MATH 28 MANUAL

UNIT I. INFINITE AND POWER SERIES

By the end of the unit, you must be able to

✓ solve for a limit of a sequence;
✓ implement the Taylor and Maclaurin series to obtain power series expansion;
✓ test whether an infinite series is convergent or divergent; and
✓ conclude the interval of convergence of a power series.

Sections
1. Sequences and partial sums
2. Limit of a sequence
3. Infinite series
4. Theorems on infinite series
5. Tests for infinite series
6. Power series
7. Taylor and Maclaurin series
____________________________________________

Section 1. SEQUENCES AND PARTIAL SUMS

By the end of this section, you must be able to

✓ compute terms of a sequence;
✓ plot graph of a sequence;
✓ describe behavior of a sequence; and
✓ solve for partial sums 𝒔𝒏 ’s of some specific sequences.

Notions of a sequence
• (simplest notion) a well-defined list of objects arranged according to a particular order
• most common form: a list of number following a pattern
• representation: as a set where the elements (or terms) follow an order

What is a sequence?
A sequence is a function whose domain is ℕ, the set of natural numbers, or 𝕎, the set of whole
numbers. The elements of the range are called as the terms of the sequence.

Notation: {𝑎𝑛 }∞ ∞
𝑛=1 or {𝑎𝑛 }𝑛=0 , or simply {𝑎𝑛 } or {𝑓(𝑛)}

Examples.

1 ∞
1. The sequence { } is called harmonic sequence.
𝑛 𝑛=1
1 1 1 1 1 1
The first few terms are 1, , , , , , , ⋯. Notice as 𝑛 continuously increases, the terms
2 3 4 5 6 7
continuously decrease and asymptotically approach 0.

2. For the sequence {2𝑛 }∞

𝑛=0 , the first term is at 𝑛 = 0.
This is a geometric sequence. Except for the term at 𝑛 = 0, each term is obtained by multiplying
the previous term by a fixed constant – in this case, 2. The first few terms are 1,2,4,8,16,32,64, ⋯.
The terms continuously increase as 𝑛 increases.

(−1)𝑛 ∞
3. The terms of the sequence { } alternates between positive and negative values.
𝑛 𝑛=1
1 1 1 1 1 1
The first few terms are −1, , − , , − , , − , ⋯. Even if the terms alternate between positive and
2 3 4 5 6 7
negative values, the absolute values of the terms approach 0.

𝑛 ∞
4. The terms of the sequence {(−1)𝑛 } also alternates between positive and negative values.
𝑛+1 𝑛=0
1 2 3 4 5 6
The first few terms are 0, − , , − , , − , , ⋯.
2 3 4 5 6 7
 As 𝑛 increases, the terms do not approach a single value. Instead, the positive terms approach 1
while the negative terms approach −1.

5. For 𝑛 ∈ ℕ, 𝑛! = 𝑛 ∙ (𝑛 − 1) ∙ (𝑛 − 2) ⋯ 2 ∙ 1. We define 0! = 1.
So, 1! = 1, 2! = 2, 3! = 6, 4! = 24, 5! = 120, 6! = 720,…
1 ∞ 1 1 1 1 1
The first few terms of the sequence { } are 1,1, , , , , ,⋯
𝑛! 𝑛=0 2 6 24 120 720
As 𝑛 continuously increases, the terms continuously decrease and asymptotically approach 0.

Convention:
Unless specified in the text, we consider sequences with domain over ℕ, or of the form {𝑎𝑛 }∞
𝑛=1 .

Remark: Sequences can have different representations but are in fact, equal or are the same
sequences. Sequences {𝑎𝑛 }∞ ∞
𝑛=1 and {𝑏𝑛 }𝑛=1 are equal if 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑏𝑛 for each 𝑛 ∈ ℕ.

Illustration.
(−1)𝑛 ∞ cos(𝑛𝜋) ∞
The sequences { } and { } have different representations.
𝑛 𝑛=1 𝑛 𝑛=1
𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑛𝜋) (−1)𝑛
Note 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑛𝜋) = (−1)𝑛 for each 𝑛 ∈ ℕ. So, = for each 𝑛 ∈ ℕ.
𝑛 𝑛
Hence, the two sequences are equal.

1 2𝑛+1 ∞
The sequence { sin ( 𝜋)} is also equal to the given sequences.
𝑛 2 𝑛=1

Graph of a sequence.

The graph of a sequence {𝑎𝑛 }∞

𝑛=1 is the set of points (𝑛, 𝑎𝑛 ) on the coordinate plane.

Unlike graphs of usual functions, the graph of a sequence is composed of isolated points only at 𝑥 =
𝑛 where 𝑛 ∈ ℕ.

Example.
1 ∞
1. For the sequence {(−1)𝑛 } ,
𝑛 𝑛=1
1 1 1 1 1 1
the first few termsare −1, , − , , − , , − , ⋯.
2 3 4 5 6 7
So, the first few points of the graph are
1 1 1 1 1
(1, −1), (2, ) , (3, − ) , (4, ) , (5, − ) , (6, ) , ⋯.
2 3 4 5 6
As 𝑛 ⟶ +∞, the graph of the approaches the
𝑥 −axis or the line 𝑦 = 0.

𝑛 ∞
2. For the sequence {(−1)𝑛+1 } ,
𝑛+1 𝑛=1
1 2 3 4 5 6
the first few terms are , − , , − , , − , ⋯.
2 3 4 5 6 7
So, the first few points of the graph are
1 2 3 4 5 6
(1, ) , (2, − ) , (3, ) , (4, − ) , (5, ) , (6, − ) , ⋯.
2 3 4 5 6 7
As 𝑛 ⟶ +∞, the graph of the sequence does not
approach a single line. Instead, the points
corresponding to the odd terms approach the line
𝑦 = 1 while the points corresponding to the even
terms approach 𝑦 = −1.

The “Hitch” Principle

Let 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) be a continuous function over the interval [1, +∞).
The graph of the sequence {𝑓(𝑛)}∞𝑛=1 “hitches” along the graph of the continuous function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥).
Illustration.
∞
1 𝑛
The points of the graph of the sequence {( ) } are
2 𝑛=1
1 𝑥
also on the graph of the continuous 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = ( ) .
2

1 𝑥
The behavior of the graph of 𝑦 = ( ) can be used to
2
∞
1 𝑛
observe the behavior of the sequence {( ) } .
2 𝑛=1

1 𝑥
Since lim ( ) = 0, the terms of the sequence also
𝑥⟶+∞ 2
approach 0 as 𝑛 ⟶ +∞.

Goal! For a sequence {𝒂𝒏 }∞

𝒏=𝟏 , observe behavior of 𝒂𝒏 as 𝒏 ⟶ +∞.

Partial sums.

Definition.
For a sequence {𝑎𝑛 }∞
𝑛=1 , the 𝑛 −th partial sum is given by 𝑠𝑛 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 .

Problem! For a sequence {𝑎𝑛 }∞

𝑛=1 , can 𝑠𝑛 be generalized for each 𝑛 ∈ ℕ?

Example.
𝑛(𝑛+1)
1. For the sequence {𝑛}∞
𝑛=1 , the partial sum 𝑠𝑛 = 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ + 𝑛 has a closed form 𝑠𝑛 = .
2
∞
1 𝑛−1 1 1 1 𝑛−1
2. For the geometric sequence {( ) } , the partial sum 𝑠𝑛 = 1 + + + ⋯ + ( ) has a closed
2 2 4 2
𝑛=1
1 𝑛
form 𝑠𝑛 = 2 (1 − ( ) ).
2
1 ∞ 1 1 1 1
3. For the sequence { } , a closed form for the partial sum 𝑠𝑛 = + + + ⋯+ can be
𝑛(𝑛+1) 𝑛=1 2 6 12 𝑛(𝑛+1)
obtained using partial fraction decomposition.
1 1 1
Note 𝑎𝑛 = = − .
𝑛(𝑛+1) 𝑛 𝑛+1
So, 𝑠𝑛 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 + 𝑎4 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= (1 − ) + ( − ) + ( − ) + ( − ) + ⋯ + ( − )+( − )
2 2 3 3 4 4 5 𝑛−1 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛+1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= 1 + (− + ) + (− + ) + (− + ) + ⋯ + (− + ) + (− + ) −
2 2 3 3 4 4 𝑛−1 𝑛−1 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛+1
1
= 1− .
𝑛+1

Theorems.
1. Let 𝑎, 𝑟 ∈ ℝ, 𝑟 ≠ 1.
1−𝑟 𝑛
For the geometric sequence {𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 }∞
𝑛=1 , the 𝑛 −th partial sum is given by 𝑠𝑛 = 𝑎 ∙ 1−𝑟 .
2. Let 𝑎, 𝑑 ∈ ℝ.
𝑛(𝑛−1)
For the arithmetic sequence {𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑}∞ 𝑛=1 , the 𝑛 −th partial sum is 𝑠𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑑.
2

Goal! For a sequence {𝒂𝒏 }∞

𝒏=𝟏 , observe behavior of the partial sums 𝒔𝒏 as 𝒏 ⟶ +∞.

_________________________

Concept Recap
1. What kind of function is a sequence?
2. When are two sequences equal?
3. What is the difference between graph of a sequence and of a continuous function?
4. For {𝑎𝑛 }∞
𝑛=1 , what is the 𝑛 −th partial sum 𝑠𝑛 ?
5. For the geometric sequence {𝑟 𝑛−1 }∞
𝑛=1 , what is 𝑠𝑛 ?

Practice Exercises
𝑛𝜋 ∞
1. Compute for the first 10 terms of the sequence {sin ( )} .
2 𝑛=1
𝑎 +𝑛
2. Compute for the first 6 terms of the sequence {𝑎𝑛 }∞
where 𝑎1 = 1 and 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑛−1 for 𝑛 ≥ 2.
𝑛=1 2
This is a case of a recursive sequence where, except for the first few, each term depends on the
previous terms.
∞
1+(−1)𝑛
3. Plot the points corresponding to the first 10 terms of the sequence { } .
𝑛 𝑛=1
𝑛 ∞ 𝑥
4. Compare the graph of the sequence { } and the function 𝑓(𝑥) = .
𝑛+1 𝑛=1 𝑥+1
1 ∞
5. Using computed terms or its graph, describe the behavior of the sequence { } .
𝑛! 𝑛=1
2𝑛 ∞
6. Using computed terms or its graph, describe the behavior of the sequence {(−1)𝑛+1 } .
𝑛+1 𝑛=1
7. Which of the following sequences are equal?
2 (−1)𝑛 ∞ 1 ∞ 1 ∞ 2𝑛−1 1 ∞
{(−1)𝑛+1 + } {cos((𝑛 + 1)𝜋) } {(−1)𝑛+1 } {sin ( 𝜋) }
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛=1 𝑛 𝑛=1 𝑛 𝑛=1 2 𝑛 𝑛=1
8. Let 𝑎, 𝑟 ∈ ℝ, 𝑟 ≠ 1. For the geometric sequence {𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 }∞
𝑛=1 , construct a derivation of the 𝑛 −th
1−𝑟 𝑛
partial sum given by 𝑠𝑛 = 𝑎 ∙ .
1−𝑟
9. Let 𝑎, 𝑑 ∈ ℝ. For the artithmetic sequence {𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑}∞
𝑛=1 , construct a derivation of the 𝑛 −th
𝑛(𝑛−1)
partial sum given by 𝑠𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑑.
2
1 ∞ 1
10. Consider the sequence {(2𝑛−1)(2𝑛+1)} . Decompose (2𝑛−1)(2𝑛+1) to a sum of partial fractions.
𝑛=1
Then, compute for the partial sum 𝑠𝑛 .

