RADIOLOGICAL MONITORING IN DRINKING WATER IN NORTHERN AREAS OF

BOTSWANA (GROSS ALPHA AND BETA MONITORING).

By

SEBELE MOTSWAKAE
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank Mr Sebitla for his advice and time he gave me during preparation and
compiling of information for my project. I also wish to thak Mr Mashaba for the assistance he
gave me in analyzing the results.

Lastly, I would like to thank all my colleagues for the assistance they gave me when I was
preparing this project.

1
ABSTRACT

Twelve water samples from northern part of Botswana were prepared and counted for gross
alpha and gross beta using the liquid scintillator (quantulus1220) detector. The gross alpha
concentration level in the sampled ranged from 0.002Bq/L±0.001Bq/L to 0.004Bq/L±0.001Bq/L.
The beta concentration level ranged from 0.027Bq/L±0.005Bq/L to 0.040Bq/L±0.005Bq/L.

Each value was compared to the WHO’s acceptable limit of 0.1Bq/l for alpha and 1.0Bq/L for
the beta concentration in drinking water. The annual committed effective dose for adults and
children was calculated and compared with WHO limit of 1mSv/y for ingestion.

2
ABBREVIATIONS

Bq/L: Becquerel per liter.

Bq/m: Becquerel per minute.

EPA: Environmental Protection Agency.

GAC: Granular activated carbon.

mBq/L: milli- Becquerel per liter.

mSv/y: milli-Sievert per year.

pCi/L: picocuries per liter.

CFR: Code of Federal Regulations (proposed rule).

3
Table of Contents

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ......................................................................................................................................... 1
ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................................................. 2
ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................................................................................... 3
CHAPTER 1 ............................................................................................................................................................ 5
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................................. 5
OBJECTIVES ........................................................................................................................................................... 8
SIGNIFFICANCE OF THE STUDY ............................................................................................................................. 9
CHAPTER 2 .......................................................................................................................................................... 10
LITERATURE REVIEW ....................................................................................................................................... 10
CHAPTER 3 .......................................................................................................................................................... 12
3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS ...................................................................................................................... 12
3.1 Sampling procedure....………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..12

3.2 Sampling preparation..…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………12

3.3 Sample analysis.………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….12

CHAPTER 4 .......................................................................................................................................................... 13
4.0 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS ............................................................................................................................ 13
4.1 Dose intake calculation………………………………………………………………………………………..………………………………15

DISCUSSION ........................................................................................................................................................ 19
CONCLUSSION ..................................................................................................................................................... 20
RECOMMENDATIONS ......................................................................................................................................... 21
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................................................ 22

4
CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Water is one of the natural resources which are essential in human life. It covers majority of the
earth surfaces, with about 70 percent of the earth crust covered with water. It constitutes about 70
percent of human body. Water is needed for food production, industrial development and public
health hence its needed for the economic growth of the country (Marbaniang, 2011).

Drinking water is the most important need for human beings. Access to safe drinking water is
essential for human health, therefore water quality must be controlled all the time. Drinking water
238 234 232 226 210
may contain different natural alpha emitters such as U, U, Th, Ra and Po and beta
40 228 210
emitters such as K, Ra and Pb which belong to the natural decay series and artificial
241 90
radionuclides such as A and Sr in various concentration (Jobba´gy, Wa¨tjen, & Meresova,
2010). The radioactive decay series of uranium series and thorium series form various nuclides
206
and end-product is the stable Pb isotope (Cristina, Rusconi, & Maurio, 2012). Figure 1 below
show the decay series these nuclides.

Figure1: The radioactive decay series of 238U, 235U and 232Th (Arrows pointing downwards represent
an alpha decay and the arrows pointing upwards represent beta decay.

5
These radionuclides can enter the food chain through irrigation waters and water sources through
water wells. In human body, they cause internal exposure (Turhan, Ozcitak, & Taskin, 2012).

Naturally occurring radioactive nuclides and artificial radionuclides present on the environment
get dissolved in water during rain and infiltration of water in the ground and affect water bodies
such as dams and ground water. These naturally occurring radionuclides leads to internal and
external exposure. The main contributors of are K-40, U-238 and its daughters and Th-232 and its
daughters (Özlem, Ceylan, & Mahmut, 2009) These nuclides are not uniformly distributed in soil,
their distribution vary from place to place depending on the presence of minerals such as granite,
coal and uranium (Murty & Karunakara, 2008).

