A Simple Model for Predicting Heat Loss
and Temperature Profiles in
Insulated Pipelines
Boyun Guo, SPE, Shengkai Duan, SPE, Ali Ghalambor, SPE, U. of Louisiana at Lafayette
Summary
Accurate predictions of heat loss and temperature profile in oil-
and gas-production pipelines are essential to designing and evalu-
ating pipeline operations. Although some sophisticated computer
packages are available for such purposes, their accuracies suffer
from numerical treatments and model-building skills of inexperi-
enced users. A simple and accurate analytical heat-transfer model
is highly desirable.
This paper presents three analytical heat-transfer solutions for
predicting heat loss and temperature profiles in pipelines trans-
porting petroleum fluids. The three solutions consist of one steady-
state-flow solution and two transient-flow solutions. The two tran-
sient-flow solutions are for startup mode and flow-rate-change mode
(shutting down is a special mode in which the flow rate changes to
zero). An application example is presented to illustrate how the mod-
els can be used in insulation design of an offshore pipeline.
Introduction
Heat transfer across the insulation of pipelines presents a unique
problem affecting flow efficiency. Although sophisticated com-
puter packages are available for predicting fluid temperatures, their
accuracies suffer from numerical treatments because long pipe
segments have to be used to save computing time. This is espe-
cially true for transient-fluid-flow analyses in which a very large
number of numerical iterations are performed.
Ramey (1962) was among the first investigators who studied
radial heat transfer across a well casing with no insulation. He
derived a mathematical heat-transfer model for an outer medium
that is infinitely large. Miller (1980) analyzed heat transfer around
a geothermal wellbore without insulation. Winterfeld (1989) and
Almehaideb and Pedrosa (1989) considered temperature effect on
pressure-transient analyses in well testing. Stone et al. (1989) de-
veloped a numerical simulator to couple fluid flow and heat flow
in a wellbore and reservoir. More advanced studies on the wellbore
heat-transfer problem were conducted by Hasan and Kabir (1994,
2002), Hasan, Kabir, and Wang (1997, 1998), and Kabir et al.
(1996). Although multilayers of materials have been considered in
these studies, the external temperature gradient in the longitudinal
direction has not been systematically taken into account. Tradi-
tionally, if the outer temperature changes with length, the pipe
must be divided into segments with assumed constant outer tem-
perature in each segment and where numerical algorithms are re-
quired for heat-transfer computation. The accuracy of the compu-
tation depends on the number of segments used. Fine segments can
be employed to ensure accuracy, with computing time sacrificed.
Therefore, accurate heat-transfer equations of closed form are
highly desirable. The objective of this study was to develop ana-
lytical solutions to the heat-transfer problems under various oper-
ating conditions.
This paper presents three analytical heat-transfer solutions.
They are the transient-flow solution for startup mode, steady-state
Copyright © 2006 Society of Petroleum Engineers
This paper (SPE 86983) was first presented at the 2004 SPE International Thermal Op-
erations and Heavy Oil Symposium and Western Regional Meeting, Bakersfield, California,
16–18 March, and revised for publication. Original manuscript received for review 30 No-
vember 2004. Revised manuscript received 05 April 2005. Paper peer approved 15 April
2005.
February 2006 SPE Production & Operations
flow solution for normal operation mode, and transient-flow solu-
tion for flow-rate-change mode (shutting down is a special mode in
which the flow rate changes to zero). An application case is illus-
trated in which the model-calculated temperature profiles were
used for insulation design.
Pipeline Insulation
Oilfield pipelines are insulated mainly to conserve heat. The need to
keep the product in the pipeline at a temperature higher than the
ambient temperature could exist for reasons including the following:
• Preventing formation of gas hydrates.
• Preventing formation of wax or asphaltenes.
• Enhancing product flow properties.
• Increasing cool-down time after shutting down.
In liquefied-gas pipelines, such as those for liquefied natural
gas, insulation is required to maintain the cold temperature of the
gas to keep it in a liquid state.
Polypropylene, polyethylene, and polyurethane are three base
materials widely used in the petroleum industry for pipeline insula-
tion. Their thermal conductivities are given in Table 1 (Carter et al.
2003). Depending on applications, these base materials are used in
different forms, resulting in different overall conductivities. A three-
layer polypropylene applied to pipe surface has a conductivity of
0.225 W/m-°C (0.13 BTU/hr-ft-°F), while a four-layer polypropylene
has a conductivity of 0.173 W/m-°C (0.10 BTU/hr-ft-°F). Solid poly-
propylene has higher conductivity than polypropylene foam. Poly-
mer syntactic polyurethane has a conductivity of 0.121 W/m-°C
(0.07 BTU/hr-ft-°F), while glass syntactic polyurethane has a con-
ductivity of 0.156 W/m-°C (0.09 BTU/hr-ft-°F). These materials have
lower conductivities in dry conditions such as those in pipe-in-pipe
(PIP) applications.
Because of their low thermal conductivities, more and more
polyurethane foams are used in deepwater pipeline applications.
Physical properties of polyurethane foams include density, com-
pressive strength, thermal conductivity, closed-cell content, leach-
able halides, flammability, tensile strength, tensile modulus, and
water absorption. Typical values of these properties are available
from literature (Guo et al. 2005).
The requirements for pipeline insulation vary from field to
field. Flow-assurance analyses need to be performed to determine
the minimum insulation requirements for a given field. These
analyses include the following:
• Flash analysis of the production fluid to determine the hy-
drate-forming temperatures in the range of operating pressure.
• Global thermal-hydraulics analysis to determine the required
overall heat-transfer coefficient at each location in the pipeline.
• Local heat-transfer analysis to determine the type and thick-
ness of insulation to be used at the location.
• Local transient-heat-transfer analysis at special locations
along the pipeline to develop cool-down curves and times to the
critical minimum allowable temperature at each location.
A number of computer packages are available in the industry
that perform these analyses. Heat transfer is calculated segment by
segment in these packages. In steady-state-flow conditions in an
insulated pipeline segment, the heat flow through the pipe wall is
given by
Qr = UAr ⌬T, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (1)
107

