Republic of the Philippines

Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Architecture and Fine Arts
Department of Architecture

Written Report
in
General Psychology

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Submitted by:
Group 3
Bongalbal, Carl Bryan J.
Borreo, Mark Anthony O.
Bual, Shanaia Jane G.
Cabrera, Shaina Marie E.
BS Architecture 5-3
PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
- It is the process of growth and development in the womb in which a single-cell zygote
becomes an embryo, a fetus, and then a child.
- Simple cell multiplication concerns the first two weeks of growth. This small mass of cells
then adheres to the uterus’ inner wall. The next three weeks, as the cell mass splits into
distinct primitive structures, see intense cell differentiation. The embryo took on a
approximately human form at the end of eight weeks and is called a fetus. The primitive
circulatory, nervous, pulmonary and the other systems of the fetus will mature for the
next twenty weeks, and it will begin to move its limbs. Fat starts to accumulate under the
skin at 28 weeks, toenails and fingernails appear, and body and scalp sprout downy hair.
The fetus may periodically open their eyes. The fetus remains to gain weight for the
remaining weeks of growth, and its inner structures are reaching complete growth.

Stages of Prenatal Development

Germinal Stage
- begins at conception when the sperm and egg cell unite in one of the two fallopian
tubes.
Embryonic Stage
- The embryonic stage plays an important role in the development of the brain.
- The embryo begins to divide into three layers each of which will become an important
body system.
- The neural tube begins to form along an area known as the neural plate.
Fetal Stage
- The fetal period of prenatal develop marks more important changes in the brain
- begins during the ninth week and lasts until birth.
- It is at this point in prenatal development that the neural tube develops into the brain and
spinal cord and neurons continue to form.
- Synapses, or the connections between neurons, also begin to develop.

Prenatal Care

- also known as antenatal care, is a type of preventive health care. Its goal is to provide
regular check-ups that allow doctors or midwives to treat and prevent potential health
problems throughout the course of the pregnancy and to promote healthy lifestyles that
benefit both mother and child.

Nutrition

- A balanced diet is important. It must have proteins, vitamins, and minerals. When a
pregnant woman does not provide these nourishment’s, the infant is likely to be born
prematurely and tend to be underweight.
 Age

- The mother’s age can affect prenatal development. Teen mothers are at risk of
miscarriages. Women who are between 20 and 35 are healthy and have been better
health care. However, women above 35 are more likely to experience difficulties in
pregnancy and highly susceptible to miscarriage.

Rest and Exercise

- Chronic stress and inability to rest, exercise, and eat properly can weaken a pregnant
woman’s immune system.
-
- Drugs, illness, and environmental hazards
a.) Ingesting substances like alcohol, aspirin, caffeine, cocaine, heroin, marijuana, or
nicotine could contribute to mental retardation, fetal alcohol syndrome, and cognitive
impairment in the infant.
b.) Diseases like venereal disease, AIDS, and German measles, can lead to enological
disorders, encephalitis, deafness, or blindness in the infant.
c.) Exposure to hazards like lead, mercury, and x-ray, can cause mental retardation,
cerebral palsy, or leukemia in infant

POSTNATAL DEVELOPMENT
- begins immediately after the birth of a child as the mother's body,
including hormone levels and uterus size, returns to a non-pregnant state.

Prehension

- Refers to grasping object (palmar grasping)

Language Development

- Infants begin life with no language other than cries and grunts.
- Babies learn to say their first word at about one year.
Postnatal Care
- Postnatal care (PNC) is the care given to the mother and her newborn baby
immediately after the birth and for the first six weeks of life
Importance of Postnatal Care
- effective postnatal care can make the most difference to the health and life chances of
mothers and newborns is in the early neonatal period
- To avoid neonatal death

CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT
Child development refers to the sequence of physical, language, thought and emotional
changes that occur in a child from birth to the beginning of adulthood. During this
process a child progresses from dependency on their parents/guardians to increasing
independence. Child development is strongly influenced by genetic factors (genes
passed on from their parents) and events during prenatal life. It is also influenced by
environmental facts and the child’s learning capacity.

What does child development include?

Child development covers the full scope of skills that a child masters over their life span
including development in:

 Cognition – the ability to learn and problem solve

 Social interaction and emotional regulation – interacting with others and mastering
self-control
 Speech and Language – understanding and using language, reading and
communicating
 Physical skills – fine motor (finger) skills and gross motor (whole body) skills
 Sensory awareness – the registration of sensory information for use

Why is child development important?