Water pollution takes place due contamination by micro-organisms (bacteria and germs) and due
to presence of radioactive nuclides in water. These elements that are dangerous to human health.
The former can be treated during chlorination and it is the most common type of water pollution
while the later needs special water treatment methods such as ion exchange, granular activated
carbon (GAC) (Annanmaki & Turtiainen, 2000) and by reverse osmosis (Gamal, 2013).

Radioactive elements of natural origin are usually present in different amount in drinking water.
They are released from rocks and minerals which form the body of permeable rock (aquifer).
Dissolution and erosion brings radioactive nuclides from rocks to water (Cristina Nuccetelli,
2012). Botswana is a country with different ranges of minerals such as diamonds, coal, nickel and
uranium which are being mined except uranium. Mining activities contributes a lot in production
of radioactive nuclides. These radioactive nuclides can get in contact with water and become a
threat to human life. Since Botswana has a variety of mines, there is a need to check radioactivity
level in drinking water in other to ascertain that radioactivity in drinking water is within the
allowable range or standard. In Botswana, both surface and ground water are being used as water
sources for human beings. Since Botswana has a lot of mineral, water sources might contain high
gross alpha and beta activities. No radiological studies have been conducted in drinking water
before. Only radiological studies in soils have been carried out in some parts of the country
(Ranganai, Moidaki, King, & Ngwisanyi, 2006).

Before water can be used for human consumption, it should be screened to determine the gross
alpha and gross beta activity in water. This is the first step before identifying the concentration of

6
individual radionuclides in water. If gross alpha and gross beta activities are less than 0.1Bq/L for
alpha and 1Bq/L for beta, it means that water is suitable for drinking. When gross alpha and gross
beta activities are greater than 0.1Bq/L for alpha and 1Bq/L, then the concentration of individual
radionuclides should be measured and compared with World Health Organization (WHO)
guidelines (Ibrahim, Dahuwa, & Bello, 2016). Figure 2 below shows the screening steps used to
identify if water is suitable for drinking purpose in terms of radioactivity concentration.

Determination of gross alpha and gross

beta activity

Gross α>0.1Bq/L
Gross α<0.1Bq/L
Gross β> 1Bq/L
Gross β<1Bq/L

Determination of individual radionuclide

concentration and compare with the
guidance level

Dose≥0.1mSv
Dose≤ 0.1mSv

Consider and if necessary take

remedial action to reduce the
Water suitable for
dose
consumption

Figure2: The outline of the screening process for the suitability of drinking water in term of radioactivity.

7
OBJECTIVES

I. To determine the levels of radioactivity in drinking water in northern part of Botswana.

II. To determine the type of drinking water that has the highest levels of radioactive nuclides.

8
SIGNIFFICANCE OF THE STUDY

This study will help in determining the level of natural radioactivity of drinking water in Botswana.
It will also help in determining the distribution of radioactive nuclides in water collected from
various places in Botswana. This study will help in coming out with the guidelines of radiological
standard of drinking water of Botswana.

9
CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Gross alpha and beta is a test that is performed to measure the overall radioactivity in drinking
water. Naturally occurring radioactive nuclides emit beta and alpha particles as they decay. These
radioactive nuclides are found naturally in air water and soils. The parent rock (bedrock) in the
earth contains different amounts of radioactive elements such as uranium-238 (U-238) which
decays to harmful elements such as radon and lead through the emission of alpha and beta particles
(Salonen, 1994).

Gross alpha and beta test has been carried out in most countries to determine the concentration of
alpha and beta particles in water. In some countries, such as South Africa, this test was done in an
area next to gold mine in Witwatersrand (Cristina, Rusconi, & Maurio, 2012). This was done after
100 years of mining gold in South Africa. while in Nigeria it was carried out around tin mining
ponds of Norther Plateau and its surrounding areas (Ibrahim, Dahuwa, & Bello, 2016). This is
because mining activities tend to elevate radioactive nuclide in environment (both water and land).

Botswana has different minerals being mined such as diamonds, cement, coal and the recently
discovered uranium which is a major player in radon concentration on the environment. Since
mining is taking place in Botswana, it is of great importance to carry out this kind of study in other
to check the level of contamination so that precautions and preventative measures can be employed
in other keep the levels of contamination in drinking water within allowable range.