where Qr⳱heat-transfer rate; U=overall-heat-transfer coefficient
(OHTC) at the reference radius; Ar⳱area of the pipeline at the
reference radius; ⌬T⳱difference in temperature between the pipe-
line product and the ambient temperature outside.
The OHTC, U, for a system is the sum of the thermal resis-
tances and is given by (Holman 1981):
1 • Syntactic polypropylene.
150 °C) reservoirs in deepwater (Carmichael et al. 1999). The
annulus between pipes can be filled with different types of insulation
materials such as foam, granular solid particle, gel, and inert gas or
a vacuum.
A pipeline-bundled system—a special configuration of PIP in-
sulation—can be used to group individual flowlines together to
form a bundle (McKelvie 2000); heat-up lines can be included in
the bundle, if necessary. The complete bundle may be transported
to site and installed with a considerable cost savings relative to
other methods. The extra steel required for the carrier pipe and
spacers can sometimes be justified (Bai 2001).
Information about the properties of some dry insulations are
available from Guo et al. (2005).
Wet pipeline insulations are those materials that do not need an
exterior steel barrier to prevent water ingress, or the water ingress
is negligible and does not degrade the insulation properties. The
most common types of this are
• Polyurethane.
• Polypropylene.
• Syntactic polyurethane.

冋 册
U= n
, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2) • Multilayered.
ln共rm+1 Ⲑ rm兲
兺
1 1
Ar + + The main materials that have been used for deepwater insula-
Aihi m=1 2␲Lkm Aoho tions have been polyurethane and polypropylene based. Syntactic
versions use plastic or glass matrix to improve insulation with
where hi⳱film coefficient of pipeline inner surface, ho=film co- greater depth capabilities. Insulation coatings with combinations of
efficient of pipeline outer surface, Ai⳱area of pipeline inner sur- the two materials have also been used. Guo et al. (2005) gives the
face, Ao⳱area of pipeline outer surface, rm⳱radius of layer m, and properties of these wet insulations. Because the insulation is buoy-
km⳱thermal conductivity of layer m. ant, this effect must be compensated by the steel-pipe weight to
Similar equations exist for transient heat flow, giving an in- obtain lateral stability of the deepwater pipeline on the seabed.
stantaneous rate for heat flow. Typically required insulation per- Although the U-values of pipelines can be estimated with good
formance, in terms of OHTC (U-value) of steel pipelines of dif- accuracy, calculating the temperature difference (⌬t) in Eq. 1 is a
ferent configurations, is summarized in Table 2. difficult task. It requires an accurate heat-transfer model to com-
Pipeline insulation comes in two main types: dry insulation and pute the intertemperature profile.
wet insulation. The dry insulations require an outer barrier to pre-
vent water ingress (PIP). The most common types of this include Mathematical Models for Heat Transfer
the following:
• Closed-cell polyurethane foam. Formulation of the governing equation and solutions to the heat-
• Open-cell polyurethane foam. transfer problems under different conditions are given in the Ap-
• Polyisocyanurate foam. pendix. The resultant equations are summarized in this section.
• Extruded polystyrene.
• Fiber glass. Temperature and Heat Transfer for Steady-State Fluid
• Mineral wool. Flow. The internal temperature profile under steady-fluid-flow
• Vacuum-insulation panels. conditions is expressed as:
Under certain conditions, PIP systems may be considered over
1
conventional single-pipe systems. PIP insulation may be required T= 关␤ − ␣␤L − ␣␥ − e−␣共L+C兲兴, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (3)
to produce fluids from high-pressure/high-temperature (above ␣2