For Exploration
How to deal with recursive sequences?
In a recursive sequence, each term (except for the first few) depends on the previous terms.
A common problem concerning a recursive sequence is the existence and computation of a non-
recursive formula that gives 𝑎𝑛 as a function of 𝑛, say 𝑓(𝑛).

The Fibonacci sequence: 𝑎1 = 1, 𝑎2 = 1 and for 𝑛 ≥ 3, 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛−2 .

For the Fibonacci sequence, what are the first 10 terms?
Read on a non-recursive formula for the Fibonacci sequence. Compute for the first few terms of the
sequence using this non-recursive formula.

____________________________________________

Section 2. LIMIT OF A SEQUENCE

By the end of this section, you must be able to

✓ solve for the limit of a sequence, if it exists; and
✓ establish whether a sequence is convergent or divergent

Goal! For a sequence {𝒂𝒏 }∞

𝒏=𝟏 , observe behavior of 𝒂𝒏 as 𝒏 ⟶ +∞.

Definition.
The limit of the sequence {𝑎𝑛 }∞
𝑛=1 is 𝐿, written 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑎𝑛 = 𝐿,
𝑛⟶+∞
if for every 𝜀 > 0, there exists an 𝑁 > 0 such that for all natural number 𝑛 > 𝑁, |𝑎𝑛 − 𝐿| < 𝜀.
The limit of a sequence is the value the terms of
a sequence approach as 𝑛 ⟶ +∞.
For a given 𝜀 > 0, preferably very small, the
terms of the sequence will eventually be within a
distance of 𝜀 from the limit 𝐿, i.e. |𝑎𝑛 − 𝐿| < 𝜀.

The behavior of the initial terms of the sequence

is not necessary in observing its limit. Only the
behavior of the “tail” part of the sequence is
necessary for its limit.

Alternatively, the limit of a sequence can be established by observing the eventual behavior of the
terms of the sequence. In particular, the limit of the sequence {𝑎𝑛 }∞
𝑛=1 is 𝐿

if as 𝑛 ⟶ +∞, the terms 𝑎𝑛 approaches a distinct real number 𝐿,

Notation: 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑎𝑛 = 𝐿
𝑛⟶+∞

Examples.
∞
1 𝑛
1. As 𝑛 ⟶ +∞, the terms of the sequence {( ) } asymptotically approach the value 0.
2 𝑛=1
1 𝑥
Moreover, the sequence follows the behavior of the function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = ( ) .
2
1 𝑥
Note that 𝑙𝑖𝑚 ( ) = 0.
𝑥⟶+∞ 2
1 𝑛
From these observations, we conclude that 𝑙𝑖𝑚 ( ) = 0
𝑛⟶+∞ 2

(−1)𝑛 ∞
2. The terms of the sequence { } alternates
𝑛 𝑛=1
between negative and positive values.

As 𝑛 ⟶ +∞, both the negative terms and positive

terms approach the value 0. From this, we can
observe that as 𝑛 ⟶ +∞, the terms of the sequence
approach 0.

(−1)𝑛
Hence, 𝑙𝑖𝑚 = 0.
𝑛⟶+∞ 𝑛

Remark: If the limit of a sequence exists, then that limit is unique.

Illustration.
(−1)𝑛 𝑛 ∞
As 𝑛 ⟶ +∞, the terms of the sequence { } do
𝑛+1 𝑛=1
not approach a single value.

The positive terms approach 1 while the negative terms

approach −1.

Note that, if it exists, the limit of a sequence should be

(−1)𝑛 𝑛
unique. Hence, 𝑙𝑖𝑚 does not exist.
𝑛⟶+∞ 𝑛+1
Remark: The limit of a sequence is the eventual behavior of the sequence. In observing the limit of a
sequence, the first few terms do not matter. Only the behavior of the “tail” part of the sequence is
necessary for its limit.

Illustration.
10𝑛 ∞
Consider the sequence { } .
2𝑛−21 𝑛=1
The first 10 terms are negative and are decreasing.

However, from the 11th term and so on, the sequence have
positive value and eventually approach the value 5 which is
its limit.

To compute for limit of a sequence, consider a sequence taking a “hitch” on a continuous function.
The behavior of the continuous function can be used to describe the behavior of the sequence.

“Hitch” Theorem.
Let 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) be a continuous function on some interval [𝑏, +∞)
such that for the sequence {𝑎𝑛 }∞
𝑛=1 , 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑓(𝑛) for each 𝑛 ∈ ℕ.
If 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿, then 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑎𝑛 = 𝐿.
𝑥⟶+∞ 𝑛⟶+∞

Examples.
3𝑛−1 ∞
1. Consider the sequence { } .
5−2𝑛 𝑛=1
3𝑥−1
To compute for its limit, consider the continuous function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = .
5−2𝑥
3𝑥−1 ∞ 3 3
Note that 𝑙𝑖𝑚 ( ) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 =− .
𝑥⟶+∞ 5−2𝑥 ∞ 𝑥⟶+∞ −2 2
(by L’Hopital’s Rule)
3𝑛−1 ∞ 3
Hence, we also conclude that the limit of the sequence { } is − .
5−2𝑛 𝑛=1 2
3𝑛−1 3
In notation, 𝑙𝑖𝑚 =− .
𝑛⟶+∞ 5−2𝑛 2

2𝑛 ∞
2. Consider the sequence { 2 } .
𝑛 𝑛=1
2𝑥
To compute for its limit, consider the continuous function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = .
𝑥2
2𝑥 ∞ 𝑙𝑛2∙2𝑥 ∞ (𝑙𝑛2)2 ∙2𝑥 ∞
Note that 𝑙𝑖𝑚 ( ) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 ( ) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 ( ) = +∞.
𝑥⟶+∞ 𝑥 2 ∞ 𝑥⟶+∞ 2𝑥 ∞ 𝑥⟶+∞ 2 2
(by L’Hopital’s Rule) (by L’Hopital’s Rule)
2𝑛 ∞
Hence, the sequence { 2 } does not approach any particular values.
𝑛 𝑛=1
2𝑛
Thus, 𝑙𝑖𝑚 does not exist.
𝑛⟶+∞ 𝑛2

Caution! Be careful of expressions that are defined only for natural numbers
and sequences that do not have a form of a continuous function.

Illustrations.
1. The “Hitch” Theorem cannot be immediately implemented for the sequence {(−1)𝑛 }∞
𝑛=1 .
The function 𝑓(𝑥) = (−1) 𝑥 is not continuous on intervals [𝑎, +∞).

Instead, consider the form {cos 𝜋𝑛}∞ 𝑛

𝑛=1 . Note that cos 𝜋𝑛 = (−1) for each 𝑛 ∈ ℕ.
The function 𝑓(𝑥) = cos 𝜋𝑥 is continuous on the interval [1, +∞).
However, lim cos 𝜋𝑥 does not exist.
𝑥⟶+∞
Thus, 𝑙𝑖𝑚 (−1)𝑛
𝑥⟶+∞
2. The expression 𝑛! = 𝑛 ∙ (𝑛 − 1) ∙ (𝑛 − 2) ⋯ 2 ∙ 1 is only defined for 𝑛 ∈ ℕ.
1 ∞
The “Hitch” Theorem cannot be implemented for the sequence { } .
𝑛! 𝑛=1
The expression 𝑛! increases without bound as 𝑛 ⟶ +∞.
1
So, 𝑙𝑖𝑚 = 0.
𝑛⟶+∞ 𝑛!

Definition.
If 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑎𝑛 exists and is a distinct number, then the sequence {𝑎𝑛 }∞
𝑛=1 is said to be convergent.
𝑛⟶+∞
Moreover, if 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑎𝑛 = 𝐿, then we say that {𝑎𝑛 }∞
𝑛=1 converges to 𝐿.
𝑛⟶+∞
If the sequence {𝑎𝑛 }∞ ∞
𝑛=1 does not exist, the {𝑎𝑛 }𝑛=1 is divergent.

Examples.
3𝑛−1 3 3𝑛−1 ∞ 3
1. Since lim = − , the sequence { } is convergent and it converges to − .
𝑛⟶+∞ 5−2𝑛 2 5−2𝑛 𝑛=1 2
(−1)𝑛 ∞
2. The sequence { } is also convergent and it converges to 0.
𝑛 𝑛=1
(−1)𝑛 𝑛 ∞
3. The sequences {𝑛!}∞
𝑛=1 and { } do not approach any single value. Both sequences are
𝑛+1 𝑛=1
divergent.

Some rules in computing limit of a sequence.

Let {𝑎𝑛 }∞ ∞
𝑛=1 and {𝑏𝑛 }𝑛=1 be convergent sequences and 𝑐 be a constant. Then
i. 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑐 ∙ 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑐 ∙ 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑎𝑛
𝑛⟶+∞ 𝑛⟶+∞
ii. 𝑙𝑖𝑚 (𝑎𝑛 ± 𝑏𝑛 ) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑎𝑛 ± 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑏𝑛
𝑛⟶+∞ 𝑛⟶+∞ 𝑛⟶+∞
iii. 𝑙𝑖𝑚 (𝑎𝑛 ∙ 𝑏𝑛 ) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑎𝑛 ∙ 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑏𝑛
𝑛⟶+∞ 𝑛⟶+∞ 𝑛⟶+∞
𝑎𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑎𝑛
iv. 𝑙𝑖𝑚 = 𝑛⟶+∞ provided 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑏𝑛 ≠ 0
𝑛⟶+∞ 𝑏𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑏
𝑛⟶+∞ 𝑛
𝑛⟶+∞

_________________________

Concept Recap
1. What is the limit of a sequence?
2. What is a convergent sequence? a divergent sequence?
3. How does the “Hitch” Theorem work in computing for the limit of a sequence?
4. Can a sequence have more than one limit?
5. In computing for the limit, why is the “tail” part more important than the first few terms?

