of this system is Google
Wallet.

RFID readers and tags

RFID is an acronym for “radio-frequency identification” and refers to a technology whereby
digital data encoded in RFID tags or smart labels (defined below) are captured by a reader via
radio waves. RFID is similar to barcoding in that data from a tag or label are captured by a
device that stores the data in a database. RFID, however, has several advantages over systems
that use barcode asset tracking software. The most notable is that RFID tag data can be read
outside the line-of-sight, whereas barcodes must be aligned with an optical scanner. If you are
considering implementing an RFID solution, take the next step and contact the RFID experts at
AB&R® (American Barcode and RFID).

IOT building blocks

Our approach to IoT architecture is reflected in the IoT architecture diagram which shows the
building blocks of an IoT system and how they are connected to collect, store and process data.

Things. A “thing” is an object equipped with sensors that gather data which will be transferred
over a network and actuators that allow things to act (for example, to switch on or off the light,
to open or close a door, to increase or decrease engine rotation speed and more). This concept
includes fridges, street lamps, buildings, vehicles, production machinery, rehabilitation equipment
and everything else imaginable. Sensors are not in all cases physically attached to the things:
sensors may need to monitor, for example, what happens in the closest environment to a thing.

Gateways. Data goes from things to the cloud and vice versa through the gateways. A gateway
provides connectivity between things and the cloud part of the IoT solution, enables data
preprocessing and filtering before moving it to the cloud (to reduce the volume of data for detailed
processing and storing) and transmits control commands going from the cloud to things. Things
then execute commands using their actuators.
Cloud gateway facilitates data compression and secure data transmission between field gateways
and cloud IoT servers. It also ensures compatibility with various protocols and communicates with
field gateways using different protocols depending on what protocol is supported by gateways.
Streaming data processor ensures effective transition of input data to a data lake and control
applications. No data can be occasionally lost or corrupted.
 Data lake. A data lake is used for storing the data generated by connected devices in its natural
format. Big data comes in "batches" or in “streams”. When the data is needed for meaningful
insights it’s extracted from a data lake and loaded to a big data warehouse.
Big data warehouse. Filtered and preprocessed data needed for meaningful insights is extracted
from a data lake to a big data warehouse. A big data warehouse contains only cleaned, structured
and matched data (compared to a data lake which contains all sorts of data generated by sensors).
Also, data warehouse stores context information about things and sensors (for example, where
sensors are installed) and the commands control applications send to things.
Data analytics. Data analysts can use data from the big data warehouse to find trends and gain
actionable insights. When analyzed (and in many cases – visualized in schemes, diagrams,
infographics) big data show, for example, the performance of devices, help identify inefficiencies
and work out the ways to improve an IoT system (make it more reliable, more customer-oriented).
Also, the correlations and patterns found manually can further contribute to creating algorithms
for control applications.
Machine learning and the models ML generates. With machine learning, there is an opportunity
to create more precise and more efficient models for control applications. Models are regularly
updated (for example, once in a week or once in a month) based on the historical data accumulated
in a big data warehouse. When the applicability and efficiency of new models are tested and
approved by data analysts, new models are used by control applications.
Control applications send automatic commands and alerts to actuators, for example:
 Windows of a smart home can receive an automatic command to open or close depending on
the forecasts taken from the weather service.
 When sensors show that the soil is dry, watering systems get an automatic command to water
plants.
 Sensors help monitor the state of industrial equipment, and in case of a pre-failure situation, an
IoT system generates and sends automatic notifications to field engineers.
The commands sent by control apps to actuators can be also additionally stored in a big data
warehouse. This may help investigate problematic cases (for example, a control app sends
commands, but they are not performed by actuators – then connectivity, gateways and actuators
need to be checked). On the other side, storing commands from control apps may contribute to
security, as an IoT system can identify that some commands are too strange or come in too big
amounts which may evidence security breaches (as well as other problems which need
investigation and corrective measures).
Control applications can be either rule-based or machine-learning based. In the first case, control
apps work according to the rules stated by specialists. In the second case, control apps are using
models which are regularly updated (once in a week, once in a month depending on the specifics
of an IoT system) with the historical data stored in a big data warehouse.
Although control apps ensure better automation of an IoT system, there should be always an option
for users to influence the behavior of such applications (for example, in cases of emergency or
when it turns out that an IoT system is badly tuned to perform certain actions).
User applications are a software component of an IoT system which enables the connection of
users to an IoT system and gives the options to monitor and control their smart things (while they
are connected to a network of similar things, for example, homes or cars and controlled by a central
system). With a mobile or web app, users can monitor the state of their things, send commands to
control applications, set the options of automatic behavior (automatic notifications and actions
when certain data comes from sensors).

