lacks empirical support and offers no testable or
Assignment
1. Creationist Theory
Creationism is the religious belief that nature, and
aspects such as the universe, Earth, life,
and humans, originated with supernaturalacts
of divine creation. In its broadest sense, creationism
includes a continuum of religious views, which vary in
their acceptance or rejection of scientific
explanations such as evolution that describe the
origin and development of natural phenomena.
The term creationism most often refers to belief
in special creation; the claim that the universe and
lifeforms were created as they exist today by divine
action, and that the only true explanations are those
which are compatible with a Christian
fundamentalist literalinterpretation of the creation
myths found in the Bible's Genesis creation
narrative.[7] Since the 1970s, the commonest form of
this has been young Earth creationism which posits
special creation of the universe and lifeforms within
the last 10,000 years on the basis of Flood geology,
and promotes pseudoscientific creation science. From
the 18th century onwards, old Earth
creationism accepted geological time harmonized with
Genesis through gap or day-age theory, while
supporting anti-evolution. Modern old-Earth
creationists support progressive creationism and
continue to reject evolutionary
explanations. Following political controversy, creation
science was reformulated as intelligent
design and neo-creationism.
Mainline Protestants and the Catholic
Church reconcile modern science with their faith in
Creation through forms of theistic evolutionwhich hold
that God purposefully created through the laws of
nature, and accept evolution. Some groups call their
belief evolutionary creationism
Less prominently, there are also members of
the Islamic, Hindu and American Indian faiths who are
creationists.
Use of the term "creationist" in this context dates back
to Charles Darwin's unpublished 1842 sketch draft for
what became On the Origin of Species and he used
the term later in letters to colleagues. Asa
Gray published a 1873 article in The Nation saying a
"special creationist" maintaining that species "were
supernaturally originated just as they are, by the very
terms of his doctrine places them out of the reach of
scientific explanation.
2.Intelligent design (ID) is
a pseudoscientific argument for the existence of God,
presented by its proponents as "an evidence-
based scientific theory about life's
origins". Proponents claim that "certain features of the
universe and of living things are best explained by an
intelligent cause, not an undirected process such
as natural selection."ID is a form of creationism that
tenable hypotheses, so it is not science. The leading
proponents of ID are associated with the Discovery
Institute, a fundamentalist Christian and politically
conservative think tank based in the United States.
Though the phrase "intelligent design" had featured
previously in theological discussions of the argument
from design, the first publication of the term intelligent
design in its present use as an alternative term for
creationism was in Of Pandas and People, a 1989
creationist textbook intended for high school biology
classes. The term was substituted into drafts of the
book, directly replacing references to creation
science and creationism, after the 1987 United States
Supreme Court's Edwards v. Aguillard decision, which
barred the teaching of creation science in public
schools on constitutional grounds.From the mid-
1990s, the intelligent design movement (IDM),
supported by the Discovery Institute, advocated
inclusion of intelligent design in public school biology
curricula.This led to the 2005 Kitzmiller v. Dover Area
School District trial in which U.S. District Judge John
E. Jones III found that intelligent design was not
science, that it "cannot uncouple itself from its
creationist, and thus religious, antecedents," and that
the school district's promotion of it therefore violated
the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment to
the United States Constitution.
ID presents two main arguments against evolutionary
explanations: irreducible complexity and specified
complexity. These arguments assert that certain
features (biological and informational, respectively)
are too complex to be the result of natural processes.
As a positive argument against evolution, ID proposes
an analogy between natural systems and human
artifacts, a version of the theological argument from
design for the existence of God ID proponents then
conclude by analogy that the complex features, as
defined by ID, are evidence of design.
Detailed scientific examination has rebutted the
claims that evolutionary explanations are inadequate,
and this premise of intelligent design—that evidence
against evolution constitutes evidence for design—is
a false dichotomy. It is asserted that ID challenges
the methodological naturalism inherent in modern
science though proponents concede that they have
yet to produce a scientific theory.
3. The holographic principle is a tenet of string
theories and a supposed property of quantum
gravity that states that the description of a volume
of space can be thought of as encoded on a lower-
dimensional boundary to the region—such as a light-
like boundary like a gravitational horizon. First
proposed by Gerard 't Hooft, it was given a precise
string-theory interpretation by Leonard Susskind who
combined his ideas with previous ones of 't Hooft
and Charles Thorn. As pointed out by Raphael
Bousso, Thorn observed in 1978 that string theory
admits a lower-dimensional description in which
gravity emerges from it in what would now be called a
holographic way. The prime example of holography is
the AdS/CFT correspondence.