108 February 2006 SPE Production & Operations

where the constant groups are defined as:
2␲Rk Fig. 1—Calculated temperature profiles with a polyethylene
␣= , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (4) layer of 0.0254 m (1 in.).
v␳CpsA
␤ = ␣G cos共␪兲, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (5) ␤⬘ = ␣⬘G cos共␪兲, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (13)
␥ = −␣T0, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (6)
␥ ⬘ = −␣⬘T0, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (14)
1
C = − ln共␤ − ␣2Ts − ␣␥兲, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (7) and the function f is given by:
␣
where T is temperature inside the pipe, L is longitudinal distance f共L − v ⬘t兲 = −共L − v ⬘t兲 −
1
␣⬘ 冉
ln ␤⬘ − ␣⬘␤⬘共L − v ⬘t兲 − ␣⬘␥ ⬘

from the fluid entry point, R is inner radius of insulation layer, k is
the thermal conductivity of the insulation material, v is the average
flow velocity of fluid in the pipe, ␳ is fluid density, Cp is heat
capacity of fluid at constant pressure, s is thickness of the insula-
tion layer, A is the inner cross-sectional area of pipe, G is principal
thermal gradient outside the insulation, ␪ is the angle between the
principal thermal gradient and pipe orientation, T0 is temperature
of outer medium at the fluid entry location, and Ts is temperature
of fluid at the fluid entry point.
The rate of heat transfer across the insulation layer over the
whole length of the pipeline is expressed as:
冉冊 冊
␣⬘ 2
− 兵␤ − ␣␤共L − v ⬘t兲 − ␣␥ − e−␣关共L−v ⬘t兲+C兴其 .
␣
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (15)
Application Example
The mathematical models presented in the last section were used to
design insulation for a subsea pipeline. Design base for the pipe-
line insulation is presented in Table 3. The design criterion is to
ensure that the temperature at any point in the pipeline will not
drop to below 25°C, as required by flow assurance. Insulation

冉
materials considered for the project are polyethylene, polypropyl-
2␲Rk G cos共␪兲 2 ene, and polyurethane.
q= T0L − L
s 2 A polyethylene layer of 0.0254 m (1 in.) was first considered as

再 冎冊
1 ␣␤ 2 1 −␣共L+C兲 −␣C the insulation. Fig. 1 shows the temperature profiles calculated
− 共␤ − ␣␥兲L − L + 关e −e 兴 , . . . . . . . (8) using Eqs. 3 and 10. It indicates that at approximately 40 minutes
␣ 2 2 ␣ after startup, the transient-temperature profile in the pipeline will
where q is the rate of heat transfer (heat loss). approach the steady-state-flow temperature profile. The tempera-
ture at the end of the pipeline will be slightly lower than 20°C
Transient Temperature During Startup. The internal tempera- under normal operating conditions. Obviously, this insulation op-
ture profile after starting up a fluid flow is expressed as follows: tion does not meet the design criterion of 25°C in the pipeline.
Fig. 2 presents the steady-state-flow temperature profiles calcu-
1 lated using Eq. 3 with polyethylene layers of four thicknesses. It
T= 兵␤ − ␣␤L − ␣␥ − e−␣共L+f 共L−vt兲兴其, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (9) shows that even a polyethylene layer 0.0635 m (2.5 in.) thick will
␣2
where the function f is given by:
1
f共L − vt兲 = −共L − vt兲 − ln兵␤ − ␣␤共L − vt兲
␣
− ␣␥ − ␣2 关Ts − G cos共␪兲共L − vt兲兴其 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (10)
and t is time.