Observing and monitoring child development is an important tool to ensure that children
meet their ‘developmental milestones’. Developmental milestones (a ‘loose’ list of
developmental skills that believed to be mastered at roughly the same time for all
children but that are far from exact) act as a useful guideline of ideal development.

By checking a child’s developmental progress at particular age markers against these

arbitrary time frames, it allows a ‘check in’ to ensure that the child is roughly ‘on track’
for their age. If not, this checking of developmental milestones can be helpful in the
early detection of any hiccups in development. This ‘check’ is usually carried out
through child/mother services and Paediatricians as infants and toddlers, and later
through preschool and school term skills assessments.

The earliest possible detection (and early intervention treatment if appropriate) of

developmental challenges can be helpful in minimizing the impact these developmental
hiccups can have on a child’s skill development and subsequently their confidence, or
serve as an indicator of a possible future diagnosis.

Developmental milestone checklists or charts are used as a guide as to what is ‘normal’

for a particular age range and can be used to highlight any areas in which a child might
be delayed. However, it is important to be aware that while child development has a
predictable sequence, all children are unique in their developmental journey and the
times frames that they meet the many developmental milestones.
Intellectual Development

Intellect is a person's capacity for understanding, thinking, and reasoning. For intellect
to develop, children must receive proper nurturing in infancy and early childhood. For
example, reading to children from an early age, providing intellectually stimulating
experiences, and providing warm and nurturing relationships all have a major impact
on their intellectual growth and development.

At the age of 2, most children understand the concept of time in broad terms. Many 2-
and 3-year-old children believe that anything that happened in the past happened
"yesterday," and anything that will happen in the future will happen "tomorrow." A child
at this age has a vivid imagination but has difficulty distinguishing fantasy from reality.
By age 4, most children have a more complicated understanding of time. They realize
that the day is divided into morning, afternoon, and night. They can even appreciate
the change in seasons.

From 18 months to 5 years of age, a child's vocabulary quickly expands from about
50 words to several thousand words. Children can begin to name and to actively ask
about objects and events. By age 2, they begin to put two words together in short
phrases, progressing to simple sentences by age 3. Pronunciation improves, with
speech being half-understandable to a stranger by age 2 and fully understandable by
age 4. A 4-year-old child can tell simple stories and can engage in conversation with
adults or other children.
Even before 18 months of age, children can listen to and understand a story being
read to them. By age 5, children are able to recite the alphabet and to recognize
simple words in print. These skills are all fundamental to learning how to read simple
words, phrases, and sentences. Depending on exposure to books and natural abilities,
most children begin to read by age 6 or 7.

By age 7, children's intellectual capabilities become more complex. By this time,

children become increasingly able to focus on more than one aspect of an event or
situation at the same time. For example, school-aged children can appreciate that a
tall, slender container can hold the same amount of water as a short, broad one. They
can appreciate that medicine can taste bad but can make them feel better, or that their
mother can be angry at them but can still love them. Children are increasingly able to
understand another person's perspective and so learn the essentials of taking turns in
games or conversations. In addition, school-aged children are able to follow agreed-
upon rules of games. Children of this age are also increasingly able to reason using
the powers of observation and multiple points of view.

Emotional and Behavioural Development

Emotion and behaviour are based on the child's developmental stage and
temperament. Every child has an individual temperament, or mood. Some children
may be cheerful and adaptable and easily develop regular routines of sleeping,
waking, eating, and other daily activities. These children tend to respond positively to
new situations. Other children are not very adaptable and may have great irregularities
in their routine. These children tend to respond negatively to new situations. Still other
children are in between these two ends of the spectrum.
Infants
Crying is an infant's primary means of communication. Infants cry because they are
hungry, uncomfortable, distressed, and for many other reasons that may not be
obvious. Infants cry most—typically 3 hours a day—at 6 weeks of age, usually
decreasing to an hour a day by 3 months of age. Parents typically offer crying infants
food, change their diaper, and look for a source of pain or discomfort. If this does not
work, holding or walking with the infant sometimes helps. Occasionally nothing works.
Parents should not force food on crying infants, who will readily eat if hunger is the
cause of their distress.