The holographic principle was inspired by black hole
thermodynamics, which conjectures that the
maximal entropy in any region scales with the
radius squared, and not cubed as might be expected.
In the case of a black hole, the insight was that the
informational content of all the objects that have fallen
into the hole might be entirely contained in surface
fluctuations of the event horizon. The holographic
principle resolves the black hole information
paradox within the framework of string
theory. However, there exist classical solutions to the
Einstein equations that allow values of the entropy
larger than those allowed by an area law, hence in
principle larger than those of a black hole. These are
the so-called "Wheeler's bags of gold". The existence
of such solutions conflicts with the holographic
interpretation, and their effects in a quantum theory of
gravity including the holographic principle are not yet
fully understood.
4. Always existed theory
There’s a wealth of evidence that the Universe began
in a Big Bang around 14 billion years ago. We can
see distant galaxies racing away from each other, and
the space around them is filled with cosmic radiation
whose intensity and spread are consistent with that
expected from the aftermath of the Big Bang. But
none of this rules out the possibility that there was
another universe before ours.
According to some theorists, when Einstein’s theory
of gravity is combined with quantum theory, the Big
Bang could really be part of a Big Bounce, in which
the collapse of a previous, and perhaps very different,
universe is followed by the creation of our own. While
speculative, these theories do at least resolve the
otherwise tricky question of what existed before the
Big Bang.
5. The Big Bang theory is the
prevailing cosmological model for the observable
universe from the earliest known periods through its
subsequent large-scale evolution The model
describes how the universe expanded from a very
high-density and high-temperature state and offers a
comprehensive explanation for a broad range of
phenomena, including the abundance of light
elements, the cosmic microwave
background (CMB), large scale
structure and Hubble's law (the farther away galaxies
are, the faster they are moving away from Earth) If the
observed conditions are extrapolated backwards in
time using the known laws of physics, the prediction is
that just before a period of very high density there
was a singularity which is typically associated with the
Big Bang. Physicists are undecided whether this
means the universe began from a singularity, or that
current knowledge is insufficient to describe the
universe at that time. Detailed measurements of the
expansion rate of the universe place the Big Bang at
around 13.8 billion years ago, which is thus
considered the age of the universe. After its initial
expansion, the universe cooled sufficiently to allow
the formation of subatomic particles, and later
simple atoms. Giant clouds of these primordial
elements (mostly hydrogen, with
some helium and lithium) later coalesced
through gravity, eventually forming
early stars and galaxies, the descendants of which
are visible today. Astronomers also observe the
gravitational effects of dark matter surrounding
galaxies. Though most of the mass in the universe
seems to be in the form of dark matter, Big Bang
theory and various observations seem to indicate that
it is not made out of conventional baryonic
matter (protons, neutrons, and electrons) but it is
unclear exactly what it ismade out of.
Since Georges Lemaître first noted in 1927 that an
expanding universe could be traced back in time to an
originating single point, scientists have built on his
idea of cosmic expansion. The scientific community
was once divided between supporters of two different
theories, the Big Bang and the Steady State theory,
but a wide range of empirical evidence has strongly
favored the Big Bang which is now universally
accepted.] In 1929, from analysis of
galactic redshifts, Edwin Hubble concluded that
galaxies are drifting apart; this is important
observational evidence consistent with the hypothesis
of an expanding universe. In 1964, the cosmic
microwave background radiation was discovered,
which was crucial evidence in favor of the Big Bang
model, since that theory predicted the existence of
background radiation throughout the universe before
it was discovered. More recently, measurements of
the redshifts of supernovae indicate that
the expansion of the universe is accelerating, an
observation attributed to dark energy's existence. The
known physical laws of nature can be used to
calculate the characteristics of the universe in detail
back in time to an initial state of
extreme density and temperature.
6. The Big Crunch is one of the theoretical scenarios
for the ultimate fate of the universe, in which the
metric expansion of space eventually reverses and
the universe recollapses, ultimately causing the
cosmic scale factor to reach zero or causing a
reformation of the universe starting with another Big
Bang.
Some experimental evidence casts doubt on this
theory and suggests that the expansion of the
universe is accelerating, rather than being slowed
down by gravity. However, more recent research has
called this conclusion into question.
