CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Objective: - My objective is to learn and gain experience from industrial training
and to knowledge about how organization work.

1.2 Why I Choose Tijaria Poly Pipes?

I want to learn the process and basic functioning of the industries related to manufacturing
process and I want to see the execution of the theoretical part related to manufacturing
process which I studies in my 3’rd semester subject of manufacturing process topic of
plastic technology that is why I choose Tijaria Poly Pipes for industrial training.

1.3 Company Details: -

Tijaria is a flagship group established in 1982 by the people who master all the intricate
techniques and subtle nuances of their business having an outstanding experience of more
than 35 years to their credit in dealing with plastic and related materials. Hence, they
know every minute detail of the product.

Company has now emerged as a market leader in manufacturing HDPE, MDPE, LDPE,
LLDPE, PVC, CPVC Pipes (In Pipe Division) Mink Blankets, Partially Oriented Yarn
and Draw Texturised Yarn (In Textile Division) under the registered brand name of
Tijaria and Vikas.

In fact, customer’s faith and confidence is a testimony for them to prove their company’s
steadfast nature and reliable quality of products. The company produces a stupendous
complete product range in the field of plastics, HDPE Sprinkler Irrigation System, Drip
irrigation, Micro irrigation, uPVC Pipes & Fittings, PVC-U & DWC HDPE Pipes &
fittings for Sewerage, uPVC conduit Pipes & Fittings, DWC Pipes 7 PLB HDPE Duct
for telecommunications etc.

Tijaria is licensed by Bureau of India Standard to mark Certifications on different range

of products having different Licence numbers. Moreover, Tijaria is an ISO: 9001:2015
certified organization with a standing of total commitment towards satisfying their
customers with best quality products.

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1.4 Plant of Tijaria poyl pipes: -

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 CHAPTER-2
LAYOUT AND DEPARTMENTS
2.1 Plant Layout: -

Fig. 1.1 Plant layout

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2.2 Departments of Company: -

 Management

 Quality department

 Manufacturing department

 Human resources department

 Electronic division

 Purchasing department

 Marketing department

 Main store
2.3 Function of Departments-

2.3.1 Production Department: - The Production function undertakes the activities

necessary to provide the organizations products or services. Its main responsibilities are:
 Production planning and scheduling
 Control and supervision of the production workforce
 Managing product quality (including process control and monitoring)
 Maintenance of plant and equipment
 Control of inventory
 Deciding the best production methods and factory layout.

2.3.2 Purchasing Department: - The Purchasing function is concerned with acquiring

goods and services for use by the organization. These will include, for example, raw
materials and components for manufacturing and also production equipment. The
responsibilities of this function usually extend to buying goods and services for the entire
organization (not just the Production function) including for example, office equipment,
furniture, computer equipment and stationery. In buying goods and services, purchasing
managers must take into account a number of factors – collectively referred to as ‘the
Purchasing Mix’, namely, Quantity, Quality, Price and Delivery.
 Quantity - Buying in large quantities can attract price discounts and prevent
inventory running out. On the other hand, there are substantial costs involved in
carrying a high level of inventory.

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  Quality - There will usually be a trade-off between price and quality in acquiring
goods and services. Consequently, Production, R&D and Marketing Functions
will need to be consulted to determine an acceptable level of quality which will
depend on how important quality is as an attribute of the final product or service
of the Organization.
 Price - Other things being equal, the purchasing manager will look for the best
price deal when procuring goods and services, although price must be considered
in conjunction with quality and supplier reliability, in order to achieve best value,
rather than lowest price only.
 Delivery - The time between placing an order and receiving the goods or services,
the lead time, can be critical for production planning and scheduling and also has
implications for inventory control. Suppliers must therefore be evaluated in terms
of their reliability and capability for on time delivery.
In short, the ‘purchasing mix’ can be considered as making sure that the organization has
the right amount, of the right quality, at the right price, in the right place at the right time.