Practice Exercises

For items 1 to 6, use “Hitch” Theorem to compute for the limit of the following sequence, if the limit
exists. Else, indicate that the sequence is divergent.
∞ ∞
2𝑛+1 𝑛2
1. { } 4. { 𝑛 }
𝑛2 +𝑛+1 𝑛=1 2 𝑛=1
∞
5−𝑛2 2𝑛+1 ∞
2. { } 5. { }
𝑛2 +2 𝑛=1 2𝑛 +𝑛 𝑛=1
∞
𝑛3 3𝑛+1 ∞
3. { } 6. { }
𝑛2 +3 𝑛=1 2𝑛 +𝑛 𝑛=1

For items 7 to 10, the “Hitch” Theorem cannot be immediately implemented.

Devise alternative methods to compute for the limit of the following sequence, if the limit exists.
Use sequences with known limits and the rules on computing limits.
∞
(−1)𝑛+1 cos 𝜋𝑛 ∞
7. { } 9. { }
𝑛2 +1 𝑛=1 𝑛! 𝑛=1
(−1)𝑛 2 ∞ 𝑛!+10 ∞
8. { + } 10. { }
𝑛 𝑛! 𝑛=1 𝑛! 𝑛=1
Applied Problems (in population growth)

The logistic model for population growth considers a population with reproduction rate that is
proportional to both the existing population and the amount of available resources. This model takes
into account a carrying capacity – an upper bound for population size that can be sustained by the
available resources.
+∞
𝐶
Consider the discrete logistic growth model { } where the 𝑡 −th term is the population
1 + 𝑎𝑒 −𝑟𝑡 𝑡=0
after 𝑡 periods. In the model, 𝑟 is the rate of growth and 𝐶 is the carrying capacity.

1. Compute for the initial population (at 𝑡 = 0) and the limit of the population size as 𝑡 ⟶ +∞.

2. In particular, consider an influenza epidemic spreading through a population modeled by

+∞
1000
{ }
1 + 999𝑒 −0.6𝑡 𝑡=0 where 𝑡 is measured in days.
Compute for the number of infected at 𝑡 = 0, 1, 5, 10, 15, 20. Draw a plot in relation to the eventual
carrying capacity.

Read also on the continuous logistic growth model.

For Exploration
The limit of a sequence {𝑎𝑛 }∞
𝑛=1 is 𝐿, written 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑎𝑛 = 𝐿,
𝑛⟶+∞
if for every 𝜀 > 0, there exists an 𝑁 > 0 such that for all natural number 𝑛 > 𝑁, |𝑎𝑛 − 𝐿| < 𝜀.

The choice for 𝜀 should be preferably small – that which is almost 0.

1 ∞
1. The limit of the sequence { 2} is 𝐿 = 0. Verify the following:
𝑛 𝑛=1
1 1
a. For 𝜀 = , the choice of 𝑁 = √2 guarantees that |𝑎𝑛 − 𝐿| < for all 𝑛 > 𝑁.
2 2
1 1
b. For 𝜀 = , the choice of 𝑁 = 5 guarantees that |𝑎𝑛 − 𝐿| < for all 𝑛 > 𝑁.
25 25
1
c. In general, for any 𝜀 > 0, the choice of 𝑁 = guarantees that |𝑎𝑛 − 𝐿| < 𝜀 for all 𝑛 > 𝑁.
√𝜀
(−1)𝑛 ∞
2. The limit of the sequence { } is 𝐿 = 0.
𝑛 𝑛=1
1
Verify that for any 𝜀 > 0, the choice of 𝑁 = guarantees that |𝑎𝑛 − 𝐿| < 𝜀 for all 𝑛 > 𝑁.
𝜀
2𝑛 ∞
3. The limit of the sequence { } is 𝐿 = 2.
𝑛+1 𝑛=1
2
Verify that for any 𝜀 > 0, the choice of 𝑁 = − 1 guarantees that |𝑎𝑛 − 2| < 𝜀 for all 𝑛 > 𝑁.
𝜀

____________________________________________

Section 3. INFINITE SERIES

By the end of this section, you must be able to

✓ explain convergence and divergence of infinite series;
✓ represent an infinite series as sequence of partial sums and as an infinite sum; and
✓ apply the 𝒏 −th Term test for divergence.

Notions of an infinite series

• a sum of infinitely many numbers like the terms of a given sequence
• a sequence of partial sums
What is an infinite series?
Let {𝑎𝑛 }∞
𝑛=1 be a sequence of real numbers.
Consider the partial sum 𝑠𝑛 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 .
Then the sequence of partial sums {𝑠𝑛 }∞
𝑛=1 is called an infinite series,
which will be denoted by
+∞

∑ 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 + ⋯
𝑛=1
The infinite series is also equal to the limit of the partial sums
+∞

∑ 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑠𝑛 .
𝑛⟶+∞
𝑛=1

Illustration.
∞
1 𝑛−1
Consider the sequence {( ) } .
2
𝑛=1
The partial sums of the sequence are 𝑠1 = 𝑎1 = 1
1 3
𝑠2 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 = 1 + =
2 2
1 1 7
𝑠3 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 = 1 + + =
2 4 4
1 1 1 15
𝑠4 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 + 𝑎4 = 1 + + + =
2 4 8 8
⋮
1 1 1 𝑛−1 1 𝑛
𝑠𝑛 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 = 1 + + + ⋯ + ( ) = 2 (1 − ( ) )
2 4 2 2
∞
1 𝑛
Hence, the sequence of partial sums {2 (1 − ( ) )} is an infinite series corresponding to the
2 𝑛=1
∞
1 𝑛−1
sequence {( ) } .
2
𝑛=1
+∞
1 𝑛−1 1 1 1 𝑛−1
This infinite series can also be written as ∑ ( ) = 1 + + + ⋯+ ( ) +⋯
2 2 4 2
𝑛=1
To compute for the sum of this infinite series, consider the limit of the sequence of partial sums.

1 𝑛 1 𝑛
So, 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑠𝑛 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 2 (1 − ( ) ) = 2 since 𝑙𝑖𝑚 ( ) = 0.
𝑛⟶+∞ 𝑛⟶+∞ 2 𝑛⟶+∞ 2
+∞ 𝑛−1
1
Hence, ∑ ( ) =2.
2
𝑛=1

1−𝑟 𝑛
Remark: Let 𝑟 ≠ 1. For the sequence {𝑟 𝑛−1 }∞
𝑛=1 , 𝑠𝑛 = .
1−𝑟

+∞

Goal! Determining the sum ∑ 𝑎𝑛 .

𝑛=1

+∞
HOW to get the sum
∑ 𝑎𝑛
1. Establish the partial
𝑛=1sum 𝑠𝑛 .
2. Compute for 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑠𝑛 .
𝑛⟶+∞
3. If 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑠𝑛 exists and is equal to 𝑆, then the infinite series is also equal to 𝑆.
𝑛⟶+∞
If 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑠𝑛 does not exist, then the infinite series has no sum.
𝑛⟶+∞
Examples.
+∞
1
1. Consider the telescoping series ∑ .
𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
𝑛=1
1 1 1
Via partial fraction decomposition, 𝑎𝑛 = = − .
𝑛(𝑛+1) 𝑛 𝑛+1

So, 𝑠𝑛 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 + 𝑎4 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= (1 − ) + ( − ) + ( − ) + ( − ) + ⋯ + ( − )+( − )
2 2 3 3 4 4 5 𝑛−1 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛+1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= 1 + (− + ) + (− + ) + (− + ) + ⋯ + (− + ) + (− + ) −
2 2 3 3 4 4 𝑛−1 𝑛−1 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛+1
1
= 1− .
𝑛+1
+∞
1 1
Then, 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑠𝑛 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 (1 − ) = 1. Hence, ∑ = 1.
𝑛⟶+∞ 𝑛⟶+∞ 𝑛+1 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
𝑛=1
+∞

2. Consider the geometric series ∑ 3𝑛−1 .

𝑛=1
1
With 𝑟 = 3, the partial sum of the series is 𝑠𝑛 = (3𝑛 − 1).
2

1
Note 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑠𝑛 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 (3𝑛 − 1) = +∞ since 𝑙𝑖𝑚 3𝑛 = +∞.
𝑛⟶+∞ 𝑛⟶+∞ 2 𝑛⟶+∞

Thus, the given infinite series does not have a sum.

+∞ +∞ +∞
1
The following infinite series do not have sums: ∑ 𝑛 , ∑(−1)𝑛 and ∑ .
𝑛=1
𝑛
𝑛=1 𝑛=1

Definitions.
+∞

Consider an infinite series ∑ 𝑎𝑛 .

𝑛=1
Let {𝑠𝑛 }∞
𝑛=1 be the sequence of partial sums.
If 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑠𝑛 exists and is equal to 𝑆, then the infinite series is convergent and its sum is 𝑆.
𝑛⟶+∞
If 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑠𝑛 does not exist, then the infinite series is divergent and it does not have a sum.
𝑛⟶+∞

Theorem.
+∞

If the infinite series ∑ 𝑎𝑛 is convergent, then 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑎𝑛 = 0.

𝑛⟶+∞
𝑛=1

𝒏 −th Term Test (for divergence)

+∞

If 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0 or if 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑎𝑛 does not exist, then ∑ 𝑎𝑛 is divergent.

𝑛⟶+∞ 𝑛⟶+∞
𝑛=1

Examples.
+∞
𝑛2 + 3𝑛
1. Consider the infinite series ∑ .
3𝑛2 + 1
𝑛=1
𝑛2 +3𝑛 1
Note that lim = .
𝑛⟶+∞ 3𝑛2 +1 3
+∞
𝑛2 +3𝑛 𝑛2 + 3𝑛
By the 𝑛 −th Term Test, since 𝑙𝑖𝑚 ≠ 0, the infinite series ∑ is divergent.
𝑛⟶+∞ 3𝑛2 +1 3𝑛2 + 1
𝑛=1
 +∞
2𝑛
2. Consider the infinite series ∑ .
𝑛2
𝑛=1
2𝑛
Note that lim = +∞.
𝑛⟶+∞ 𝑛2
+∞
2𝑛 2𝑛
By the 𝑛 −th Term Test, since 𝑙𝑖𝑚 does not exist, the infinite series ∑ is divergent.
𝑛⟶+∞ 𝑛2 𝑛2
𝑛=1

A counterexample.
+∞
1
Consider the harmonic series ∑ .
𝑛
𝑛=1
1
Note that 𝑙𝑖𝑚 = 0. However, the harmonic series is divergent.
𝑛⟶+∞ 𝑛

There are several methods to show its divergence.