Transient Temperature During Flow-Rate Change. Suppose

that after increasing or decreasing the flow rate, the fluid has a new
velocity v⬘ in the pipe. The internal temperature profile is ex-
pressed as follows:
1
T= 兵␤⬘ − ␣⬘␤⬘L − ␣⬘␥ ⬘ − e−␣⬘关L+f 共L−v ⬘t兲兴其, . . . . . . . . . . . . . (11)
␣⬘2
where
2␲Rk Fig. 2—Calculated steady-state-flow temperature profiles with
␣⬘ = , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (12)
v ⬘␳CpsA polyethylene layers of various thicknesses.

February 2006 SPE Production & Operations 109

Fig. 3—Calculated temperature profiles with a polypropylene
layer of 0.0254 m (1 in.).
still not give a pipeline temperature higher than 25°C; therefore,
polyethylene should not be considered in this project.
A polypropylene layer of 0.0254 m (1 in.) was then considered
as the insulation. Fig. 3 illustrates the temperature profiles calcu-
lated using Eqs. 3 and 10. It again indicates that at approximately
40 minutes after startup, the transient-temperature profile in the
pipe will approach the steady-state-flow temperature profile. The
temperature at the end of the pipeline will be approximately
22.5°C under normal operating conditions. Obviously, this insu-
lation option, again, does not meet the design criterion of 25°C in
the pipeline. Fig. 4 demonstrates the steady-state-flow temperature
profiles calculated using Eq. 3 with polypropylene layers of four
thicknesses. It shows that a polypropylene layer of 0.0508 m (2.0 in.)
or thicker will give a pipeline temperature of greater than 25°C.
A polyurethane layer of 0.0254 m (1 in.) was also considered as
the insulation. Fig. 5 shows the temperature profiles calculated
using Eqs. 3 and 10. It indicates that the temperature at the end of
pipeline will drop to slightly lower than 25°C under normal oper-
ating conditions. Fig. 6 presents the steady-state-flow temperature
profiles calculated using Eq. 3 with polyurethane layers of four
thicknesses. It shows that a polyurethane layer of 0.0381 m (1.5
in.) is required to keep pipeline temperatures higher than 25°C
under normal operating conditions. Therefore, either a polypropyl-
ene layer of 0.0508 m (2.0 in.) or a polyurethane layer of 0.0381
m (1.5 in.) should be chosen for insulation of the pipeline. Cost
analyses can justify one of the options, which is beyond the scope
of this study. The total heat losses for all the steady-state-flow
cases were calculated with Eq. 8. The results are summarized in
Table 4. These data may be used for sizing heaters for the pipeline
if heating of the product fluid is necessary.
Fig. 5—Calculated temperature profiles with a polyurethane
layer of 0.0254 m (1 in.).
110
Fig. 4—Calculated steady-state-flow temperature profiles with
polypropylene layers of various thicknesses.
Conclusions
The following conclusions are drawn from this study:
1. Transient and steady-state heat transfer in petroleum pipelines
can be mathematically modeled with closed-form analyti-
cal equations.
2. The analytical solutions can be easily used to predict tempera-
ture profiles and heat loss of oil and gas pipelines under various
operating conditions.
Nomenclature
a ⳱parameter group defined by Eq. A-11
A ⳱ cross-sectional area of pipe open for fluid flow, m2
Ai ⳱ area of pipeline inner surface, m2
Ao ⳱ area of pipeline outer surface, m2
Ar ⳱ area of the pipeline at the reference radius, m2
b ⳱ parameter defined by Eq. A-12
B ⳱ constant of integration in Eq. A-32
C ⳱ constant of integration in Eq. A-24
Cp ⳱ specific heat of fluid at constant pressure, J/kg-°C
f ⳱ arbitrary function to be determined from Eq. A-32
G ⳱ thermal gradient outside the insulation, °C/m
hi ⳱ film coefficient of pipeline inner surface,
dimensionless
ho ⳱ film coefficient of pipeline outer surface,
dimensionless
k ⳱ thermal conductivity of insulation layer, W/m-°C
K ⳱ characteristic variable
km ⳱ thermal conductivity of layer m, W/m-°C
L ⳱ longitudinal distance from the fluid entry point, m
Fig. 6—Calculated steady-state-flow temperature profiles with
polyurethane layers of various thicknesses.
February 2006 SPE Production & Operations
 m ⳱ layer index
q ⳱ rate of heat transfer over the whole length of pipe
caused by radial conduction, W
qacc ⳱ heat accumulation, J
qin ⳱ heat flow in, J
qout ⳱ heat flow out, J
qR ⳱ heat transferred, J
Qr ⳱ heat-transfer rate, W
r ⳱ radial distance, m
R ⳱ inner radius of insulation layer, m
rm ⳱ radius of layer m, m
s ⳱ thickness of insulation layer, m
t ⳱ time, seconds
T ⳱ temperature inside the pipe, °C
T0 ⳱ temperature of outer medium at the fluid entry point,
°C
TL ⳱temperature of flowing-in fluid, °C
TL+⌬L ⳱temperature of flowing-out fluid, °C
Ts ⳱ temperature of fluid at the fluid entry point, °C
u ⳱ variable defined by Eq. A-20
U ⳱ overall heat-transfer coefficient, W/m2-°C
v ⳱ the average flow velocity of fluid in the pipe, m/s