Water bodies might have been contaminated already with radioactive nuclides in Botswana
because of the presence of minerals and mining that takes places in different areas of Botswana.
Since the beginning of mining activities in Botswana around early 1970s up to now, no studies
have been conducted about the concentration of radionuclide in water even though mining
activities have the potential of contaminating water bodies.

In developed countries like USA, departments like Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) have
come up with drinking water standards. The table below shows some of the radionuclide
concentration set by EPA in drinking water (EnvironmentalProtectionAgency, 2004).

10
 Test Name Radiation Type EPA Standards
Radon alpha Proposed 300/400pCi/L (CFR11/99)
Compliance Gross Alpha* alpha 15pCi/L**
Uranium alpha 30µg/L (approximately 20pCi/L***
Radium-226 alpha Total of 226 and 228= 5pCi/L
Radium -228 beta
Beta beta 4 millirems per year

Table 1: Concentration level of some elements allowed in drinking water in USA.

*Compliance gross alpha equals the concentration of analytical gross (in pCi/L) minus the
concentration of uranium (in pCi/L).

**pCi/L picocuries per liter.

***micrograms per liter (µg/L) can be converted to pCi/L multiplying the U (µg/L) by 0.67

CFR= Code of Federal Regulations (proposed rule).

The main health concerns associated with regulated radionuclides in water includes: increase in
the risks of lung cancer due to radon, increase in toxicity risks of kidneys due to uranium and
increases the risks of bone cancer due to radium.

11
CHAPTER 3

3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS

Water samples from (number of locations) in Botswana. The choice of sampling was based on
population density. These locations are cities, towns and major villages.

3.1 SAMPLING PROCEDURE

1. The sample containers were rinsed three times with the water being collected, this was
done in order to minimize contamination from the original content of the sample container.

2. One liter of was collected for each sample.

3. About (volume of name of acid) of acid was added on each water sample immediately after
collection after collection for the preservation of the nuclides.

4. The samples were then tightly sealed and labeled based on the place of collection and day
of collection.

3.2 SAMPLING PREPARATION

1. Containers were soaked in (name of acid) for two hours. This was done in order to remove
all foreign elements that might affect the results.

2. The containers were then cleaned with soapy water.

3. They were then rinsed with tape water and then rinsed twice with distilled water then dried.

4. They were then filled with sample water, closed tightly, labeled and kept in laboratory
ready for analysis.

3.3 SAMPLE ANALYSIS

Sample analysis was done using Quantulus 1220 liquid scintillator at North West University in
Mafikeng. Quantulus 1220 liquid scintillator is an ultra-low level liquid scintillator counter
which can record alpha and beta particles of low energy (Natasa, Jovana, & Istran, 2012)

12
CHAPTER 4

4.0 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

Sample Sample Sample Area Alpha Activity Beta Activity
Number Code (Bq/min) (Bq/min)

1 S1 Gumare 0.566 ± 0.044 10.077 ± 0.185

2 S9 Francistown Gerald 0.504 ± 0.041 8.694 ± 0.172

3 S10 Tsao 0.610 ± 0.046 8.547 ± 0.171

4 S11 Maun Thito Area 0.995 ± 0.058 8.660 ± 0.172

5 S12 Nata Shell 0.603 ± 0.045 9.079 ± 0.176

6 S14 Palapye 0.491 ±0.041 10.776 ±0.192

7 S16 Mahalapye Caltex 0.474 ± 0.040 7.559 ±0.160

8 S18 Tutume 0.763 ±0.051 7.337 ± 0.158

9 S19 Serule Shell 0.658 ± 0.047 7.252 ± 0.157

10 S25 Nokaneneng (Ngami land) 0.695 ± 0.049 7.467 ± 0.160

11 S27 Masunga 0.763 ± 0.051 7.184 ± 0.156

12 S30 Shakawe 0.651 ± 0.047 7.589 ± 0.161

Table 2: Gross alpha and beta activity in water samples in Bq/m.

Calculating the activity (Bq/L)

The activity was calculated using the equation (1) below and the results recorded in table 3 in page
15. The results in table 3 were then used to make a bar graph on page 18.

𝐶𝑠+𝑏−𝐶𝑏
Activity (Bq/L) = ( ) (1)
𝑇𝜂𝑉

Where: Cs +b is the sample counts.

13
 T is the sample counting time which is 18000seconds.

V is the volume of the sample is 0.015liters.

the efficiency of the detector. For beta particles, the efficiency of detector is 30% and for
alpha particles it is 100%.