2.3.3 Human Resources Department: - The Human Resources function is concerned

with the following:

 Recruitment and selection - Ensuring that the right people are recruited to the
right jobs.
 Training and development - Enabling employees to carry out their
responsibilities effectively and make use of their potential.
 Employee relation - Including negotiations over pay and conditions.
 Grievance procedures and disciplinary matters - Dealing with complaints
from employees or from the employer.
 Health and Safety matters making sure employees work in a healthy and safe
environment.
 Redundancy procedures administering a proper system that is seen to be fair to
all concerned when deciding on redundancies and agreeing redundancy payments.
In recent years, the Human Resources function has attained a more important status as
there has developed an increasing need (especially in-service organizations) to ‘get the
most’ from employees, in terms of customer service, for the benefit of the organization.

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2.3.4 Accounting and Finance Department: - The Accounting and Finance function is
concerned with the following:

 Financial record keeping of transactions involving monetary inflows or outflows.

 Preparing financial statements (the income statement, balance sheet and cash flow
statement) for reporting to external parties such as shareholders. The financial
statements are also the starting point for calculating any tax due on business
profits.
 Payroll administration Paying wages and salaries and maintaining appropriate
income tax and national insurance records.
 Preparing management accounting information and analysis to help managers to
plan, control and make decisions.

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 CHAPTER-3

MACHINERY/TECHNOLOGY

There are different types of machines and Technologies used in different departments.

3.1 Machines Tool room department: In this department various types of

machines used which are

3.1.1 Lathe machine: - A lathe machine is a machine tool which is used to remove metals
from a work piece to give a desired shape and size.

Lathes are used in woodturning, metalworking, metal spinning, thermal spraying, parts
reclamation, and glass-working. Most suitably equipped metalworking lathes can also be
used to produce most solids of revolution, plane surfaces and screw threads or helices.
The work piece is usually held in place by either one or centers at least one of which can
typically be moved horizontally to accommodate varying work piece lengths. Other
work-holding methods include clamping the work about the axis of rotation using a
chuck, or to a faceplate using clamps or dogs.

In pvc pipe manufacturing industry lathe machine is use for making of die and mold for
pipe manufacturing through extrusion

Fig. 1.2 Lathe machine

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3.1.2 CNC machine - Computer Numerical Control (CNC) is the automation of machine
tools they are operated by precisely programmed commands encoded on a storage
medium (computer command modules, usually located in the device, as opposed to
controlled manually by hand wheels or lever, or mechanically automated by cams alone.
Most machine today is computerized or computer numerical control (CNC) in which
computer plays an integral part of control.
On modern CNC system end-to-end component design is highly automated using
computer Aided Design (CAD) and Computer Added Manufacturing (CAD) programs.
The programs produce a computer files that is interpreted to extract the command needed
to operate a particular machine by using.

Fig. 1.3 CNC machine

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3.1.3 Laser Printing Machine-

1. Print Company Name, Company Logo, ISI Mark, Meter Marking and More at
High Speeds.
2. Print Lot Codes, Batch Numbers, Bar Codes and More with Consistent Print
Quality.
3. Print on Plastic Pipe, Metal Pipe, PVC Pipe and Steel Pipe.

Fig. 1.4 Laser

Printing Machine

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3.1.4 Extrusion molding machine: - It is also known as extrusion molding practically
all thermoplastic materials can be extruded into various shapes like tubes, rods, sheets,
films, pipes, ropes and other profiles.

Thermosetting plastics are generally not suitable for extrusion. A sectional view showing
the extrusion process is shown in figure. The process consists of feeding the powdered
plastic from the hopper into the heated chamber. A rotating screw carries this material
forward and forces it out through the heated orifice of the die. The orifice carries the
shape corresponding to the shape desired to the product. After leaving the die, the product
is suitably cooled by water or air blast and carried away by a running belt.

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Fig.1.5 Conventional Extrusion Line

3.1.5 HDPE Mixer -Performance evaluation method of plastic mixers for high density
polyethylene by using flow simulation is presented in this study. First, mixing
experiments were performed to find the mixing performance of mixers. Then, flow
simulations using our original software in the mixers were carried out to know the
important flow factors. It was found that appropriate residence time and stress is
important. Furthermore, new mixer is introduced. The mixer has high performance and
the result can be explained by same reason.