+∞ +∞
1 1
One way is via the Integral Test. Compare ∑ with the improper integral ∫ 𝑑𝑥 .
𝑛 1 𝑥
𝑛=1
The divergence of the harmonic series follows from the divergence of the corresponding improper
integral.

Verify that the given improper integral is divergent.

_________________________

Concept Recap
1. What is an infinite series?
2. What is a convergent infinite series? a divergent infinite series?
3. How can the sum of a convergent infinite series be computed?
4. How can the 𝑛 −th Term Test be implemented to conclude that an infinite series is divergent?
+∞
1
5. Is the harmonic series ∑ convergent or divergent?
𝑛
𝑛=1

Practice Exercises

For each of the infinite series give in items 1 to 4, compute for the partial sum 𝑠𝑛 . Then, using the limit
of 𝑠𝑛 , conclude whether the infinite series is convergent or divergent.
+∞ +∞
1 𝑛−1 𝑛+1
1. ∑ ( ) 3. ∑(−1)
4 𝑛=1
𝑛=1
+∞ +∞
1 1
2. ∑ 𝑛 4. ∑ ( − )
2𝑛 − 1 2𝑛 + 1
𝑛=1 𝑛=1
+∞
𝑛(𝑛−1)
5. Let 𝑑 ∈ ℝ. For the arithmetic series ∑(𝑛 − 1)𝑑 , verify that 𝑛 −th partial sum is 𝑠𝑛 = 𝑑.
2
𝑛=1
Show that an arithmetic series is always divergent.
+∞
1−𝑟 𝑛
6. Let 𝑟 ≠ 1. For the geometric series ∑ 𝑟 𝑛−1 , verify that 𝑛 −th partial sum is 𝑠𝑛 = .
1−𝑟
𝑛=1
Show that a.) if 0 < 𝑟 < 1, the given series is convergent, and
b.) if 𝑟 > 1, the given series is divergent.
For items 7 to 10, use the compute for the partial sum 𝑛 −th Term Test to conclude that the given
infinite series is divergent.
+∞ +∞
𝑛−5 3𝑛
7. ∑ 9. ∑
3𝑛 + 2 𝑛3
𝑛=1 𝑛=1
+∞ +∞
2𝑛 − 1 𝑛!
8. ∑ 𝑛 10. ∑
2 +1 𝑛! + 1
𝑛=1 𝑛=1

Applied Problems (in computing)

In computations used in engineering and in programming, infinite series are used to approximate
transcendental function values like 𝜋, 𝑒 and √2.

Here are some known infinite series representation of transcendental function values:
+∞ +∞
1 (−1)𝑘
𝑒=∑ 𝜋 = √12 ∑
𝑛! 3𝑘 (2𝑘 + 1)
𝑛=0 𝑛=0
+∞ +∞
(2𝑘 + 1)! 2𝑘+1 (𝑘!)2
√2 = ∑ 𝜋=∑
23𝑘+1 (𝑘!)2 (2𝑘 + 1)!
𝑛=0 𝑛=0

For each of the infinite series, examine the corresponding partial sums.
Compute for the first few partial sums 𝑠3 , 𝑠5 , 𝑠8 , 𝑠10 of these infinite series and compare these partial
sums with calculator values of these transcendental values.

You need methods discussed in the latter sections to verify the convergence of these infinite series.

For Exploration
+∞

In an infinite series ∑ 𝑎𝑛 , the 𝑛 is called as index. An infinite series can have several representations
𝑛=1
+∞ +∞
1 𝑛−1 1 𝑛
depending on this index. For example, ∑ ( ) and ∑ ( ) are the same infinite series that differ
2 2
𝑛=1 𝑛=0
by their index.
+∞ +∞ +∞ +∞

In general, for 𝑘 ∈ ℤ, ∑ 𝑎𝑛 = ∑ 𝑎𝑛−(𝑘−1) and ∑ 𝑎𝑛 = ∑ 𝑎𝑛+(𝑘−1) .

𝑛=1 𝑛=𝑘 𝑛=𝑘 𝑛=1
+∞

Express the following infinite series as a single summation in the form ∑ 𝑎𝑛 .

𝑛=0
+∞ +∞ +∞ +∞ +∞
𝑒 𝑛−1 𝑛 5𝑛 1 (−1)𝑛
1. ∑ 2 2. ∑ 𝑛−1 + ∑ 3. ∑ −∑
𝑛 5 𝑛 𝑛(𝑛 + 1) 𝑛
𝑛=1 𝑛=1 𝑛=3 𝑛=2 𝑛=3

____________________________________________
Section 4. THEOREMS ON INFINITE SERIES

By the end of this section, you must be able to

✓ determine when a geometric series and p-series is convergent or divergent; and
✓ establish convergence or divergence of scalar multiple, sum and difference of
infinite series.

+∞

GEOMETRIC SERIES For 𝑎 ∈ ℝ and 𝑟 ≠ 1, ∑ 𝒂𝒓𝒏−𝟏 .

𝒏=𝟏
+∞
𝑎
convergent if |𝑟| < 1 Also, ∑ 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 = .
1−𝑟
𝑛=1
divergent if |𝑟| > 1
+∞
1−𝑟 𝑛
Note: For a geometric series ∑ 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1, the partial sum is given by 𝑠𝑛 = .
1−𝑟
𝑛=1

+∞
𝟏
𝒑 −SERIES For 𝑝 ∈ ℝ, ∑ . also called as hyperharmonic series
𝒏𝒑
𝒏=𝟏
convergent if 𝑝 > 1
divergent if 𝑝 ≤ 1

+∞
1
Note: No generalized formula for the sum of a convergent 𝑝 −series ∑ .
𝑛𝑝
+∞ 𝑛=1
1 𝜋2
For 𝑝 = 2, ∑ 2
= .
𝑛 6
𝑛=1
+∞
+∞
1 1
For 𝑝 > 1, the sum ∑ 𝑝
can be approximated by the improper integral ∫ 𝑝
𝑑𝑥 .
𝑛 1 𝑥
𝑛=1

Theorem.
+∞ +∞
If ∑ 𝑎𝑛 and ∑ 𝑏𝑛 are infinite series that differ only in a finite number of terms,
𝑛=1 𝑛=1
then either both series converges or both series diverges.

Examples.
+∞
1 1 1 1 1 1
1. The harmonic series ∑ = 1 + + + + + + ⋯ is divergent.
𝑛 2 3 4 5 6
𝑛=1

+∞
1 1 1 1
The series ∑ = + + + ⋯ and the harmonic series differ only by the first few terms.
𝑛+3 4 5 6 +∞
𝑛=1
1
Since the harmonic series is divergent, the series ∑ is also divergent.
𝑛+3
𝑛=1

+∞
1 𝑛−4 1 1 1
2. Consider the series ∑ ( ) = 27 + 9 + 3 + 1 + + + + ⋯.
3 3 9 27
𝑛=1
+∞
1 𝑛−1
The given series and the geometric series ∑ ( ) differ only by the first few terms.
3
𝑛=1
 +∞ +∞
1 𝑛−1 1 𝑛−4
Since ∑ ( ) is convergent, the series ∑ ( ) is also convergent.
3 3
𝑛=1 𝑛=1
+∞ 𝑛−1 +∞ +∞
1 3 1 𝑛−4 1 𝑛−1 81
Moreover, since ∑ ( ) = , it follows that ∑ ( ) = 27 + 9 + 3 + ∑ ( ) = .
3 2 3 3 2
𝑛=1 𝑛=1 𝑛=1

Theorems.
+∞ +∞

1. If ∑ 𝑎𝑛 is convergent with sum 𝑆 and 𝑐 is a constant, then ∑ 𝑐𝑎𝑛 is convergent with sum 𝑐𝑆.
𝑛=1 𝑛=1
+∞ +∞

2. If ∑ 𝑎𝑛 is divergent and 𝑑 is a non-zero constant, then ∑ 𝑑𝑎𝑛 is also divergent.

𝑛=1 𝑛=1

Examples.
+∞
1
1. The telescoping series ∑ is convergent and has a sum of 1.
𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
𝑛=1
+∞
−4
So, the infinite series ∑ is also convergent with a sum of −4.
𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
𝑛=1

+∞ +∞
1 5
2. The 𝑝 −series ∑ 1 is divergent. So, the series ∑ 1⁄ is also divergent.
𝑛=1
𝑛 ⁄2 𝑛=1
𝑛 2

Theorems.
+∞ +∞ +∞

1. If ∑ 𝑎𝑛 and ∑ 𝑏𝑛 are convergent with sums 𝑆 and 𝑅, respectively, then ∑(𝑎𝑛 ± 𝑏𝑛 )

𝑛=1 𝑛=1 𝑛=1
is also convergent with sum 𝑆 ± 𝑅.
+∞ +∞ +∞

2. If ∑ 𝑎𝑛 is convergent and ∑ 𝑏𝑛 is divergent then ∑(𝑎𝑛 ± 𝑏𝑛 ) is divergent.

𝑛=1 𝑛=1 𝑛=1

Examples.
+∞ +∞
1 6
1. The series ∑ and ∑ are both convergent.
2𝑛+3 3𝑛−1
𝑛=1 𝑛=1
+∞
1 6
Hence, the series ∑ ( 𝑛+3 − 𝑛−1 ) is also convergent.
2 3
𝑛=1

Compute for the sum of this infinite series using the corresponding sums of the two other series.
+∞
𝑛+2
2. Consider the infinite series ∑ .
𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
𝑛=1
+∞ +∞ +∞
𝑛+2 1 1 𝑛+2 1 1
Note that = + . So, ∑ =∑ +∑ .
𝑛(𝑛 + 1) 𝑛(𝑛 + 1) 𝑛 𝑛(𝑛 + 1) 𝑛(𝑛 + 1) 𝑛
𝑛=1 𝑛=1 𝑛=1
+∞ +∞ +∞
1 1 𝑛+2
Since ∑ is convergent but ∑ is divergent, the infinite series∑ is divergent.
𝑛(𝑛 + 1) 𝑛 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
𝑛=1 𝑛=1 𝑛=1
Remark:
Given two divergent infinite series,
there is no generalization regarding convergence or divergence of their sum and difference.

Illustrations.
+∞ +∞
1 1
The infinite series ∑ and ∑ are divergent.
𝑛 𝑛+1
𝑛=1 𝑛=1
+∞ +∞ +∞
1 1 1
The difference ∑ − ∑ =∑ is convergent
𝑛 𝑛+1 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
𝑛=1 𝑛=1 𝑛=1
+∞ +∞ +∞
1 1 1
while the sum ∑ +∑ = 1+2∑ is divergent.
𝑛 𝑛+1 𝑛
𝑛=1 𝑛=1 𝑛=1

+∞ +∞
2 1
The infinite series ∑ and ∑ are divergent.
𝑛 𝑛+1
𝑛=1 𝑛=1
For this two series, both their sum and difference are divergent.