Cb is the background counts. The background count was zero.

The efficiency of the detector 100% for both alpha and beta measurements.

Calculation the activity error

Activity error was calculated using the formula given below and the results recorded in table3 in
page 15.

√(𝐶𝑠+𝑏𝑢𝑛𝑐)+(𝐶𝑏𝑢𝑛𝑐)
Error = ( 2)
𝜂𝑉𝑇

Where: V and T have the same reference as provided in equation 1 above.

Cs +bunc is sample count uncertainty.

Cbunc is the background uncertainty. Background uncertainty was zero.

14
 Sample sample Code Sample Area Alpha activity Beta activity
number (Bq/L) (Bq/L)
1 S1 Gumare 0.002±0.001 0.037±0.001
2 S9 Francistown Gerald 0.002±0.001 0.032±0.001
3 S10 Tsao 0.002±0.001 0.032±0.001
4 S11 Maun Thito Area 0.004±0.001 0.032±0.001
5 S12 Nata Shell 0.002±0.001 0.034±0.001
6 S14 Palapye 0.002±0.001 0.040±0.001
7 S16 Mahalapye Caltex 0.002±0.001 0.028±0.001
8 S18 Tutume 0.003±0.001 0.027±0.001
9 S19 Serule Shell 0.002±0.001 0.027±0.001
10 S25 Nokaneneng (Ngami land) 0.003±0.001 0.028±0.001
11 S27 Masunga 0.003±0.001 0.027±0.001
12 S30 Shakawe 0.002±0.001 0.028±0.001
WHO limit 0.1 1

Table 3: Gross alpha and Gross beta activity in mBq/L.

The WHO limit for alpha and beta in drinking water is 0.1Bq/L and 1.0 Bq/L respectively (Ibrahim,
Dahuwa, & Bello, 2016).

4.1 Dose intake form consumption of water.

To quantify the dose intake to human for the consumption of water from these sources, and to
quantify the health risks associated the consumption of such water, the effective equivalent dose
is estimated. The effective equivalent dose gives a good approximation of the dose in our bodies
(Ogundare & Adekoya, 2014).

Calculating committed effective dose (CED).

15
Committed effective dose was calculated using the equation 3 below and the results were recorded
in table 4 in page 16 and 17 respectively.

CED =IAC×365 (3)

Where: I is the daily water consumption which is about 2L/day and 730L/year for an adult person
and about 0.55L/day or 200L/year for children.

A is the alpha or beta activity in Bq/L.

C is the dose conversion factor for ingestion. For adults, C = 2.8×10-4mSv/Bq while for
children C = 1.5×10-3mSv/Bq for a given beta and alpha.

Sample Sample Sample Area Dose limit for Dose limits

Number Code Adults(10-3mSv/y) for children
(mSv/y)
1 S1 Gumare 0.001 0.001
2 S9 Francistown 0.001 0.001
(Gerald)
3 S10 Tsao 0.001 0.001
4 S11 Maun 0.001 0.002
5 S12 Nata (Shell) 0.001 0.001
6 S14 Palapye 0.001 0.001
7 S16 Mahalapye 0.001 0.001
8 S18 Tutume 0.001 0.001
9 S19 Serule 0.001 0.001
10 S25 Nokaneng 0.001 0.001
11 S27 Masunga 0.001 0.001
12 S30 shakawe 0.001 0.001
WHO limit 0.1 0.1

Table 4: The estimated annual effective dose from alpha for adults and children.

16
 Sample Sample Sample Area Dose limit Dose limit
Number Code for adults for children
(mSv/y) (mSv/y)
1 S1 Gumare 0.008 0.011
2 S9 Francistown 0.007 0.010
(Gerald)
3 S10 Tsao 0.007 0.010
4 S11 Maun 0.007 0.010
5 S12 Nata 0.007 0.011
6 S14 Palapye 0.008 0.012
7 S16 Mahalapye 0.006 0.009
8 S18 Tutume 0.006 0.008
9 S19 Serule 0.006 0.008
10 S25 Nokaneng 0.006 0.008
11 S27 Masunga 0.006 0.008
12 S30 Shakawe 0.006 0.009
WHO limit 0.1 0.1

Table 5: The estimated annual effective dose from beta for adults and children.