Fig. 1.6 HDPE Mixer

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 3.1.6 Haul off Machine-

1. Vertically guided belt carriers

2. Mechanical or pneumatic contact pressure control for haul-off
3. Manual adjustment capability for stroke, height and guide elements
4. AC servomotor drive with planetary gearing
5. Safety doors with transparent panes and safety shutdown function, Performance
Level
6. Constant Removal -Removal of thin wall extruded pipe

Fig. 1.7 Haul off Machine

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 CHAPTER-4

OVERVIEW OF PRODUCT MENUFACTURING

PROCESS

Introduction: -
The essential steps of PE pipe and fitting production are to heat, hold that shape during
the cooling process. This is necessary to produce solid wall and profile wall pipe as well
as compression and injection moulded fittings.
All diameters of solid wall PE pipe are continuously extruded through an annular die.
Whereas, for large diameter profile wall pipes, the profile is spirally wound onto a
mandrel and heat-fusion sealed along the seams.
Solid wall PE pipe is currently produced in sizes ranging from 1/2 inch to 63 inches in
diameter. Spirally wound profile pipe may be made up to 10 feet in diameter or more.
Generally, thermoplastic fittings are injection or compression moulded, fabricated using
sections of pipe, or machined from moulded plates. Injection moulding is used to produce
fittings up through 12 inches in diameter, and fittings larger than 12 inches are normally
fabricated from sections of pipe.

All of these pipe and fittings standards specify the type and frequency of quality control
tests that are required. There are several steps during the manufacturing process that are
closely monitored to ensure that the product complies with these rigorous standards.
Some of these steps are discussed in the section of this chapter on quality control and
assurance.

Pipe Extrusion: -
The essential aspects of a solid wall PE pipe manufacturing facility are presented In This
section will describe the production of solid wall pipe from raw material handling,
extrusion, sizing, cooling, printing, and cutting, through finished product handling.
Details concerning profile wall pipe are also discussed in the
appropriate sections.

Extrusion Basics: -
The function of the extruder is to heat, melt, mix, and convey the material to the die,
where it is shaped into a pipe (8). The extruder screw design is critical to the performance

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of the extruder and the quality of the pipe. The mixing sections of the screw are important
for producing a homogeneous mix when extruding blends. A typical extruder is shown
in Figure 1.12.

Fig. 1.8 Typical Single-Stage, Single-Screw Extruder (Resin Flow from Right to Left)

There are many different types of screw design, but they all have in common the features
shown in Figure1.13. Each screw is designed specifically for the type of material being
extruded. The extruder screw operates on the stick/slip principle. The polymer needs to
stick to the barrel so that, as the screw rotates, it forces the material in a forward direction.

In the course of doing this, the polymer is subjected to heat, pressure and shear
(mechanical heating). The extent to which the material is subjected to these three
conditions is the function of the screw speed, the barrel temperature settings and the screw
design. The design of the screw is important for the production of high-quality pipe.

Fig. 1.9 Typical Extrusion Screw

If a natural resin and concentrate blend is used, the screw will also have to incorporate
the colorant into the natural resin. Various mixing devices are used for this purpose as
shown in Figure 1.14. They include mixing rings or pins, fluted or cavity transfer mixers,

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blister rings, and helix shaped mixers, which are an integral part of the screw. The pipe
extrusion line generally consists of the extruder, die, cooling systems,
puller, printer, saw and take-off equipment. Each of these items will be addressed in the
following section.

Fig. 1.10.1 Mixing Pins

Fig. 1.10.2 Helical Mixer

Extruders: -

An extruder is usually described by its bore size and barrel length. Pipe extruders
typically have an inside diameter of 2 to 6 inches with barrel lengths of 20 to 32 times
the bore diameter. The barrel length divided by the inside diameter is referred to as the
L/D ratio. An extruder with an L/D ratio of 24:1 or greater provides adequate residence
time to produce a homogeneous mixture.
The extruder is used to heat the raw material and then force the resulting melted polymer
through the pipe extrusion die. The barrel of the machine has a series of four to six heater
bands. The temperature of each band is individually controlled by an instrumented
thermocouple. During the manufacturing process, the major portion of the heat supplied
to the polymer is the shear energy generated by the screw and motor drive system. This
supply of heat can be further controlled by applying cooling or heating to the various

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barrel zones on the extruder by a series of air- or water-cooling systems. This is important
since the amount of heat that is absorbed by the polymer needs to be closely monitored.
The temperature of the extruder melted polymer is usually between 390˚F and 450˚F, and
it is also under high pressure (2000 to 4000 psi).