v⬘ ⳱ velocity after a flow rate change, m/sec
␣ ⳱ variable defined by Eq. 4
␤ ⳱ variable defined by Eq. 5
⌬L ⳱length of pipe segment, m
⌬t ⳱time period, seconds
⌬T ⳱ difference in temperature between the pipeline product
and the ambient temperature outside, °C
␪ ⳱ angle between the principal thermal gradient and pipe
orientation, degrees
␥ ⳱ variable defined by Eq. 6
␳ ⳱ fluid density, kg/m3
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to Chevron Corp. and the American Pe-
troleum Inst. (API) for providing the Board of Regents Chevron I
Endowed Professorship and API Endowed Professorship in Petro-
leum Engineering throughout this study. This research is supported
in part by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), under award
number DE-FG02-04ER46136, and by the Board of Regents, State
of Louisiana, under Contract No. DOE/LEQSF(2004-07)-ULL.
References
Almehaideb, R.A., Aziz, K. and Pedrosa, O.A. Jr.: “A Reservoir/Wellbore
Model for Multiphase Injection and Pressure Transient Analysis,” pa-
per SPE 17941 presented at the 1989 SPE Middle East Oil Show,
Bahrain, 11–14 March.
Bai, Y.: Pipelines and Risers, Ocean Engineering Book Series, Elsevier,
Amsterdam (2001) 3.
Carmichael, R., Fang, J., and Tam, C.: “Pipe-in-pipe Systems for Deep-
water Developments,” paper presented at the 1999 U.S. Dept. of Inte-
rior MMS, The 2nd Intl. Deepwater Pipeline Technology Conference,
New Orleans, 22–25 March.
February 2006 SPE Production & Operations
Figure 7—Sketch illustrating convection and conduction heat
transfer in a pipe flow.
Carter, B., Gray, C., and Cai, J.: “2002 Survey of Offshore Non-Chemical
Flow Assurance Solutions,” poster published by Offshore Magazine
(2003).
Guo, B. et al.: Offshore Pipelines, Gulf Professional Publishing, Burling-
ton, Elsevier, Amsterdam (2005).
Hasan, A.R. and Kabir, C.S.: “Aspects of Wellbore Heat Transfer During
Two-Phase Flow” SPEPF (1994) 9, No. 2, 211–218.
Hasan, R. and Kabir, C.S.: Fluid Flow and Heat Transfer in Wellbores,
SPE, Richardson, Texas (2002) Chap. 7, 79–89.
Hasan, A.R., Kabir, C.S., and Wang, X.: “Development and Application of
a Wellbore/Reservoir Simulator for Testing Oil Wells,” SPEFE (1997)
12, No. 3, 182–189.
Hasan, A.R., Kabir, C.S., and Wang, X.: “Wellbore Two-Phase Flow and
Heat Transfer During Transient Testing,” SPEJ (1998) 3, No. 2, 174–
181.
Holman, J.P.: Heat Transfer, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York City
(1981) 32.
Kabir, C.S. et al.: “A Wellbore/Reservoir Simulator for Testing Gas Wells
in High-Temperature Reservoirs,” SPEFE (1996) 11, No. 2, 128–135.
McKelvie, M.: “Bundles—Design and Construction,” MS thesis, Heriot-
Watt U. , Edinburgh, U.K. (2000) 45–51.
Miller, C.W.: “Wellbore Storage Effect in Geothermal Wells,” SPEJ
(1980) 555.
Ramey, H.J. Jr.: “Wellbore Heat Transmission,” JPT (April 1962) 427,
Trans., AIME, 14.
Stone, T.W., Edmunds, N.R., and Kristoff, B.J.: “A Comprehensive Well-
bore/Reservoir Simulator,” paper SPE 18419 presented at the 1989 SPE
Reservoir Simulation Symposium, Houston, 6–8 February.
Winterfeld, P.H.: “Simulation of Pressure Buildup in a Multiphase Well-
bore/Reservoir System,” SPEFE (1989) 4, No.2, 247–252.
Appendix—Derivation of Analytical Solutions
Governing Equation. Fig. 7 depicts a small element of pipe with
an insulation layer. Consider the heat flow during a time period ⌬t.
Heat balance is given by
qin − qout − qR = qacc , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (A-1)
where qin is heat energy brought into the pipe element by fluid
because of convection, qout is heat energy carried away from the
pipe element by fluid because of convection, qR is heat energy
transferred through the insulation layer because of conduction, qacc
is heat-energy accumulation in the fluid element. These terms can
be further formulated as
qin = ␳CpvATL⌬t, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (A-2)
qout = ␳CpvATL+⌬L⌬t, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (A-3)
⭸T
qR = 2␲Rk⌬L ⌬t, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (A-4)
⭸r
qacc = ␳CpA⌬L⌬T, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (A-5)
where ␳ is fluid density, Cp is specific heat at constant pressure, v
is the average flow velocity of fluid in the pipe, A is the cross-
111
sectional area of pipe open for fluid flow, TL is temperature of the b
flowing-in fluid, ⌬t is time period, TL+⌬L is temperature of the ␤ = − , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (A-18)
v
flowing-out fluid, R is inner radius of insulation layer, k is thermal
conductivity of the insulation layer, ⌬L is length of the pipe seg- and
ment, ⭸T/⭸r is radial temperature radient in the insulation layer, and c
⌬T is the average temperature increase of fluid in the pipe segment. ␥ = − . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (A-19)
Substituting Eqs. A-2 through A-5 into Eq. A-1 gives v