At about 8 months of age, infants normally become more anxious about

being separated from their parents. Separations at bedtime and at places like child
care centers may be difficult and can be marked by temper tantrums. This behavior
can last for many months. For many older children, a special blanket or stuffed animal
serves at this time as a transitional object that acts as a symbol for the absent parent.
Children

At 2 to 3 years of age, children begin to test their limits and do what they have been
forbidden to do, simply to see what will happen. The frequent "nos" that children hear
from parents reflect the struggle for independence at this age. Although distressing to
parents and children, tantrums are normal because they help children express their
frustration during a time when they cannot verbalize their feelings well. Parents can
help decrease the number of tantrums by not letting their children become overtired or
unduly frustrated and by knowing their children's behavior patterns and avoiding
situations that are likely to induce tantrums. Rarely, temper tantrums need to be
evaluated by a doctor. Some young children have particular difficulty controlling their
impulses and need their parents to set stricter limits around which there can be some
safety and regularity in their world.

At age 18 months to 2 years, children typically begin to establish gender identity.

During the preschool years, children also acquire a notion of gender role, of what boys
and girls typically do. Exploration of the genitals is expected at this age and signals
that children are beginning to make a connection between gender and body image.

Between 2 and 3 years of age, children begin to play more interactively with other
children. Although they may still be possessive about toys, they may begin to share
and even take turns in play. Asserting ownership of toys by saying, "That is mine!"
helps establish the sense of self. Although children at this age strive for
independence, they still need their parents nearby for security and support. For
example, they may walk away from their parents when they feel curious only to later
hide behind their parents when they are fearful.
At 3 to 5 years of age, many children become interested in fantasy play and
imaginary friends. Fantasy play allows children to safely act out different roles and
strong feelings in acceptable ways. Fantasy play also helps children grow socially.
They learn to resolve conflicts with parents or other children in ways that help them
vent frustrations and maintain self-esteem. Also at this time, typical childhood fears
like that of "the monster in the closet" emerge. These fears are normal.

At 7 to 12 years of age, children work through numerous issues: self-concept, the

foundation for which is laid by competency in the classroom; relationships with peers,
which are determined by the ability to socialize and fit in well; and family relationships,
which are determined in part by the approval children gain from parents and siblings.
Although many children seem to place a high value on the peer group, they still look
primarily to parents for support and guidance. Siblings can serve as role models and
as valuable supports and critics regarding what can and cannot be done. This period
of time is very active for children, who engage in many activities and are eager to
explore new activities. At this age, children are eager learners and often respond well
to advice about safety, healthy lifestyles, and avoidance of high-risk behaviors.

Childhood Disorders

We typically view childhood as a time of innocence and relative freedom from stress. In
reality, though, almost 20% of children and 40% of adolescent’s experience signify can’t
emotional or behavioral disorders. Children do not always display depression the same
way adults do. Rather than showing profound sadness or hopelessness, childhood
depression may produce the expression of exaggerated fears, clinginess, or avoidance
of everyday activities. In older children, the symptoms may be sulking, school problems,
and even acts of delinquency.

A considerably more common childhood disorder is attention-deficit hyperactivity

disorder, or ADHD, a disorder marked by inattention, impulsiveness, a low tolerance
for frustration, and generally a great deal of inappropriate activity. Although all children
show such behavior some of the time, it is so common in children diagnosed with ADHD
that it interferes with their everyday functioning. ADHD is surprisingly widespread with
estimates ranging between 3–5% of the school-age population—or some 3.5 million
children under the age of 18 in the United States. The cause of ADHD is not known,
although most experts feel that it is produced by dysfunctions in the nervous system.
For example, one theory suggests that unusually low levels of arousal in the central
nervous system cause ADHD.
Autism, a severe developmental disability that impairs children’s ability to communicate
and relate to others, is another childhood disorder that usually appears in the first three
years and typically continues throughout life. Children with autism have difficulties in
both verbal and nonverbal communication, and they may avoid social contact. About
one in 110 children are now thought to have the disorder, and its prevalence has risen
significantly in the last decade. Whether the increase is the result of an actual rise in the
incidence of autism or is due to better reporting is a question of intense debate among
researchers (Rice, 2009).

ADOLESCENCE
-typically describes the years between ages 13 and 19 and can be considered the transitional
stage from childhood to adulthood.

-physical and psychological changes that occur in adolescence can start earlier, during the
preteen or "tween" years (ages 9 through 12).