Die Design: -

The pipe extrusion die supports and distributes the homogeneous polymer melt around a
solid mandrel, which forms it into an annular shape for solid wall pipe. The production
of a profile wall pipe involves extruding the molten polymer through die which has a
certain shaped profile.
The die head is mounted directly behind and downstream of the screen changer unless
the extruder splits and serves two offset dies.
There are two common types of die designs for solid wall pipe; the spider dies design and
the basket die design. They are illustrated in Figure 5. These designs refer to the manner
in which the melt is broken and distributed into an annular shape and also the means by
which the mandrel is supported.

Fig. 1.11 Pipe Die with Spider Design

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 Fig. 1.11.1 Pipe Die with Basket Design

In the spider die (Figure 1.15.1), the melt stream is distributed around the mandrel by a
cone which is supported by a ring of spokes. Since the melt has been split by the spider
legs, the flow must be re-joined.
Flow lines caused by mandrel supports should be avoided. This is done by reducing the
annular area of the flow channel just after the spider legs to cause a build-up indie
pressure and force the melt streams to converge, minimizing weld or spider lines. After
the melt is re-joined, the melt moves into the last section of the die, called the land.
The land is the part of the die that has a constant cross-sectional area. It re-establishes
uniform flow and allows the final shaping of the melt and also allows the resin a certain
amount of relaxation time. The land can adversely affect the surface finish of the pipe if
it is too short in length. Typical land lengths are 15 to 20 times the annular spacing.
The basket design (Figure 1.15.2) has an advantage over the spider die concerning melt
convergence. The molten polymer is forced through a perforated sleeve or plate, which
contains hundreds of small holes. Polymer is then re-joined under pressure as a round
profile. The perforated sleeve, which is also called a screen basket, eliminates spider leg
lines.

Pipe Sizing
The dimensions and tolerances of the pipe are determined and set during the sizing and
cooling operation. The sizing operation holds the pipe in its proper dimensions during the
cooling of the molten material. For solid wall pipe, the process is accomplished by
drawing the hot material from the die through a sizing sleeve and into a cooling tank.
Sizing may be accomplished by using either vacuum or pressure techniques. Vacuum
sizing is generally the preferred method.

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In the vacuum sizing system, molten extrude is drawn through a sizing tuber rings while
its surface is cooled enough to maintain proper dimensions and circular form. The outside
surface of the pipe is held against the sizing sleeve by vacuum. After the pipe exits the
vacuum sizing tank, it is moved through a second vacuum tank or a series of spray or
immersion cooling tanks.

External Sizing System: -

Fig. 1.12 Vacuum Tank Sizing

Fig.1.12.1 Internal (Pressure) Sizing for Small and Medium Pipe Diameters

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 CHAPTER-5

LABORATORY (TESTING OF PRODUCTS)

6.1 Ash Content Test: -

Scope:
An Ash test is used to determine if a material is filled. The test will identify the total filler
content. It cannot identify individual percentages in multi-filled materials without
additional test procedures being performed. An ash test cannot be used to determine the
percent carbon fibre or percent carbon black since carbon burns off during the Ash test.

Procedure:
An Ash test involves taking a known amount of sample, placing the weighed sample into
a dried / pre-weighed porcelain crucible, burning away the polymer in an air atmosphere
at temperatures above 500°C, and weighing the crucible after it is has been cooled to
room temperature in a desiccator. Ash residue remaining in the crucible is considered
filler unless the residue is less than 1%. Residues of less than 1% are typically the result
of additives that did not burn off.

6.2 Carbon Black Content Test: -

Scope:
Determination of carbon black content in Olefin materials like polyethylene or
polypropylene that do not contain nonvolatile additives or fillers. The test is often used
as a quality control measurement for black polyolefins.

Test Procedure:
A sample of known weight is placed into a weighed combustion boat. The sample is then
placed into a 600°C tube furnace under a dry oxygen free Nitrogen purge. After a set time
the combustion boat with the burn residue is cooled under the nitrogen purge and
weighed. The combustion boat is then placed into a 600°C muffle furnace to oxidize the
carbon residue. When the carbon is completely oxidized the combustion boat is cooled
and weighed.