7. Steady State Theory:
The steady-state theory is a view that the universe is
always expanding but maintaining a constant average
density, matter being continuously created to form
new stars and galaxies at the same rate that old ones
become unobservable as a consequence of their
increasing distance and velocity of recession. A
steady-state universe has no beginning or end in
time; and from any point within it the view on the
grand scale--i.e., the average density and
arrangement of galaxies--is the same. Galaxies of all
possible ages are intermingled.
In cosmology, the steady state model is an alternative
to the Big Bang theory of the evolution of the
universe. In the steady state model, the density of
matter in the expanding universe remains unchanged
due to a continuous creation of matter, thus adhering
to the perfect cosmological principle, a principle that
asserts that the observable universe is basically the
same at any time as well as at any place.
While the steady state model enjoyed some minority
support in the scientific mainstream until the mid-20th
century, it is now rejected by the vast majority of
cosmologists, astrophysicists and astronomers, as the
observational evidence points to a hot Big Bang
cosmology with a finite age of the universe, which the
steady state model does not predict.
8. The Pulsating Universe Theory says that the
universe follows infinite self-sustaining cycles such as
expanding and contrasting.
Redshift happens when light seen coming from an
object that is moving away is proportionally increased
in wavelength. (corresponding points of the same
phase).
The theory also states that the universe is "living"
and keeps pulsating in and out.
Evidence
The "crunch" is when the universe kind of pulls in to
itself because when the universe expands, it has to
expand with gravity and inertia and eventually inertia
will run out nad gravity will be stuck by itslef. When
gravity stuck by itself it will cause the universe to pull
in to itself and will creat this massive "crunch" at a
rapid rate. The problem is that there is not enough
mass in the universe to create the "crunch". There are
two things that support this theory: CMBR (Cosmic
Microwave Background Radiation) and Redshift.
The theory also says that after the universe has been
contracted to a certain size, explosion occurs and the
universe will start expanding.
Universe Problems CMBR is radiation left over from
an early stage in the development of the universe.
Summary Universe
9. The Oscillating Universe Theory is a
cosmological model that combines both the Big Bang
and the Big Crunch as part of a cyclical event. That is,
if this theory holds true, then the Universe in which we
live in exists between a Big Bang and a Big Crunch.
In other words, our universe can be the first of a
possible series of universes or it can be the nth
universe in the series.
10. Inflationary Theory In physical cosmology,
cosmic inflation, cosmological inflation, or just
inflation, is a theory of exponential expansion of
space in the early universe. The inflationary epoch
lasted from 10−36 seconds after the conjectured Big
Bang singularity to some time between 10−33 and
10−32 seconds after the singularity. Following the
inflationary period, the universe continues to expand,
but at a less rapid rate.
Inflation theory was first developed in 1979 by
theoretical physicist Alan Guth at Cornell University. It
was developed further in the early 1980s. It explains
the origin of the large-scale structure of the cosmos.
Quantum fluctuations in the microscopic inflationary
region, magnified to cosmic size, become the seeds
for the growth of structure in the Universe (see galaxy
formation and evolution and structure formation).
Many physicists also believe that inflation explains
why the universe appears to be the same in all
directions (isotropic), why the cosmic microwave
background radiation is distributed evenly, why the
universe is flat, and why no magnetic monopoles
have been observed.
The detailed particle physics mechanism responsible
for inflation is unknown. The basic inflationary
paradigm is accepted by most physicists, as a
number of inflation model predictions have been
confirmed by observation however, a substantial
minority of scientists dissent from this position. The
hypothetical field thought to be responsible for
inflation is called the inflaton.
In 2002, three of the original architects of the theory
were recognized for their major contributions;
physicists Alan Guth of M.I.T., Andrei Linde of
Stanford, and Paul Steinhardt of Princeton shared the
prestigious Dirac Prize "for development of the
concept of inflation in cosmology".[8] In 2012, Alan
Guth and Andrei Linde were awarded the
Breakthrough Prize in Fundamental Physics for their
invention and development of inflationary cosmology
11. The multiverse, also known as an omniverse or
meta-universe, is a hypothetical group of multiple
universes. Together, these universes comprise
everything that exists: the entirety of space, time,
matter, energy, and the physical laws and constants
that describe them. The different universes within the
multiverse are called "parallel universes", "other
universes", or "alternate universes"