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

• growth spurt

Growth is quite rapid compared to earlier in the lifespan

• emergence of secondary sexual characteristics

o In girls: Increase in subcutaneous fat and rounding of the body, the beginnings of
breasts and, towards the end of the spurt, pubic hair and the menarche (the first period)
o In boys, the penis, testes and scrotum begin to enlarge, pubic hair appears, the voice
begins to deepen, and muscles grow and strengthen
o At around 13 to 14, most boys experience ejaculations or nocturnal emissions (wet
dreams).
o increased production of estrogen (in girls) and androgen (in boys)

• Puberty

o Starts earlier for girls than boys

o Facial features changes

• Sexual Maturity

o During this time, the gonads or sex glands produce increased levels of sex hormones
and the external sex organs assume their adult form.
o Girls begin to menstruate (13 years old) and boys start to produce sperm (14 or 15 years
old)
o Boys develop facial and chest hair and their voices deepen
o Girls experience breast enlargement and a widening of their hips
o Both sexes develop pubic hair
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

• Adolescents often show only rudimentary skills

• period of formal operations

- the last of Piaget’s stages of intellectual development, when thought is no longer

dependent on concrete operations tied to immediately present objects and actions, but is
based on reasoning about abstract propositions and the evaluation of alternative
possible outcomes

SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

• Gender and sexual development

o During childhood, cross-sex interests are tolerated to some extent in girls. But in
adolescence, parents and peers tend to provide stronger messages about acceptable
and unacceptable behavior – there is a narrowing of the gender ‘pathways’ as we move
closer to our adult roles

o In societies that do allow for mixed gender interactions in adolescence, a number of

factors bear on young people’s sexual development. For boys, this tends to lead to
involvement in sexual activity while girls tend to be more influenced by social factors,
such as parental attitudes and friends’ sexual behavior.

• The importance of peers

o people spend increasing amounts of time in the company of their peers and increasingly
focus on peer relations as crucial to their sense of identity
o friends’ behavior does tend to be correlated with adolescents’ choices and actions in
many areas

ADULTHOOD

- the period in the human lifespan in which full physical and intellectual maturity have been
attained

 Early adulthood (from approximately 18 to 40 years old)

 Middle adulthood (41-65 years old)
 Late adulthood (66 years old and more than)

Early Adulthood

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

Physical aging occurs slowly at first and then proceeds more rapidly in later decades.
  body reaches full height by the late teens, and physical strength increases into the late
20s and early 30s
 Manual agility and coordination, and sensory capacities such as vision and hearing are
at their peak.
 decline in the perception of high-pitched tones is found by the late 20s
 manual dexterity begins to reduce in the mid-30s

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

 most people are capable of the levels of reasoning

 most young adults are able to deal with cognitive tasks in a more abstract way than
before
 Riegel’s theory of post formal thought

Riegel (1975) proposed that adult experiences expose us to a new level of cognitive challenge –
the discovery of dialectical (opposing) forces.

post formal reasoning -a level of thought beyond Piaget’s period of formal operations,
characterized by the understanding that there may be multiple perspectives on a problem and
that solutions may be context-dependent

 Kramer’s three stages

1. absolutist -reasoning that assumes there is always a single, clear answer to a given problem

2. relativist -reasoning in which the individual has become aware that there are often different
perspectives on any given issue, and that the ‘correct’ answer may depend on the context

3. dialectical -reasoning in which competing positions are integrated and synthesis achieved

SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

A stage model for personal development

 Erikson and Erikson (1997) see the dominant focus of this stage as the development of
intimacy – the ability to love and trust another person
 Dream -Levinson’s term for an individual’s vision of his life goals, formed around 17 to
22 years of age and contributing to the motivation for subsequent personal development
 (22–28) -organized around forging a pathway at work and attaining a special personal
relationship
 ‘age 30’ transition (28–33) -people undergo a moderate degree of self-questioning
 (33–40) ‘settling down’ period, when people have usually found their niche in life and
are striving to consolidate their professional and domestic roles
 Eric Erikson’s theory of adult development
 1. Intimacy versus isolation

During late adolescence and early adulthood, individuals must develop the ability to form
deep, intimate relationships with others.

2. Generativity versus self-absorption

Individuals need to overcome self-centered concerns and take an active interest in helping
and guiding the next generation.

3. Integrity versus despair

As people reach the last decades of their lives, it is natural for them to look back and to ask,
“Did my life have meaning?”

 Intimacy – are you secure, anxious or avoidant?

 ‘Securely’ attached lovers find intimate relationships comfortable and rewarding.
They trust their partner and feel confident of his or her commitment.
- individuals report relaxed and loving parents

 ‘Anxious/ambivalent’ lovers experience uncertainty in their relationships.

- people feel their parents were over-controlling,

 ‘Avoidant’ lovers find getting close to others uncomfortable, find it difficult to trust
others, and are reluctant to commit themselves fully to a relationship.
- lower levels of communication and emotional support from their parents

Middle Adulthood

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

 appearance of grey hair and hair thinning, increases in facial wrinkles

 reductions in the efficiency of the cardiovascular, respiratory and nervous systems
 onset of presbyopia
 women experience the menopause (late 40s or early 50s)

Menopause is the cessation of menstruation, accompanied by reduced secretion of estrogen

hormones by the ovaries.