Specimen size:
One to a few grams

Data:
The percent carbon black = (Wr - Wo)/Ws x 100
Wr = the mass of the residue from the tube furnace
Wo= the mass of the residue from the muffle furnace
Ws= the original mass of the sample

Equipment Used:

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Tube furnace, Muffle furnace, Combustion boat, Analytical balance, Oxygen free
nitrogen, Flow meter

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6.3 Contour Cutter:- It is used for specimen preparation.
TECHNICAL DETAILS

 Template as per BIS / ASTM Standard.

 Speed: Based on AC Variable Speed AC Drive. High cutting speed.
 Milling performance & easy operation.
 Used for making Dumbbell /other Shape Specimen Preparation.
 Power Requirement: 220 / 230 V
AC 50-60 Hz, Single Phase

Fig. 1.13 Contour Cutter

6.4 MFI Test: -

Scope:

Melt Flow Rate measures the rate of extrusion of thermoplastics through an orifice at a
prescribed temperature and load. It provides a means of measuring flow of a melted
material which can be used to differentiate grades as with polyethylene, or determine the
extent of degradation of the plastic as a result of moulding. Degraded materials would
generally flow more as a result of reduced molecular weight, and could exhibit reduced
physical properties. Typically, flow rates for a part and the resin it is moulded from are
determined, and then a percentage difference is calculated. Alternatively, comparisons
between "good" parts and "bad" parts may be of value.

Test Procedure:

Approximately 7 grams of the material is loaded into the barrel of the melt flow apparatus,
which has been heated to a temperature specified for the material. A weight specified for
the material is applied to a plunger and the molten material is forced through the die. A

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timed extrudate is collected and weighed. Melt flow rate values are calculated in g/10
min.

Specimen size:

At least 14 grams of material

Data:

Flow rate = (600/t x weight of extrudate)

t = time of extrudate in seconds

melt flow rate = g/10 min.

Fig 1.14 MFI Testing Machine

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6.5 CBD Microscope: - Carbon Black Dispersion Test Apparatus is mainly used
for determination of carbon black dispersion. It finds wide application in plastic industry.
The instrument comprises of a hot plate for sample placement.

The temperature range can be adjusted between ambient and 200 oC Carbon Black
dispersion Test Apparatus is fitted with a 6inch size microscope with a magnification
power of 100X and 450X. The instrument is manufactured as per IS 4984 & IS 4985
standards.

Fig. 1.15 Microscope & Hot Plate

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6.6 Hot Plate: - The hot plate test is a test of the pain response in animals, similar to
the tail flick test. It is used in basic pain research and in testing the effectiveness of
analgesics by observing the reaction to pain caused by heat.

It was proposed by Eddy and Limbach in 1953.[1] They used a behavioral model of
nociception where behaviors such as jumping and hind paw-licking are elicited following
a noxious thermal stimulus. Licking is a rapid response to painful thermal stimuli that is
a direct indicator of nociceptive threshold. Jumping represents a more elaborated
response, with a latency, and encompasses an emotional component of escaping.

6.7 Tensile Testing by UTM: - Tensile testing is most often carried out at a
material testing laboratory. The ASTM D638 is among the most common tensile testing
protocols. The ASTM D638 measures plastics tensile properties including ultimate
tensile strength, yield strength, elongation and Poisson’s ratio.

The most common testing machine used in tensile testing is the universal testing machine.
This type of machine has two crossheads; one is adjusted for the length of the specimen
and the other is driven to apply tension to the test specimen. There are two types:
hydraulic powered and electromagnetically powered machines.

Flat Test specimen

Plate type (1.5 in. Sheet type (0.5 in. Sub-size specimen (0.25
ll values in inches
wide) wide) in. wide)

Gauge length 8.00±0.01 2.00±0.005 1.000±0.003

Width 1.5 +0.125–0.25 0.500±0.010 0.250±0.005

Thickness 0.188 ≤ T 0.005 ≤ T ≤ 0.75 0.005 ≤ T ≤ 0.25

Fillet radius (min.) 1 0.25 0.25

Overall length (min.) 18 8 4

Length of reduced
9 2.25 1.25
section (min.)