_________________________

Concept Recap
1. What is a geometric series? When is it convergent or divergent?
2. What is a 𝑝 −series? When is it convergent or divergent?
3. When are two infinite series different by only a finite number of terms?
How can the convergence or divergence of two such infinites series be compared?
4. When is a constant multiple of an infinite series convergent or divergent?
5. When is the sum or difference of two infinite series convergent or divergent?

Practice Exercises
For items 1 to 4, identify the form of the infinite series. Then, conclude whether it is convergent or
divergent. (It might be necessary to simplify the expressions to identify the form.)
+∞ 𝑛−1 +∞
3 𝑛+1
1. ∑ 𝑛−1 3. ∑ 5
2 𝑛 + 𝑛4
𝑛=1 𝑛=1
+∞ +∞
𝑒𝑛+1 𝑛4 + 𝑛3
2. ∑ 4. ∑
𝑒 2𝑛 𝑛2 + 𝑛
𝑛=1 𝑛=1

For items 5 to 8, using convergence or divergence of known infinite series, determine whether the
following is convergent or divergent.
+∞ +∞
10 1 1
5. ∑ 2 7. ∑ ( + )
𝑛 + 2𝑛 + 1 𝑛=1
√𝑛3 √𝑛
𝑛=1
+∞ +∞
5 3 2 𝑛2
6. ∑ ( 𝑛−1 − 4 ) 8. ∑ ( − )
4 𝑛 𝑒 𝑛−3 3
𝑛=1 𝑛=1
+∞
3 2
9. The infinite series ∑ ( 𝑛+1 + 𝑛−2 ) is convergent.
2 3
𝑛=1
By using infinite series with known sum, compute for the sum of the given infinite series
+∞
𝑛 1
10. The infinite series ∑ ( − ) is a difference of two divergent infinite series.
𝑛+2 𝑛+1
𝑛=1
Devise a method to determine whether it is convergent or divergent.
For Exploration
The Integral Test can be used to conclude convergence or divergence of an infinite series that has an
equivalent improper integral

Integral Test
Let 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) be a continuous, decreasing and positive-valued function for all 𝑥 ≥ 1.
+∞
+∞
i. If the improper integral ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 is convergent, then the series ∑ 𝑓(𝑛) is also convergent.
1 𝑛=1
+∞
+∞
ii. If the improper integral ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 is divergent, then the series ∑ 𝑓(𝑛) is also divergent.
1 𝑛=1
Use the Integral Test to verify the following:
+∞
1
1. for 𝑝 > 1, the 𝑝 −series ∑ is convergent, and
𝑛𝑝
𝑛=1
+∞
1
2. for 𝑝 ≤ 1, the 𝑝 −series ∑ is divergent.
𝑛𝑝
𝑛=1

____________________________________________

Section 5. TESTS FOR INFINITE SERIES

By the end of this section, you must be able to

✓ examine absolute or conditional convergence of an infinite series;
✓ use the Alternating Series Test to establish convergence of alternating series; and
✓ implement the Ratio Test to establish convergence or divergence of infinite series

Definition (of alternating series)

If 𝑎𝑛 > 0 for each for each 𝑛 ∈ ℕ, then the series
+∞ +∞
𝑛
∑(−1) 𝑎𝑛 = −𝑎1 + 𝑎2 − 𝑎3 + 𝑎4 − ⋯ and ∑(−1)𝑛+1 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 − 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 − 𝑎4 + ⋯
𝑛=1 𝑛=1
are called as alternating series.

The Alternating Series Test

+∞ +∞
𝑛
Given ∑(−1) 𝑎𝑛 or ∑(−1)𝑛+1 𝑎𝑛 .
𝑛=1 𝑛=1
If i. 𝑎𝑛+1 < 𝑎𝑛 for each 𝑛 ∈ ℕ, and
ii. 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑎𝑛 = 0,
𝑛⟶+∞
then the given series is convergent.

Illustration.
+∞
(−1)𝑛
Consider the alternating harmonic series ∑ .
𝑛
𝑛=1
1 1
Let 𝑎𝑛 = and 𝑎𝑛+1 = .
𝑛 𝑛+1
1 1
Notice that for each 𝑛 ∈ ℕ, < . So, 𝑎𝑛+1 < 𝑎𝑛 .
𝑛+1 𝑛

1
Moreover, 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 = 0.
𝑛⟶+∞ 𝑛⟶+∞ 𝑛
 +∞
(−1)𝑛
Thus, by the Alternating Series test, the alternating harmonic series ∑ is convergent.
𝑛
𝑛=1

By the Alternating Series Test, it can also be shown that the following alternating series
+∞ +∞ +∞
(−1)𝑛 (−1)𝑛+1 (−1)𝑛
are also convergent: ∑ 2 , ∑ and ∑ .
𝑛 √𝑛 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
𝑛=1 𝑛=1 𝑛=1

Definitions.
+∞

The infinite series ∑ 𝑎𝑛 is

𝑛=1 +∞

• absolutely convergent if ∑|𝑎𝑛 | is convergent.

𝑛=1
+∞ +∞

• conditionally convergent if ∑ 𝑎𝑛 is convergent but ∑|𝑎𝑛 | is divergent.

𝑛=1 𝑛=1
Illustrations
+∞
(−1)𝑛+1
1. Consider the infinite series ∑ .
2𝑛
𝑛=1
+∞ +∞
(−1) 𝑛+1
1 𝑛
Note that ∑ | | = ∑ ( ) is a convergent infinite series.
2𝑛 2
𝑛=1 𝑛=1
+∞ 𝑛+1
(−1)
So, ∑ is absolutely convergent.
2𝑛
𝑛=1

+∞
(−1)𝑛
2. The alternating harmonic series ∑ is convergent.
𝑛
𝑛=1
+∞ 𝑛 +∞
(−1) 1
However, ∑ | | = ∑ is divergent.
𝑛 𝑛
𝑛=1 𝑛=1
+∞
𝑛
(−1)
Hence, ∑ is conditionally convergent.
𝑛
𝑛=1

Theorem.
An infinite series that is absolutely convergent is also convergent,
+∞ +∞

i.e. if ∑|𝑎𝑛 | is convergent, then ∑ 𝑎𝑛 is also convergent.

𝑛=1 𝑛=1

Remarks:
The preceding theorem implies the following:
+∞

1. For 0 < 𝑟 < 1, the alternating geometric series ∑(−1)𝑛 𝑟 𝑛−1 is convergent.
𝑛=1
+∞
(−1)𝑛
2. For 𝑝 > 1, the alternating geometric series ∑ is convergent.
𝑛𝑝
𝑛=1
The Ratio Test
+∞
𝑎𝑛+1
Let ∑ 𝑎𝑛 be an infinite series for which 𝑎𝑛 is non-zero for each 𝑛 ∈ ℕ and let 𝐿 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 | |.
𝑛⟶+∞ 𝑎𝑛
𝑛=1
If 𝐿 < 1, the series is (absolutely) convergent.
If 𝐿 > 1 OR 𝐿 = ∞, the series is divergent.
If 𝐿 = 1, the test fails. (Use other tests to conclude divergence or convergence.)

Examples.
+∞
2𝑛
1. To implement the Ratio Test to the infinite series ∑(−1)𝑛 ,
𝑛!
𝑛=1
𝑛 𝑛+1
2 2
consider 𝑎𝑛 = (−1)𝑛 and 𝑎𝑛+1 = (−1)𝑛+1 .
𝑛! (𝑛 + 1)!

𝑎𝑛+1 2 𝑎𝑛+1 2
So, =− . Hence, 𝑙𝑖𝑚 | | = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 = 0.
𝑎𝑛 𝑛+1 𝑛⟶+∞ 𝑎𝑛 𝑛⟶+∞ 𝑛 + 1
+∞
𝑛
𝑎𝑛+1 𝑛
2
Since 𝑙𝑖𝑚 | | = 0 < 1 , by the Ratio Test, the infinite series ∑(−1) 𝑛! is convergent.
𝑛⟶+∞ 𝑎𝑛
𝑛=1
+∞
𝑒𝑛
2. Given the infinite series ∑ ,
𝑛2
𝑛=1

𝑒𝑛 𝑒 𝑛+1
consider 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎
and 𝑛+1 = .
𝑛2 (𝑛 + 1)2

𝑎𝑛+1 𝑛2 𝑎𝑛+1 𝑛2
Then, =𝑒 . Hence, lim | | = 𝑒 ∙ 𝑙𝑖𝑚 =𝑒.
𝑎𝑛 (𝑛 + 1)2 𝑛⟶+∞ 𝑎𝑛 𝑛⟶+∞ (𝑛 + 1)2

+∞
𝑎𝑛+1 𝑒𝑛
Since 𝑙𝑖𝑚 | | = 𝑒 > 1 , by the Ratio Test, the infinite series ∑ 2 is divergent.
𝑛⟶+∞ 𝑎𝑛 𝑛
𝑛=1

3. There are cases when the Ratio Test fails.

+∞
(−1)𝑛 (−1)𝑛 (−1)𝑛+1
In the case of ∑ , 𝑎𝑛 = and 𝑎𝑛+1 = .
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛+1
𝑛=1
𝑎𝑛+1 𝑛
So, lim | | = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 = 1.
𝑛⟶+∞ 𝑎𝑛 𝑛⟶+∞ 𝑛 + 1

The Ratio Test fails to have a conclusion regarding the convergence or divergence.
However, we have already established, by the Alternating Series Test, that the alternating
+∞
(−1)𝑛
harmonic series ∑ is convergent.
𝑛
𝑛=1

Similarly, the Ratio Test fails for the following infinite series:
+∞ +∞ +∞
𝑛 (−1)𝑛 2𝑛
∑ ∑ ∑
𝑛+3 𝑛(𝑛 + 1) 2𝑛+1
𝑛=1 𝑛=1 𝑛=1

Determine a test or method that can be used to establish convergence or divergence of these
infinite series.

_________________________
Concept Recap
1. When is an infinite series absolutely convergent? conditionally convergent?
2. What are the conditions of the Alternating Series Test to guarantee convergence?
3. How can the Ratio Test be implemented?
4. What are the conclusions of the Ratio Test?
5. How can convergence or divergence be tested if the Ratio Test fails?