 In men, levels of testosterone and sperm counts decline their fertility tends to decrease
with age

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

 decline in numeric skill

  modest decrease in reaction time
 reduction in conscious processing efficiency
 Emotion and clear thinking

SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

 The ‘mid-life crisis’

- middle age as a period when adults have to face a conflict between generativity and
stagnation

generativity -the feeling in mid-life that one has made or is making a contribution to the next
generation

stagnation -the feeling experienced by some individuals in mid-life that they have achieved
relatively little and have little to offer to the next generation

Late Adulthood

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

 changes in the skin (wrinkling, loss of elasticity)

 loss of subcutaneous fat
 thinning of the hair
 changes in general posture due to the loss of collagen between the spinal vertebrae
 changes to the cardiovascular system and loss of cardiac muscle strength
 decline in muscle mass
 reductions in the efficiency of the respiratory, digestive and urinary systems

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

 Older people do tend to perform less well than younger adults on tasks dependent upon
reaction time and processing speed
 older adults perform less well on Piagetian-type tasks measuring formal operations
 intellectual capacity in the elderly is pervasively inadequate

SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

 facing a conflict – this time between integrity and despair

 Levinson saw the period from approximately 60 to 65 as the late adult transition
 Successful ageing
 Relations with others
o the marital relationship may become more rewarding during old age
o grand parenting or great-grand parenting –allow them to feel that they contribute
to their family and to a new generation
 o Sibling relationships often become particularly important

BIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF AGING

Wear and Tear Theory
• The human body is like a machine that gradually deteriorates and wears out.
Cellular Theories
• Due to passage of time, there are harmful substances that destroy the cells.
Metabolic Theory
• Changes in cell metabolism caused by calorie intake and stress.
Programmed Cell Theories
• Aging is genetically programmed.

Death and Dying

• Thoughts of death are an important part of the last stages of life for many
individuals. Older adults spend more time thinking about death than younger
adults. Contemplating and planning for one’s death is a normal part of old age.
• Older adults tend to be less frightened by death than are younger adults. Older
adults often come to accept its inevitability with little anguish. Indeed, it often
helps them make the most out of the time remaining.
Kübler-Ross Grief Cycle
• Psychiatrist Elisabeth Kübler-Ross provided new and important insights into the
process of dying through her interviews of hundreds of terminally ill patients.
• Her studies on the dying process described five emotional states in which people
dealt with death:
Denial - Avoidance, Confusion, Shock, Fear
• In this stage, people resist the idea that they are dying. Even if told that their
chances for survival are small, they refuse to admit that they are facing death.
Anger - Frustration, Irritation, Anxiety
• After moving beyond the denial stage, dying people become angry—angry at
people around them who are in good health, angry at medical professionals for
being ineffective, angry at God.
Bargaining - Struggling to find meaning, reaching out to others
 • Anger leads to bargaining in which the dying try to think of ways to postpone
death. They may decide to dedicate their lives to religion if God saves them.
• They may say, “If only I can live to see my son married, I will accept death then.”
Depression - Helplessness, Hostility, Overwhelmed
• When dying people come to feel that bargaining is no use, they move to the next
stage: depression.
• They realize that their lives really are coming to an end, which leads to what
Kübler-Ross calls “preparatory grief” for their own deaths.
Acceptance - Exploring options, Moving on
• In this stage, people accept impending death.
• Usually they are unemotional and uncommunicative; it is as if they have made
peace with themselves and are expecting death with no bitterness.

Euthanasia
• Also called mercy killing. the act of putting to death painlessly or allowing to die,
as by withholding extreme medical measures, a person or animal suffering from
an incurable, especially a painful, disease or condition. painless death.
Active euthanasia
• Involves the deliberate ending of someone’s life by a person in authority who
administers a drug overdose or disconnects a life support system.
Passive euthanasia
• Involves allowing a person to die by withholding available treatment, such as not
using defibrillator on the event the person’s heart drops
Voluntary euthanasia
• refers to helping someone fulfill their wish to die by acting in such a way to help
that person’s life end. This can be in active or passive form of euthanasia
Involuntary euthanasia
• occurs when the person is unconscious or otherwise unable to make a
meaningful choice between living and dying, and an appropriate person takes the
decision on their behalf.