Unit 3
Existing IOT platforms

Hydra:

Hydra iT is a Portuguese company that offers a wide range of consulting, technology and digital
services and solutions. With more than 12 years of experience in the areas of Telecommunications
and Information Systems we are committed to guiding your business, using innovative
technologies that guarantee the efficiency and total control of your company.

IOT-A:

The first open-source distributed ledger that is being built to power the future of the Internet of
Things with feeless microtransactions and data integrity for machines.

OpenIOT:

OpenIoT is an open source middleware for getting information from sensor clouds, without
having to worry about what exact sensors are used.

Carriot:

Carriots by Altair Engineering offers an end-to-end Internet of Things (IoT) platform designed
for today’s industry needs and tomorrow’s innovations. Carriots is a smart Platform as a
Service (PaaS) designed for machine to machine (M2M) and digital twin projects. Carriots
accelerates your IoT application development and provides simple scalability as your projects and
devices grow. Carriots lets users collect & store data from connected devices, build powerful
applications, deploy and scale from prototypes to thousands of devices.

Open-architecture by design, the integration of Altair’s HyperWorks and Carriots software

platforms for simulation-driven design and device management allows for a complete turn-key
IoT solution encompassing simulation, cloud High Performance Computing, Big Data analytics
and Application Enablement Platform (AEP) technologies to support any IoT project and Digital
Twin strategies.

The quickest way to sign up for Carriots is to sign up for a Carriots (free) account. There is no cost
to this account, and it allows you to use many of the features available in the service.

Xively:

Xively (formerly known as Cosm and Pachube) is an Internet of Things (IoT) platform owned by
Google. Xively offers product companies a way to connect products, manage connected devices
and the data they produce, and integrate that data into other systems. It is pronounced "zively"

Key IOT technologies

According to Jones, the top 10 emerging IoT technologies are:

1. IoT Security. Security technologies will be required to protect IoT devices and platforms from
both information attacks and physical tampering, to encrypt their communications, and to address
new challenges such as impersonating "things" or denial-of-sleep attacks that drain batteries. IoT
security will be complicated by the fact that many "things" use simple processors and operating
systems that may not support sophisticated security approaches.

2. IoT Analytics. IoT business models will exploit the information collected by "things" in many
ways, which will demand new analytic tools and algorithms. As data volumes increase over the
next five years, the needs of the IoT may diverge further from traditional analytics.

3. IoT Device (Thing) Management. Long-lived nontrivial "things" will require management and
monitoring, including device monitoring, firmware and software updates, diagnostics, crash
analysis and reporting, physical management, and security management. Tools must be capable of
managing and monitoring thousands and perhaps even millions of devices.

4. Low-Power, Short-Range IoT Networks.Low-power, short-range networks will dominate

wireless IoT connectivity through 2025, far outnumbering connections using wide-area IoT
networks. However, commercial and technical trade-offs mean that many solutions will coexist,
with no single dominant winner.
 5. Low-Power, Wide-Area Networks. Traditional cellular networks don't deliver a good
combination of technical features and operational cost for those IoT applications that need wide-
area coverage combined with relatively low bandwidth, good battery life, low hardware and
operating cost, and high connection density. Emerging standards such as narrowband IoT will
likely dominate this space.

6. IoT Processors. The processors and architectures used by IoT devices define many of their
capabilities, such as whether they are capable of strong security and encryption, power
consumption, whether they are sophisticated enough to support an operating system, updatable
firmware, and embedded device management agents. Understanding the implications of processor
choices will demand deep technical skills.

7. IoT Operating Systems. Traditional operating systems such as Windows and iOS were not
designed for IoT applications. They consume too much power, need fast processors, and in some
cases, lack features such as guaranteed real-time response. They also have too large a memory
footprint for small devices and may not support the chips that IoT developers use. Consequently,
a wide range of IoT-specific operating systems has been developed to suit many different hardware
footprints and feature needs.

8. Event Stream Processing. Some IoT applications will generate extremely high data rates that
must be analyzed in real time. Systems creating tens of thousands of events per second are
common, and millions of events per second can occur in some situations. To address such
requirements, distributed stream computing platforms have emerged that can process very high-
rate data streams and perform tasks such as real-time analytics and pattern identification.

9. IoT Platforms. IoT platforms bundle many of the infrastructure components of an IoT system
into a single product. The services provided by such platforms fall into three main categories:

 Low-level device control and operations such as communications, device monitoring and
management, security, and firmware updates;
 IoT data acquisition, transformation and management;
 IoT application development, including event-driven logic, application programming,
visualization, analytics and adapters to connect to enterprise systems.

10. IoT Standards and Ecosystems. Standards and their associated application programming
interfaces (APIs) will be essential because IoT devices will need to interoperate and communicate,
and many IoT business models will rely on sharing data between multiple devices and
organizations. Many IoT ecosystems will emerge, and organizations creating products may have
to develop variants to support multiple standards or ecosystems and be prepared to update products
during their life span as the standards evolve and new standards and APIs emerge.