Practice Exercises

For items 1, 2 and 3, examine the infinite series for absolute or conditional convergence.
+∞ +∞ +∞
(−1)𝑛+1 (−1)𝑛+1 (−1)𝑛
1. ∑ 2. ∑ 3. ∑
3𝑛 𝑛! √𝑛3
𝑛=1 𝑛=1 𝑛=1

For the infinite series in items 4 and 5, use the Alternating Series Test to establish convergence.
+∞ +∞
(−1)𝑛+1 𝑛
4. ∑ 5. ∑(−1)𝑛 2
√𝑛 𝑛 +1
𝑛=1 𝑛=1

For items 6 to 9, use the Ratio Test to conclude whether the infinite series is convergent or divergent.
+∞ 2 +∞
𝑛 𝑛+1
3 𝑛
6. ∑ 𝑛 8. ∑(−1) 𝑛 ( )
3 4
𝑛=1 𝑛=1
+∞ +∞
𝑛! 2𝑛 + 1
7. ∑ 9. ∑
(−2)𝑛 3𝑛 + 𝑛
𝑛=1 𝑛=1
+∞
(−1)𝑛
10. Verify that the Ratio Test fails for the infinite series ∑ .
𝑛2 + 𝑛
𝑛=1
Devise a method to determine whether it is convergent or divergent.

For Exploration
The following are other tests that can be used to determine whether an infinite series is convergent or
divergent. These tests require comparing terms of an infinite series with another infinite series which
is known to be convergent or divergent.

Comparison Test.
+∞

Let ∑ 𝑎𝑛 be an infinite series such that 𝑎𝑛 > 0 for each 𝑛 ∈ ℕ.

𝑛=1
+∞

i. If ∑ 𝑢𝑛 is known to be convergent and 𝑎𝑛 ≤ 𝑢𝑛 for each 𝑛 ∈ ℕ,

𝑛=1 +∞
then ∑ 𝑎𝑛 is also convergent.
𝑛=1
+∞

ii. If ∑ 𝑣𝑛 is known to be divergent and 0 < 𝑣𝑛 ≤ 𝑎𝑛 for each 𝑛 ∈ ℕ,

𝑛=1 +∞
then ∑ 𝑎𝑛 is also divergent.
𝑛=1

Use Comparison Test to determine whether the following are convergent or divergent.
+∞ +∞
1 1
∑ compare with ∑
𝑛! + 𝑛2 𝑛!
𝑛=1 𝑛=1
+∞ +∞
1 1
∑ compare with ∑
√𝑛2 −5 𝑛
𝑛=1 𝑛=1
 +∞
1
∑ Which infinite series should be used for comparison?
𝑛2 + 5𝑛 + 6
𝑛=1

Limit Comparison Test.

+∞ +∞

Let ∑ 𝑎𝑛 and ∑ 𝑏𝑛 be infinite series for which 𝑎𝑛 , 𝑏𝑛 > 0 for each 𝑛 ∈ ℕ.

𝑛=1 𝑛=1

𝑎𝑛
i. If 𝑙𝑖𝑚 = 𝐿 > 0 , then either both series are convergent or both series are divergent.
𝑛⟶+∞ 𝑏𝑛 +∞
+∞
𝑎𝑛
ii. If 𝑙𝑖𝑚 = 0 and if ∑ 𝑏𝑛 is convergent, then ∑ 𝑎𝑛 is also convergent.
𝑛⟶+∞ 𝑏𝑛
𝑛=1 𝑛=1
+∞ +∞
𝑎𝑛
iii. If 𝑙𝑖𝑚 = +∞ and if ∑ 𝑏𝑛 is divergent, then ∑ 𝑎𝑛 is also divergent.
𝑛⟶+∞ 𝑏𝑛
𝑛=1 𝑛=1

Use Limit Comparison Test to determine whether the following are convergent or divergent.
+∞ +∞ +∞
1 1 1
∑ 𝑛 compare with ∑ 𝑛 What if ∑ is used?
3 −𝑛 3 𝑛
𝑛=1 𝑛=1 𝑛=1
+∞ 3 +∞ +∞
𝑛 ⁄2 1 1
∑ compare with ∑ 1 What if ∑ is used?
𝑛2 + 𝑛 𝑛 ⁄2 𝑛2
𝑛=1 𝑛=1 𝑛=1
+∞
𝑛
∑ 2 Which infinite series should be used for comparison?
𝑛 + ln 𝑛
𝑛=1

____________________________________________

Section 6. POWER SERIES

By the end of this section, you must be able to

✓ explain the relation of an interval of convergence to its power series;
✓ implement the Ratio Test to obtain an interval of convergence; and
✓ conclude the interval of convergence of a power series.

Convention:
From here on, we consider sequences with domain over 𝕎, or of the form {𝑎𝑛 }∞
𝑛=0 .

Definition.

Let 𝑎 be a real number and {𝑐𝑛 }∞

𝑛=0 be a sequence of constants.

A power series about 𝑎 is a series of the form

+∞

∑ 𝑐𝑛 (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑛 = 𝑐0 + 𝑐1 (𝑥 − 𝑎) + 𝑐2 (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + 𝑐3 (𝑥 − 𝑎)3 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑛 (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑛 + ⋯

𝑛=0

+∞

When 𝑎 = 0, we obtain the form ∑ 𝑐𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑐0 + 𝑐1 𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑥 2 + 𝑐3 𝑥 3 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + ⋯

𝑛=0

The following are power series with their corresponding expansions for first few terms:
+∞
𝑥𝑛 𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥5
∑ =1+ + + + + +⋯
𝑛+1 2 3 4 5 6
𝑛=0
 +∞
(𝑥 − 2)𝑛 𝑥 − 2 (𝑥 − 2)2 (𝑥 − 2)3 (𝑥 − 2)4 (𝑥 − 2)5
∑ = 1 + + + + + +⋯
5𝑛 5 52 53 54 55
𝑛=0
+∞
𝑥𝑛 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥5
∑ =1+𝑥+ + + + +⋯
𝑛! 2! 3! 4! 5!
𝑛=0

GOAL!
Determine all values of 𝒙 for which a power series is convergent.

Theorem.
+∞

Consider an infinite series ∑ 𝑐𝑛 (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑛 . Then exactly one of the following holds:
𝑛=0
i. the infinite series converges only when 𝑥 = 𝑎;

ii. the infinite series is (absolutely) convergent for all values of 𝑥; or

iii. there exists 𝑅 > 0 such that the infinite series is (absolutely) convergent for all values of
𝑥 such that |𝑥 − 𝑎| < 𝑅 and is divergent for values of 𝑥 such that |𝑥 − 𝑎| > 𝑅.
(The real number 𝑅 is called radius of convergence.)

Definition.
The interval of convergence of a power series is the interval containing all values of 𝑥 for which the
power series is convergent.

+∞
Consider a power series ∑ 𝑐𝑛 (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑛 with radius of convergence 𝑅 > 0.
𝑛=0
The power series is absolutely convergent for
values 𝑥 satisfying |𝑥 − 𝑎| < 𝑅 or the interval
(𝑎 − 𝑅, 𝑎 + 𝑅).

For values of 𝑥 such that |𝑥 − 𝑎| > 𝑅, the power

series is divergent.

At the endpoints of the interval 𝑥 = 𝑎 − 𝑅 and 𝑥 = 𝑎 + 𝑅, convergence or divergence

should be tested separately.

How to determine the interval of convergence.

+∞

Given a power series ∑ 𝑐𝑛 (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑛 ,

𝑛=0
1. Consider 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑐𝑛 (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑛 and 𝑎𝑛+1 = 𝑐𝑛+1 (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑛+1 .
𝑎𝑛+1 𝑐𝑛+1 (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑛+1
2. In particular, compute for 𝑙𝑖𝑚 | | = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 | |.
𝑛⟶+∞ 𝑎𝑛 𝑛⟶+∞ 𝑐𝑛 (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑛
This limit is of the form 𝑐|𝑥 − 𝑎| for some constant 𝑐.

3. Following the conclusion of the Ratio test, the power series is:
1
✓ convergent for values of 𝑥 such that 𝑐|𝑥 − 𝑎| < 1 or |𝑥 − 𝑎| < ; and
𝑐
✓ divergent for values of 𝑥 such that 𝑐|𝑥 − 𝑎| > 1.
1 1
4. The Ratio Test gives an interval of the form (𝑎 − , 𝑎 + ).
𝑐 𝑐
 5. Separately determine whether the power series is convergent or divergent at the endpoints of
1 1
the interval 𝑥 = 𝑎 − and 𝑥 = 𝑎 + .
𝑐 𝑐

6. The interval of convergence of the power series is given by the interval in Step #5 with the
endpoints where the power series is convergent.
Remark:
In the limit in Step #2, instead of obtaining 𝑐|𝑥 − 𝑎|, the limit can also be a constant, say 𝐿.
Following the Ratio Test,
✓ if 𝐿 < 1, the power series is convergent for all values of 𝑥 and the interval of
convergence is (−∞, +∞); or
✓ if 𝐿 > 1, the power series is convergent only at 𝑥 = 𝑎.

Examples.
+∞
𝑥𝑛
1. Consider the power series ∑ .
𝑛+1
𝑛=0
𝑥𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+1 𝑎𝑛+1 𝑛+1
With 𝑎𝑛 = and 𝑎𝑛+1 = , notice that | | = |𝑥| ∙ .
𝑛+1 𝑛+2 𝑎𝑛 𝑛+2
𝑎𝑛+1 𝑛+1
𝑙𝑖𝑚 |
So, 𝑛⟶+∞ | = |𝑥| ∙ 𝑙𝑖𝑚 = |𝑥| .
𝑎𝑛 𝑛⟶+∞ 𝑛 + 2

From the conclusion of the Ratio Test, the power series is convergent whenever |𝑥| < 1.
This gives the interval (−1,1).