⭸T Let
␳CpvA⌬t共TL − TL+⌬L兲 = 2␲Rk⌬L ⌬t = ␳Cp A⌬L⌬T. . . . (A-6)
u = ␣T + ␤L + ␥, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (A-20)
⭸r
Dividing all the terms of this equation by ⌬L⌬t yields then
共TL − TL+⌬L兲 ⭸T ⌬T u − ␤L − ␥
␳CpvA − 2␲Rk = ␳Cp A . . . . . . . . . . . . (A-7) T= , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (A-21)
⌬L ⭸r ⌬t a
For infinitesimal measurements of ⌬L and ⌬t, this equa- and
tion becomes dT 1 du ␤
= − . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (A-22)
⭸T ⭸T 2␲Rk ⭸T dL ␣ dL ␣
v + =− . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (A-8)
⭸L ⭸t ␳Cp A ⭸r Substituting Eqs. A-21 and A-22 into Eq. A-16 gives
The radial temperature gradient in the insulation layer can be 1 du ␤
formulated as − + u = 0. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (A-23)
␣ dL ␣
⭸T T − 共T0 − G cos共␪兲L兲
= , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (A-9) Integration of this equation with the method of separation of
⭸r s variables yields
where T0 is temperature of the medium outside the insulation layer 1
at L⳱0, G is thermal gradient in the external medium, ␪ is angle − ln共␤ − ␣u兲 = L + C, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (A-24)
between the thermal gradient and pipe axis, and s is thickness of ␣
the insulation layer. Substituting Eq. A-9 into Eq. A-7 yields where C is a constant of integration. Substituting Eq. A-20 into Eq.
⭸T ⭸T A-24 and rearranging the latter result in
v + = aT = bL + c, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (A-10)
⭸L ⭸t 1
T= 关␤ − ␣␤L − ␣␥ − e−␣共L+C兲兴. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (A-25)
where ␣2
2␲Rk Applying boundary condition A-15 to Eq. A-25 gives the ex-
a=− , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (A-11) pression for the integration constant:
␳CpsA
1
b = aG cos共␪兲, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (A-12) C=− ln共␤ − ␣2Ts − ␣␥兲. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (A-26)
␣
and Transient Temperature During Startup. The temperature pro-
c = − aT0. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (A-13) file along the pipe during the startup process can be obtained by
solving Eq. A-10 with the method of characteristics subject to the
Solutions for Temperature. Three solutions are sought in initial condition
this study: T = Ts − G cos共␪兲L at t = 0. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (A-27)
• Solution A: steady heat transfer.
• Solution B: transient heat transfer during startup. Consider a family of curves defined by the equation
• Solution C: transient heat transfer after a rate change. dL dT
Solution A gives the temperature profile during normal operation dt = = . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (A-28)
conditions, Solution B simulates temperature change during a startup v aT + bL + c
process from static condition, and Solution C yields temperature trend The characteristics are
during rate-change processes including shut-down operation.
Steady Temperature. If the mass flow rate is maintained for a L = vt + K. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (A-29)
significantly long time, a steady-heat-transfer condition between We also have from Eq. A-28
the system and its surroundings is expected. Under the steady-state
flow condition, the temperature at any point in the system is time dT aT + bL + c
independent. Therefore, Eq. A-10 becomes = . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (A-30)
dL v
dT Using notations A-17, A-18, and A-19, Eq. A-30 becomes
v = aT = bL + c. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (A-14)
dL dT
This equation can be solved with the following bound- + ␣T + ␤L + ␥ = 0, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (A-31)
dL
ary condition:
which is exactly Eq. A-16. Its solution is the same as Eq. A-25;
T = Ts at L = 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (A-15) that is,
To simplify the solution, Eq. A-14 is rearranged to be 1
T= 关␤ − ␣␤L − ␣␥ − e−␣共L+B兲兴, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (A-32)
dT ␣2
+ ␣T + ␤L + ␥ = 0, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (A-16)
dL where B is a constant of integration. This constant is different on
where each characteristic curve. Further, each characteristic curve has a
different value of K. Hence, as K varies, B varies, and we may
a write B=f(K), where f is an arbitrary function to be determined.
␣ = − , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (A-17)
v Writing B=f(K) in Eq. A-32 yields