17
 Gross alpha and gross beta activity in water samples in Bq/L
0.045
0.04
0.035
Activity (Bq/L)

0.03 Alpha activity (Bq/L)

0.025
Beta activity (Bq/L)
0.02
0.015
0.01
0.005
0

Sample Area

Figure 3: Bar graph showing the gross alpha and gross beta activity in water samples (mBq/L).

18
DISCUSSION

Gross alpha activity concentration in Table3 above ranges from 0.002Bq/L±0.001Bq/L to

0.004Bq/L±0.001Bq/L. Most areas had an activity of 0.002Bq/L (the minimum range) while Maun
(Thito area) had the maximum activity of 0.004Bq/L respectively. The alpha activity
concentrations in all samples collected, analysed and examined are below the practical screening
level of 0.1Bq/L.

The beta activity concentration ranges from 0.027Bq/L±0.005Bq/L to 0.040Bq/L±0.005Bq/L.

Tutume, Serule (shell) and Masunga hade the minimum beta range of 0.027Bq/L while Palapye
had the maximum beta activity of 0.040Bq/L respectively. All the samples collected had the
concentration activity below the set the WHO set limit. WHO recommended practical screening
level of drinking water is 1.0Bq/L. The low level of alpha and beta activity may suggest the
absence of pollutants of anthropogenic and natural origin.

From the estimated effective dose in tables table4 and table5, the committed effective dose for
alpha particles was found to be 0.001mSv/y for both adults and children.

The committed effective dose from beta particles ranges from 0.007mSv/y to 0.009mSv/y for
adults while it ranges from 0.008mSv/y to 0.011mSv/y for children.

All committed effective doses for both beta and alpha are below the limit set by WHO standard,
of which 1mSv/y applies to both beta and alpha committed effective doses per year. Even though
the results are below the limit set by WHO, areas like Palapye shows that the drinking water
contains more beta particles which might cause health hazard in children as compared to adults
since the maximum committed effective dose for children is higher than that of adults. For adults,
the committed effective dose was found to be 0.009mSv/y while for children it was found to be
0.011mSv/y. The committed effective dose for children was higher than that for adults by
0.002mSv/y. Even though it was high, the value of 0.011mSv/y obtained is far less than the limit
set by WHO of 1mSv/y.

19
CONCLUSSION

Water samples collected from these areas shows that there is low radioactivity in drinking water
in those areas. The level of activity in all areas was found to be below the WHO limit in all areas.
This suggest that, drinking water in northern part of Botswana is safe for human consumption.

20
RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Specific radionuclide test should be carried out in Maun sample so that beta activity in
drinking water can be brought down to low level since the CED for children was found to
be higher than that of adults due to beta activity.
2. Botswana should have radiological measurement standards in drinking.

21
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Argonne National Laboratory, E. (2005). Human Health Fact Sheet. Argonne National Laboratory, EVS EVS.

Cristina Nuccetelli, R. R. (2012). Radioactivity in drinking water:regulations, monitoring results and radiation
protection issues. Ann Ist Super Sanità 2012 | Vol. 48, 362.

Cristina, N., Rusconi, R., & Maurio, F. (2012). Radioactivity in drinking water: regualtions, monitoring results
and radiation protection issues. Health risks from water and new challenges for the future, 363-369.

EnvironmentalProtectionAgency. (2004). Dissolved Mineral Radioactivity in Drinking Water. New Hamsphere:

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Water From Some Bore Holes And Wells In Kaduna North Local Government Area Of Kaduna State. .
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samples: a short overview of methods. Journal of Radioanalytical andNuclear Chemistry, 394.

Marbaniang, D. G. (2011). Radioactivity (Gross-Α and Gross-Β) Studies of Surface Water Collected from
Domiasiat Area, West Khasi Hills District, Meghalaya, India . International Journal of Environmental
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Murty, V., & Karunakara, N. (2008). Natural radioactivity in the soil samples of Botswana. Radiation
Measurements, 1542.

Natasa, T., Jovana, N., & Istran, B. (2012). Establishment of a method of measurement of gross/beta activities
in water from Vojvodina region. Article in Radiation Measurements, 1054-1055.

Ogundare, F., & Adekoya, O. (2014). Gross alpha and beta radioactivity in surface soil and drinkable water
around a steel processing facility. Journal of Radiation Research and Applied Sciences, 415.

Özlem, S. Z., Ceylan, H., & Mahmut, D. (2009). Gross alpha and beta radioactivity concentration in water, soil
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