Now, testing over the endpoint −1 and 1:

+∞
(−1)𝑛
at 𝑥 = −1, ∑ is an alternating harmonic series which is convergent; and
𝑛+1
𝑛=0
+∞
1
at 𝑥 = 1, ∑ is the harmonic series which is divergent.
𝑛+1
𝑛=0
+∞
𝑥𝑛
Thus, the interval of convergence of ∑ is [−1,1).
𝑛+1
𝑛=0
+∞
(𝑥 − 2)𝑛
2. For the interval of convergence of ∑ ,
5𝑛
𝑛=1
𝑛
(𝑥 − 2) (𝑥 − 2)𝑛+1
consider 𝑎𝑛 = and 𝑎𝑛+1 = .
5𝑛 5𝑛+1
𝑎𝑛+1 1 𝑎𝑛+1 1 |𝑥 − 2|
So, | | = |𝑥 − 2| ∙ . Hence, 𝑙𝑖𝑚 | | = |𝑥 − 2| ∙ 𝑙𝑖𝑚 = .
𝑎𝑛 5 𝑛⟶+∞ 𝑎𝑛 𝑛⟶+∞ 5 5

|𝑥 − 2|
By the Ratio Test, the power series is convergent whenever < 1 or |𝑥 − 2| < 5.
This gives the interval (−3,7). 5

Now, testing over the endpoint −3 and 7:

+∞

at 𝑥 = −3, ∑(−1)𝑛 is divergent; and

𝑛=0
+∞

at 𝑥 = 7, ∑ 1 is divergent.
𝑛=0
+∞
(𝑥 − 2)𝑛
Thus, the interval of convergence of ∑ is the open interval (−1,5).
3𝑛
𝑛=1
3. There are power series that is convergent for every real number 𝑥.
+∞
𝑥𝑛
Consider ∑ .
𝑛!
𝑛=0

𝑥𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+1 𝑎𝑛+1 1
With 𝑎𝑛 = and 𝑎𝑛+1 = , notice that | | = |𝑥| ∙ .
𝑛! (𝑛 + 1)! 𝑎𝑛 𝑛+1

𝑎𝑛+1 1
So, 𝑙𝑖𝑚 | | = |𝑥| ∙ 𝑙𝑖𝑚 = 0 for any 𝑥 ∈ ℝ.
𝑛⟶+∞ 𝑎𝑛 𝑛⟶+∞ 𝑛 + 1
𝑎𝑛+1
From the conclusion of the Ratio Test, since 𝑙𝑖𝑚 | | = 0 < 1 for any 𝑥 ∈ ℝ,
𝑛⟶+∞ 𝑎𝑛

it must be that the power series is convergent for any 𝑥 ∈ ℝ.

+∞ 𝑛
𝑥
Thus, the interval of convergence of ∑ is (−∞, +∞).
𝑛!
𝑛=0
_________________________

Concept Recap
1. What is a power series?
2. What is an interval of convergence of a power series?
3. How can the Ratio Test be used to obtain an interval of convergence?
4. When is it possible for the interval of convergence to be (−∞, +∞)?
5. Can a power series be divergent at any real number? If so, provide an example.

Practice Exercises

For items 1 to 2, write the first 6 terms (at 𝑛 = 0,1,2,3,4,5) of the given power series.
+∞ +∞ 𝑛
(𝑥 − 5)𝑛 2
1. ∑(−1)𝑛 2 2. ∑ (𝑥 + 1)2𝑛
𝑛 +1 𝑛!
𝑛=0 𝑛=0

For items 3 to 5, test the power series for convergence or divergence at the given real numbers.
+∞
5
3. ∑(𝑥 − 2)𝑛 at 𝑥 = 1,2,
2
𝑛=0

+∞
(𝑥 + 1)𝑛
4. ∑ at 𝑥 = −2,0,3
3𝑛
𝑛=0
+∞
𝑥𝑛 1
5. ∑ 𝑛3 at 𝑥 = −1, , 2
3
𝑛=1

For items 6 to 10, solve for the interval of convergence of the power series. Be sure to verify
convergence or divergence at the endpoints of the interval.
+∞ +∞
(𝑥 − 5)𝑛 𝑒𝑛
6. ∑ 9. ∑ (𝑥 + 4)𝑛
𝑛2 𝑛!
𝑛=1 𝑛=1
+∞ +∞
(𝑥 + 1)𝑛 2𝑛 𝑛
7. ∑ 10. ∑ 𝑥
2𝑛 𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑛=1
+∞
𝑛
8. ∑ 𝑥𝑛
𝑛+1
𝑛=0
Applied Problems (in chemistry)
Power series are used to represent functions in a form that is almost a polynomial.
+∞
𝑘𝑥
𝑘𝑛 𝑛
For example, for a constant 𝑘, 𝑒 =∑ 𝑥 . The right-side is the power series expansion of 𝑒 𝑘𝑥 .
𝑛!
𝑛=0

The corresponding power series can then be used for further manipulation.
𝑥⁄
The radial wavefunction 𝑅(𝑥) of a 3d hydrogen atomic orbital is given by 𝑅(𝑥) = 𝑁𝑥 2 𝑒 − 3𝑎
where 𝑁 is a normalizing constant and 𝑎 is Bohr radius.
𝑥⁄
By considering the power series expansion of 𝑒 − 3𝑎 , the radial wavefunction 𝑅(𝑥) can have a
polynomial representation.
𝑥
1. Using the formula above, obtain a power series expansion of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 − ⁄3𝑎 .
2. From (1), obtain a power series expansion of 𝑅(𝑥).
Note: Due to the 𝑥 2 factor, this power series do not have constant and linear terms.
3. Using the power series, approximate 𝑅(𝑥) by a polynomial of degree 5 and of degree 8.

Via a graphing software, compare the graphs of 𝑅(𝑥) and the polynomial approximations.

For Exploration
(Differentiation and antidifferentiation of power series)

Power series have derivatives and antiderivatives.

+∞

Consider a power series 𝑓(𝑥) = ∑ 𝑐𝑛 (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑛 .

𝑛=0
+∞ +∞
(𝑥 − 𝑎) 𝑛+1
𝑑𝑓
Its derivative is given by = ∑ 𝑐𝑛 𝑛(𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑛−1 and antiderivative by ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∑ 𝑐𝑛 𝑛 + 1 .
𝑑𝑥 𝑛=0
𝑛=1

Notice the constant terms of the derivative and the antiderivative.

The power series and its derivative and antiderivative have the same interval of convergence.

+∞
𝑥𝑛
1. Consider the power series 𝑓(𝑥) = ∑ with interval of convergence [−1,1).
𝑛+1
𝑛=0
Compute for its derivative and antiderivative. Then, verify that the interval of convergence of the
derivative and antiderivative are the same as the given power series.
+∞
𝑥𝑛
2. Consider the power series 𝑓(𝑥) = ∑ with interval of convergence (−∞, +∞).
𝑛!
𝑛=0
a. Compute for its derivative. Show that the derivative of this power series is itself.
b. Compute for its antiderivative. Show that except for the constant term the terms of the
antiderivative are the same as the given power series.

____________________________________________

Section 7. TAYLOR AND MACLAURIN SERIES

By the end of this section, you must be able to

✓ state the Taylor and Maclaurin series;
✓ demonstrate how to obtain power series expansion of specific functions using the
Taylor and Maclaurin series; and
✓ compute for approximation of specific transcendental functions using power series
expansion.
Consider a function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) and let 𝑎 ∈ ℝ be a constant.
+∞
𝒇𝒏 (𝒂)
Taylor series expansion of 𝒇 about 𝒂: 𝒇(𝒙) = ∑ (𝒙 − 𝒂)𝒏
𝒏!
𝒏=𝟎
+∞
𝒇𝒏 (𝟎) 𝒏
Maclaurin series expansion of 𝒇: 𝒇(𝒙) = ∑ 𝒙
𝒏!
𝒏=𝟎

where 𝑓 𝑛 is the 𝑛 −th order derivative of 𝑓 and 𝑓 𝑛 = 𝑓

The Taylor series expansion of a function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is a power series representation of a function.
The Taylor series about 𝑎 ∈ ℝ of a function 𝑓 can only be constructed if 𝑓 𝑛 (𝑎), the 𝑛 −th derivative of
𝑓 at 𝑎, exists for each 𝑛 ∈ ℕ.

The Maclaurin series is the case of the Taylor series about 𝑎 = 0.

The Taylor or Maclaurin series expansion of a function is only valid for values of 𝑥 in the interval of
convergence of the power series.

To construct Taylor or Maclaurin series expansion,

simply compute for 𝒇𝒏 (𝒂) or 𝒇𝒏 (𝟎), that is, the 𝒏 −th order derivative of a function 𝒇 at 𝒂.

Examples.

1. The function 𝑓(𝑥) = ln 𝑥 is differentiable at 𝑎 = 1.

The Taylor series expansion of 𝑓(𝑥) = ln 𝑥 exists with 𝑎 = 1.

Solving for 𝑓 𝑛 (1), 𝑓 0 (𝑥) = ln 𝑥 𝑓 0 (1) = ln 1 = 0

𝑓 1 (𝑥) = 𝑥 −1 𝑓 1 (1) = 1 = 0!
𝑓 2 (𝑥) = −𝑥 −2 𝑓 2 (1) = −1!
𝑓 3 (𝑥) = 2𝑥 −3 𝑓 3 (1) = 2!
𝑓 4 (𝑥) = −3! ∙ 𝑥 −4 𝑓 4 (1) = −3!
𝑓 5 (𝑥) = 4! ∙ 𝑥 −4 𝑓 5 (1) = 4!
⋮ ⋮
for 𝑛 ≥ 1, 𝑓 𝑛 (𝑥) = (−1)𝑛+1 (𝑛 − 1)! ∙ 𝑥 −(𝑛−1) 𝑓 𝑛 (1) = (−1)𝑛+1 (𝑛 − 1)!

So, the Taylor series expansion of 𝑓(𝑥) = ln 𝑥 abour 𝑎 = 1 is

+∞
𝑓 𝑛 (1)
𝑓(𝑥) = ∑ (𝑥 − 1)𝑛
𝑛!
𝑛=0
+∞
(𝑛 − 1)!
= ∑(−1)𝑛+1 (𝑥 − 1)𝑛 Note that 𝑓 0 (1) = 0.
𝑛!
𝑛=1
+∞
(−1)𝑛+1
=∑ (𝑥 − 1)𝑛
𝑛
𝑛=1

The interval of convergence of this power series is (0,2].

+∞
(−1)𝑛+1
Thus, for 𝑥 ∈ (0,2], ln 𝑥 = ∑ (𝑥 − 1)𝑛 .
𝑛
𝑛=1

2. The function 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 has a Maclaurin series expansion.

Solving for 𝑓 𝑛 (0), 𝑓 0 (𝑥) = 2𝑥 𝑓 0 (0) = 1

𝑓 1 (𝑥) = ln 2 ∙ 2𝑥 𝑓 1 (0) = ln 2
𝑓 2 (𝑥) = (ln 2)2 ∙ 2𝑥 𝑓 2 (0) = (ln 2)2
 𝑓 3 (𝑥) = (ln 2)3 ∙ 2𝑥 𝑓 3 (0) = (ln 2)3
𝑓 4 (𝑥) = (ln 2)4 ∙ 2𝑥 𝑓 4 (0) = (ln 2)4
⋮ ⋮
for 𝑛 ≥ 0, 𝑓 𝑛 (𝑥) = (ln 2)𝑛 ∙ 2𝑥 𝑓 𝑛 (0) = (ln 2)𝑛

So, the Maclaurin series expansion of 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 is

+∞
𝑓 𝑛 (0) 𝑛
𝑓(𝑥) = ∑ 𝑥
𝑛!
𝑛=0
+∞
(ln 2)𝑛 𝑛
=∑ 𝑥
𝑛!
𝑛=0

The interval of convergence of this power series is (−∞, +∞).