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The machine must have the proper capabilities for the test specimen being tested. There
are four main parameters: force capacity, speed, precision and accuracy. Force capacity
refers to the fact that the machine must be able to generate enough force to fracture the
specimen. The machine must be able to apply the force quickly or slowly enough to
properly mimic the actual application. Finally, the machine must be able to accurately
and precisely measure the gauge length and forces applied; for instance, a large machine
that is designed to measure long elongations may not work with a brittle material that
experiences short elongations prior to fracturing.

Fig. 1.16 UTM

6.8 Impact Test: - Impact Testing, ASTM E23 and IS/ BS Standard
The impact test is a method for evaluating the toughness and notch sensitivity of
engineering materials. It is usually used to test the toughness of metals, but similar tests
are used for polymers, ceramics and composites. Metal industry sectors include Oil and
Gas, Aerospace, Power Generation, Automotive, and Nuclear.

The notched test specimen is broken by the impact of a heavy pendulum or hammer,
falling at a predetermined velocity through a fixed distance. The test measures the energy
absorbed by the fractured specimen.

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Charpy Impact Test

A test specimen is machined to a 10mm x 10mm (full size) cross-section, with either a
"V" or "U" notch. Sub-size specimens are used where the material thickness is restricted.
Specimens
can be
tested
down to
cryogenic

temperatures.

Fig. 1.17 Charpy Test Arrangement

Izod Impact Test

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The test specimen is machined to a square or round section, with either one , two or three
notches. The specimen is clamped vertically on the anvil with the notch facing the
Hammer.

Fig. 1.18 Izod Test Arrangement

6.9 OIT Cooling Chamber: - The oxidation induction time (OIT) is a standardized
test performed in a differential scanning calorimeter (DSC) which measures the level of
thermal stabilization of the material tested (ASTM D3895-92, ASTM D6186, EN 728
and ISO 11357-6). The test is used to assess the level of stabilization of material by
determining the time of oxidative decomposition. The measurement is carried out in an
oxygen atmosphere at a temperature that is sufficiently high (usually at 200-210 oC for
polyethylene materials) to assure that decomposition begins within a reasonable time. It

is frequently used to study the thermal stability of fats, oils foods and polymers in process
development and quality control projects.

6.10 Hydraulic Pressure Test: -Pressure testing is a process which is done to

check for any errors in the installation or defects in the piping components. Basically, the
erected system is proof tested using the working fluid to something known as test pressure
(usually 1.5 times the working pressure) and checked for leakages or pressure drop. A
system is deemed to be pressure test

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Hydraulic pressure testing process:

A hydraulic pressure testing circuit mainly consists of the following components: -

 Hydraulic Power Unit

 Hydraulic Power Pack
 Pressure Testing Materials

The Hydraulic Power Unit (HPU) which drives the hydraulic system is used to fill the oil
in the system. The Hydraulic Power Pack is normally a portable power pack which
pressurizes the oil in the system to the test pressure. The Pressure Testing materials
include gauges, manifold, valves, blank flanges which are required for pressure testing if
the system can hold the test pressure for a said amount of time.

Hydraulic Pressure Testing Circuit

Fig. 1.19

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The pressure test circuit consists of the piping system connected to the HPU as shown
below in Fig 1.0. The pressure line is interconnected to the return and drain line by a tee
through the hoses. Return and Drain line check valves at the HPU are interchanged to
ball valves (they can also be blanked alternatively). The Hydraulic Power Pack is
connected to the pressure line through a pressure test manifold. The manifold has a drain
valve and pressure gauge. A pressure gauge is mounted at the end of the pressure line.
Normally every pressure testing circuit will have a pressure gauge at the start of pressure
input and at the extreme end of the line.

6.11 ESCR Test: -

Introduction to Environmental Stress Cracking and ESCR

Over the past decade, high-density polyethylene (HDPE) materials have improved
significantly and now meet more stringent performance standards; some performance
evaluation tests that once took only days to run now take months with today’s resins. One
such performance criteria is Environmental Stress Crack Resistance (ESCR). Because
standard test methods for measuring ESCR on plastics take such a long time (sometimes
months) the quality of the material is judged acceptable if the failure time exceeds
ascertain limit. Many times, the test is terminated before an absolute fracture time is
determined. Due to these long testing times, new tests and standards have been developed
to differentiate these improved materials more easily.

This technical publication defines Environmental Stress Cracking (ESC) and

Environmental Stress Cracking Resistance (ESCR) and why ESCR is an important resin
property. It will also describe some of the tests used to measure ESCR in HDPE products
and how resin properties influence ESCR.