112 February 2006 SPE Production & Operations

 T=
␣
1
2 兵␤ − ␣␤L − ␣␥ − e−␣关L+f 共K兲兴其. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (A-33) F− 冉冊␣⬘
␣
2
兵␤ − ␣␤共L − v ⬘t兲 − ␣␥ − e−␣关共L−v ⬘t兲+C兴其. . . . . . . (A-45)

Eliminating K using Eq. A-29, gives: Substituting Eq. A-45 into Eq. A-38 results in the solution to Eq.
A-10 subject to the initial condition A-42. Note: The solution fails
1 to predict temperatures for small values of v⬘t that cause the ar-
T= 兵␤ − ␣␤L − ␣␥ − e−␣关L+f 共L−vt兲兴其 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (A-34)
␣2 gument of the natural log function to be negative.
Solution for Heat Transfer. Only a solution for steady heat
Now, applying the initial condition A-27 yields transfer is sought in this section. Consider a segment of pipe with
1 length dL. Heat transferred from fluid to the outer medium across
Ts − G cos共␪兲L = 兵␤ − ␣␤L − ␣␥ − e−␣关L+f 共L兲兴其, . . . . . . (A-35) the insulation in this segment is expressed as:
␣2
⭸T
which gives dq = k共2␲RdL兲 , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (A-46)
⭸r
1
f共L兲 = −L − ln兵␤ − ␣␤L − ␣␥ − ␣2关Ts − G cos共␪兲L兴其. where
␣
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (A-36) ⭸T T − 关T0 − G cos共␪兲L兴
= . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (A-47)
Therefore, ⭸r s

1 Substituting Eq. A-25 into Eq. A-47, and then substituting the
f 共L − vt兲 = −共L − vt兲 − ln兵␤ − ␣␤共L − vt兲 − ␣␥ latter into Eq. A-46, gives:
␣
− ␣2关Ts − G cos共␪兲共L − vt兲兴其. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (A-37) dq =
2␲Rk
s 冉 ␣
1
兵T − 关T0 − G cos共␪兲L兴其 − 2 关␤ − ␣␤L − ␣␥
Substituting Eq. A-37 into Eq. A-34 results in the solution to Eq.
A-10, subject to the initial condition A-27. This solution is valid
for L–vt>0. For points at which L–vt<0, L–vt⳱0 should be used.
冊
− e−␣共L+C兲兴 dL , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (A-48)