+∞
𝑥
(ln 2)𝑛 𝑛
Thus, for any 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 2 = ∑ 𝑥 .
𝑛!
𝑛=0

The following are some other Maclaurin series expansions and corresponding interval of
convergence:
+∞
1
= ∑ 𝑥𝑛 for 𝑥 ∈ [−1,1)
1−𝑥
𝑛=0
+∞
𝑥𝑛
𝑒𝑥 = ∑ for any 𝑥 ∈ ℝ
𝑛!
𝑛=0
+∞
(−1)𝑛
sin 𝑥 = ∑ 𝑥 2𝑛+1 for any 𝑥 ∈ ℝ
(2𝑛 + 1)!
𝑛=0
+∞
(−1)𝑛 2𝑛
cos 𝑥 = ∑ 𝑥 for any 𝑥 ∈ ℝ
(2𝑛)!
𝑛=0

Taylor or Maclaurin series expansion of a function can be used to approximate function values
especially transcendental function values. In computing, transcendental function values are
approximated by partial sums of the corresponding power series expansions.

Illustrations.
The transcendental function value ln 2 can be approximated using the Taylor series expansion of
𝑓(𝑥) = ln 𝑥 about 𝑎 = 1 given by
+∞
(−1)𝑛+1
ln 𝑥 = ∑ (𝑥 − 1)𝑛 .
𝑛
𝑛=0
+∞
(−1)𝑛+1
So, ln 2 = ∑ . .
𝑛
𝑛=0
10
. (−1)𝑛+1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
In particular, ln 2 ≈ ∑ = 1 − + − + − + − + − ≈ 0.64563 .
𝑛 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
𝑛=0
.
.
Better approximations can be obtained by considering more terms of the expansion.
10000
(−1)𝑛+1
Up to 𝑛 = 10000, ln 2 ≈ ∑ ≈ 0.693097
𝑛
𝑛=0 .
_________________________
.
Concept Recap
1. What is a Taylor series expansion of a function?
2. What is a Maclaurin series expansion of a function?
3. When does a function have a Taylor series expansion at 𝑥 = 𝑎?
4. Why is it important to obtain the interval of convergence of a Taylor series?
5. Why is the Taylor series expansion important in computing applications?

Practice Exercises
1
1. Consider the function 𝑓(𝑥) = .
𝑥
1
a. Show that 𝑓 𝑛 (𝑥) = (−1)𝑛 𝑛! for 𝑛 = 0,1,2,3, … .
𝑥 𝑛+1
1
b. Obtain the Taylor series expansion of 𝑓(𝑥) = about 𝑎 = 1.
𝑥
c. Show that the interval of convergence is (0,2].
1
d. Alternatively, compute for the Taylor series expansion of 𝑓(𝑥) = about 𝑎 = 2 with its
𝑥
corresponding interval of convergence.

2. Consider the function 𝑓(𝑥) = ln 𝑥

1
a. Show that 𝑓 𝑛 (𝑥) = (−1)𝑛+1 (𝑛 − 1)! 𝑛 for 𝑛 = 1,2,3, … .
𝑥
b. Obtain the Taylor series expansion of 𝑓(𝑥) = ln 𝑥 about 𝑎 = 2.
c. Show that the interval of convergence is (0,4].
d. Compare the Taylor series expansion about 𝑎 = 2 with the Taylor series about 𝑎 = 1.

3. Consider the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 .

a. Show a derivation of the Maclaurin series expansion of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 .
b. Show that the interval of convergence is (−∞, +∞).
2
c. Obtain Maclaurin series expansion of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 2𝑥 , 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 −𝑥 and 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 .
Do this by using appropriate algebraic substitutions using the Maclaurin series of 𝑒 𝑥 .
1
4. Consider the function 𝑓(𝑥) = .
1−𝑥
1
a. Show a derivation of the Maclaurin series expansion of 𝑓(𝑥) = .
1−𝑥
b. Show that the interval of convergence is [−1,1).
1 1 1
c. Obtain Maclaurin series expansion of 𝑓(𝑥) = , 𝑓(𝑥) = and 𝑓(𝑥) = .
1−2𝑥 1+𝑥 1−𝑥 2
1
Do this by using appropriate algebraic substitutions using the Maclaurin series of .
1−𝑥

5. Consider the function 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥.

a. Show a derivation of the Maclaurin series expansion of 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥.
Note that the 𝑛 −th derivative of sin 𝑥 is 0 whenever 𝑛 is even, i.e. 𝑓 𝑛 (0) = 0 when 𝑛 is even.
b. Verify that the Maclaurin series expansion of sin 𝑥 contains only odd powers of 𝑥.

6. Consider the function 𝑓(𝑥) = cos 𝑥.

a. Show a derivation of the Maclaurin series expansion of 𝑓(𝑥) = cos 𝑥.
Note that the 𝑛 −th derivative of cos 𝑥 is 0 whenever 𝑛 is odd, i.e. 𝑓 𝑛 (0) = 0 when 𝑛 is odd.
b. Verify that the Maclaurin series expansion of cos 𝑥 contains only even powers of 𝑥.

For items 7 to 10, approximate the function values using the corresponding power series expansion.
Compare the approximations using only the first five or the first ten terms of the power series.
𝜋
7. 𝑒 2 9. sin
6
1 𝜋
8. ln 10. cos
3 4
For Exploration
The Taylor and Maclaurin series of a function retains analytic properties of the given function.

The Maclaurin series of 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 only have odd terms since 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 is an odd function, i.e.
sin(−𝑥) = − sin 𝑥. In the case of 𝑓(𝑥) = cos 𝑥, the Maclaurin series contains only even terms since
𝑓(𝑥) = cos 𝑥 is an even function, i.e. cos(−𝑥) = cos 𝑥.

For the following, consider the derivatives and antiderivatives of a function and their corresponding
Taylor or Maclaurin series. The derivatives and antiderivatives of a Taylor or Maclaurin series are
consistent with the power series of the derivatives and antiderivatives of the function.
+∞
(−1)𝑛+1
1. Consider the Taylor series expansion of ln 𝑥 about 𝑎 = 1: ∑ (𝑥 − 1)𝑛 for 𝑥 ∈ (0,2],.
𝑛
𝑛=1
a. Compute for the derivative of this power series.
1
Verify that this derivative is the Taylor series expansion of about 𝑎 = 1.
𝑥
b. Compute for the antiderivative of this power series.
Verify that this antiderivative is the Taylor series expansion of 𝑥 − 𝑥 ln 𝑥 about 𝑎 = 1.
+∞
𝑥𝑛
2. Consider the Maclaurin series expansion of 𝑒 𝑥 : ∑ .
𝑛!
𝑛=0
a. Compute for the derivative of this power series.
Verify that this derivative is, in fact, the original power series.
b. Compute for the antiderivative of the power series.
Except for the constant term, verify that all the other terms of the antiderivative are the same
as the original power series.

Applied Problems (in statistics)

1 (𝑥−𝜇)2
−
The normal distribution curve is given by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 where 𝜇 is the mean and 𝜎 is the
2𝜎 2
√2𝜋
standard deviation of the distribution. Its graph traces a bell-shaped curve that is asymptotic to both
the positive and negative 𝑥 −axis.

In the case of a standard normal distribution

where 𝜇 = 0 and 𝜎 = 1, the function becomes

1 2
1
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 −2𝑥 .
√2𝜋

+∞
1 (𝑥−𝜇)2
−
A well-known property states that the area under the curve is 1 unit, i.e. ∫ 𝑒 2𝜎 2 𝑑𝑥 = 1.
−∞ √2𝜋
However, standard integration techniques cannot be used to establish this.
2
Antiderivatives of the form ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 or ∫ 𝑒 −𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 have no closed forms using standard techniques.
2 2
In applications, the power series expansions of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 or 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 −𝑥 can be used to obtain an
approximation of the integral.
1 2
1
Consider the standard normal distribution curve 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 −2𝑥 .
√2𝜋
 1. From the Maclaurin series expansion of 𝑒 𝑥 , obtain the Maclaurin series expansion of 𝑓(𝑥) =
1 2
𝑒 −2𝑥 . Note that the terms of this power series are all even.
1 2
2. Using the Maclaurin series expansion of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 −2𝑥 ,
1
compute for the power series of ∫ 𝑒 −2𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 .
1
3. Using the first few terms of power series of ∫ 𝑒 −2𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 ,

+∞
1 (𝑥−𝜇)2
−
compute for an approximation of ∫ . 𝑒 2𝜎 2 𝑑𝑥
√2𝜋 −∞
It is advisable to use computing software to perform the computations here.
The computation of the improper integral also needs to be approximated.

____________________________________________

UNIT EXAM

Note: This unit exam should be answered in at most 60 minutes.

I. Fill in the blanks. You only need to give your answers. No solutions required.

1. The limit of the sequence  1 ,0 , − 1 ,0 ,1 ,0 , − 1 ,0 , . . .  (is) ___________________.


 1 − 3n 
2. The limit of the sequence   (is) ___________________.
 2n − 4 n =1
+
3. In a series u
n =1
n , Sn is given by ___________________.

+ +
1
4. Given a series 
n =1
un with sn =
n+1
− 2 . Then, u
n =1
n converges to _______________.

+ n −1
 1 
5. The sum of the series  3 
n =1 
2 
is ___________________.

  1  2 n−1 
6. 
n =1


+
 n2  3 
 is __________________ (convergent/divergent).



  1 n −1 1 
7.    
 2
n =1 
+
1 
n 2
is ___________________ (convergent/divergent).

 n2 + 1
1
8. The Ratio Test tells us that is ___________________.
n=0

+
xn
9. The interval of convergence of 
n =0
n!
is ___________________.

10. The Maclaurin series of a function f is given by ___________________.

II. Computations. Do as you will be asked. Show complete solutions.

 2 + n 
n
A. Determine the limit of 
n 
, if it exists.
2
 n − 3 n =1

+
( −1 ) n + 1
B. Use the Alternating Series Test to show that 
n =0
n!
is convergent.

+
( x − 2)n
C. Determine the interval of convergence of the power series 
n =1
n2
.

D. Derive the Taylor series expansion of ln ( x − 1) about a = 2 .

(No need for interval of convergence.)

Then, using the first five terms of the series, estimate ln 4 .

~ END OF EXAM ~