What is Environmental Stress Cracking and ESCR?

The definition of stress cracking according to ASTM D883 is “an external or internal
crack in a plastic caused by tensile stresses less than its short-term mechanical strength.”
This type of cracking typically involves brittle cracking, with little or no ductile drawing
of the polymeric material from its adjacent failure surfaces. Slow crack growth is another
term commonly used to describe stress cracking.

The best-known type of slow crack growth

is “environmental stress cracking” or ESC. These are instances involving cracking of
stressed samples, generally in the presence of surface-active wetting agents such as
alcohols, soaps, surfactants, or others. The surface-active agents do not chemically attack
the polymer nor produce any effect other than microscopically brittle-appearing fractures.
In the absence of the surface-active environment, these fractures would not occur in any

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reasonable period of time under the same stress conditions. These cracks are generally
thought to initiate at microscopic imperfections and propagate through the crystalline
regions of the polymer structure. The ability of a polymer to resist slow crack growth or
environmental stress cracking is known as ESCR. Different polymers exhibit varying
degrees of ESCR. Some grades of HDPE have very good resistance against ESC, while
some have marginal resilience.

Why ESCR is Important?

Because stress cracking results in the breakdown or failure of a plastic material, a plastic
part needs to endure its entire designed life before it fails. For polyethylene, this may
range from several months for a milk or juice bottle to several decades for an automotive
fuel tank or natural gas pipeline.

In the late 1940s, Western Electric was encountering occasional cracking in the low-
density polyethylene used to jacket wire cables. Bell Labs was asked to investigate the
cracking and they found the cause to be lubricating soaps used during installation.
Through this research, the Bell Labs Bent Strip ESCR test was born and became the first
ESCR test.

How ESCR or Resistance to Slow Crack Growth Measured

Environmental Stress-Cracking Resistance (ESCR) - ASTM D1693

Environmental stress cracking is the formation of cracks in a material caused by relatively

low tensile stress and environmental conditions. Environmental Stress-Cracking
Resistance (ESCR) is the number of hours that 50% of the specimens tested exhibit stress
cracks.

Fig. 1.20 ESCR Specimen

ESCR testing is performed by slowly bending the test

specimens and placing them in a holding clamp.
The clamp and specimens are then placed in a test
tube and immersed in a specified reagent. The test
tube is sealed and placed in a constant-temperature
bath. Multiple test specimens are tested at one
time.

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Poornima Group Of Institutions Mechanical Department
 Fig. 1.21 ESCR specimen in Holder

Specimens are inspected periodically for failure. Cracks generally

develop at the notch, perpendicular to the notch, and run to the edge of
the specimen. Any cracks constitute failure, not just cracks that reach
the edge of the specimen. Cracks sometimes appear beneath the
surface and are visible as surface depressions. If a depression
develops into a surface crack the time at which the depression was
noted is taken as the time of failure.

Fig. 1.22 ESCR Test

Three test conditions are specified. Condition A is generally used for polyethylene with
densities between 0.910 and 0.925 g/cm³. Condition B is used for polyethylene with
densities greater than 0.925 g/cm³. Condition C is used for accelerated testing of materials
with extremely high ESCR values.

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Poornima Group Of Institutions Mechanical Department
 CHAPTER-6

LEARNING AND OUTCOME

This training provided me a good opportunity to learn many skills like; working skills,
operating skills, and communicating skills, i.e. how to communicate with the seniors and
the workers and the other member. Through this training I also get the power to visualize
the things going on, and through this training I learned the many technical knowledge
and industrial knowledge. In this training I learned how to manage and to make the work
effective and properly working within the specified time.

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Poornima Group Of Institutions Mechanical Department
 CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSION

I have learnt a lot of things from this industrial training, mainly to control of
Manufacturing and Quality of product. By this training we get a good exposure of
industrial world. This training program will help us to learn the concepts relating to the
machine, material, process, quality, startup & shutdown, problem solving, material
handling and the terminology associated with the product development. We are really
thankful to our HOD of Mechanical Engineering Department and Tijaria Poly Pipes to
provide this opportunity.

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Poornima Group Of Institutions Mechanical Department
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Poornima Group Of Institutions Mechanical Department