Transient Temperature After Rate Change. The temperature

trend along the pipe after a rate change from an established steady- dq = 2␲Rks ({T − [T0 − G cos共␪兲L兴其 − 1␣2 关␤ − ␣␤L − ␣␥ dL],
state flow can be obtained by solving Eq. A-10 with a new rate v⬘ which can be integrated to yield an expression for the total heat
(use a small number for the shutting-down process). The general transfer over the entire pipe length L as follows:
solution is still given by Eq. A-34 with new parameters corre-
sponding to the low velocity; that is, q=−
2␲Rk
s 冉
T0L −
G cos共␪兲 2 1
2
L − 2 共␤ − ␣␥兲L −
␣
再 ␣␤ 2
2
L

T=
1
␣⬘2
兵␤⬘ − ␣⬘␤⬘L − ␣⬘␥⬘ − e−␣⬘关L+f 共L−v ⬘t兲兴其, . . . . . . . . . . . (A-38)
1
冎冊
+ 关e−␣共L+C兲 − e−␣C兴 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (A-49)
␣
where
␣
␣⬘ = − , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (A-39)
v⬘ SI Metric Conversion Factors
b cm × 2.540* E−01 ⳱ in.
␤⬘ = − , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (A-40) E−04 ⳱ Btu/lb-°F
v⬘ J/kg-°C × 2.385*
kg/m3 × 6.256* E−02 ⳱ lbm/ft3
and
m/s × 3.281* E+00 ⳱ ft/s
c m2 × 1.076* E+01 ⳱ ft2
␥⬘ = − . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (A-41)
v⬘ m3/D × 3.529* E+01 ⳱ ft3/D
The initial condition is defined by Eq. A-25; that is, W × 9.478* E−04 ⳱ Btu/s
W/m-°C × 5.714* E−01 ⳱ Btu/hr-ft-°F
1 W/m2-°K × 1.761* E−01 ⳱ Btu/hr-ft2-°F
T= 关␤ − ␣␤L − ␣␥ − e−␣共L+C兲兴 at t = 0, . . . . . . . . . (A-42)
␣2 *Conversion factor is exact.
where the constant C is given by Eq. A-26. Now, applying the
initial condition A-42 to Eq. A-38 gives
Boyun Guo is the ChevronTexaco Endowed Professor in Petro-
1 −␣共L+C兲
1 leum Engineering at the U. of Louisiana at Lafayette, Lafayette,
关␤ − ␣␤L − ␣␥ − e 兴= 兵␤⬘ − ␣⬘␤⬘L − ␣⬘␥⬘ Louisiana (e-mail: boyun.guo@louisiana.edu). He previously
␣2 ␣⬘2 worked for Edinburgh Petroleum Services Americas Inc. as a se-
−␣⬘关L+f 共L兲兴
−e 其, . . . . . . . . . . . . (A-43) nior petroleum engineer and INTEC Engineering Inc. as a senior
engineering specialist. Guo holds a BS degree from Daqing
which yields Petroleum Inst., an MS degree from Montana Tech, and a PhD

f共L兲 = −L −
1
␣⬘ 再
ln ␤⬘ − ␣⬘␤⬘L − ␣⬘␥⬘ −
␣⬘
␣ 冉冊 2
关␤ − ␣␤L − ␣␥
degree from New Mexico Tech, all in petroleum engineering.
Shengkai Duan is a graduate student at the U. of Louisiana at

冎
Lafayette, Lafayette, Louisiana. Previously, he worked for
China Natl. Offshore Oil Corp. Shanghai Ltd. as a production
− e−␣共L+C兲兴 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (A-44) and reservoir engineer. He holds a BS degree in petroleum
engineering from Xi’An Petroleum Inst., China. Ali Ghalambor is
the American Petroleum Inst. Endowed Professor and Head of
Therefore, the Dept. of Petroleum Engineering at the U. of Louisiana at
Lafayette, Lafayette, Louisiana. Ghalambor holds BS and MS
1 degrees in petroleum engineering from the U. of Southwestern
f共L − v ⬘t兲 = −共L − v ⬘t兲 − ln关␤⬘ − ␣⬘␤⬘共L − v ⬘t兲 − ␣⬘␥⬘ − F兴,
␣⬘ Louisiana, as well as a PhD degree in environmental sciences
and engineering from the Virginia Polytechnic Inst. and State
where U. in Blacksburg, Virginia.

February 2006 SPE Production & Operations 113