UNIT-I

INTRODUCTION TO COMPOSITE MATERIALS: Introduction,

classification: polymer matrix composites, metal matrix composites, ceramic
matrix composites, carbon–carbon composites, fiber reinforced composites and
nature-made composites, and applications.

REINFORCEMENTS: Fibres- glass, silica, kevlar, carbon, boron, silicon

carbide, and born carbide fibres.

INTRODUCTION:

Composite material-Definition
 Conventional engineering materials are notable to serve some specific
needs, especially of those related to new technologies.
 Need for materials with better properties, thus, growing.
 Combination of better properties can only be achieved with introduction
of new materials.
 Composite material can be defined as any multiphase material that is
artificially made and exhibits a significant proportion of the properties of
the constituent phases. The constituent phases of a composite are usually
of macro sized portions, differ inform and chemical composition and
essentially insoluble in each other.
 Heterogeneous at a microscopic level but statistically homogeneous at
microscopic scale.
 Composites highlight how different materials work together in synergy.
 Composites mainly consist of two constituent materials namely
MATRIX & REINFORCEMENT.
 A composite is a material that consists of at least two distinct materials.
Thus, number of composites are possible.
 For ease of recognition, they are classified based on two criteria.

Based on type of matrix material

 Metal-matrix composites (MMC)
 Polymer-matrix composites (PMC)
 Ceramic-matrix composites (CMC)
 Carbon – carbon composites (CCC)

Based on size-and shape dispersed phase as Particle –reinforced composites

 Fiber-reinforced composites
 Structural composites
Figure : A broad classification of Composites
Figure : Brief classification of composites

Functions of Matrix Phase :

 Provides a medium for binding and holding the reinforcements together

in a solid.
 Protects the reinforcement from environmental degradation.
 Serves to transfer load from one insert (fibre, flake, particles ) to the
other.
 Provides finish, colour, texture, durability and other functional properties.
 Maintain the distribution of fibres.
 Holds the fibres together.
 Distributes the loads evenly between fibres so that all fibres are subjected
to the same amount of strain.
 Enhances transverse properties of a laminate.
 Improves impact and fracture resistance of a component.
 Helps to avoid propagation of crack growth through the fibres by
providing alternate failure path along the interface between the fibres and
the matrix.
 Carry inter-laminar shear.

Desired Properties of a Matrix

 Reduced moisture absorption.

 Low shrinkage.
  Low coefficient of thermal expansion.
 Good flow characteristics so that it penetrates the fiber bundles
completely and eliminates voids during the compacting/curing process.
 Must be elastic to transfer load to fibers.
 Reasonable strength, modulus and elongation (elongation should be
greater than fiber).
 Strength at elevated temperature (depending on application).
 Low temperature capability (depending on application).
 Excellent chemical resistance (depending on application).
 Should be easily process able into the final composite shape.
 Dimensional stability (maintains its shape).
 Functions of Reinforcements:
 Contributes desired properties
 Principal load bearing member
 Transfer strength to matrix

POLYMER MATRIX COMPOSITES (PMC)

“Polymer matrix composites is the material consisting of a polymer (resin)

matrix combined with a fibrous reinforcing dispersed phase.”

What is Polymer ?
Poly - many
Repeat - unit

A polymer is a large molecule (macromolecule) composed of repeating

structural units typically connected by covalent chemical bonds.
CLASSIFICATION OF POLYMERS:

Thermoplastic polymers - Linear or branched polymers in which chains of

molecules are not interconnected to one another.
Thermosetting polymers - Polymers that are heavily cross-linked to produce
a strong three dimensional network structure.

Thermoset Resin (Matrix)

 Polyester
 Vinyl Resin
 Epoxy
 Phenolic
 Polyurethane
Thermoplastic Resin ( Matrix)
 Acetal
 Acryronitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS)
 Nylon
 Polyenthyene (PE)
 Polypropylene (PP)
 Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET)

 Thermosetting resins are the most widely used polymers in PMCs.

 Epoxy and polyester are commonly mixed with fiber reinforcement.
 The most widely used form is a laminar structure, made by stacking and
bonding thin layers of fiber and polymer until the desired thickness is
obtained.

 Principal fiber materials in FRPs are glass, carbon, and Kevlar 49.
 Less common fibers include boron, SiC, Al2O3 and steel.
 Glass (in particular E glass) is the most common fiber material in today's
- FRPs; its use to reinforce plastics dates from around 1920.

CHARACTERISTICS OF POLYMER COMPOSITE MATERIALS :

Compared with traditional materials such as metals, polymer matrix composites

have the following characteristics.
 1. High specific strength, high specific modulus

The prominent advantages of polymer matrix composite materials are their high
specific strength and high specific modulus. The specific strength is the ratio of
strength and density and the specific modulus is the ratio of modulus and
density, and the dimensions or units are both length. The high specific strength
and high specific modulus of composite materials result from high-performance
and low-density of reinforcing fibers. Unlike traditional materials, damage of
composite material is not due to the unstable propagation of the main crack and
then suddenly happening, but it experiences the development of a series of
damages such as matrix cracking, interfacial debonding, fiber pull-out and fiber
split or break.

2. Good damping characteristics

The natural frequency of vibration of forced structure relates to the shape of the
structure itself, as well it is proportional to the square root of the specific
modulus of structural materials. Therefore, composite materials have a high
natural frequency, and it’s not easy to have a resonance in general. At the same
time, the interface between the fiber and matrix in composite materials has a
great ability to absorb vibrational energy, resulting in a high vibration damping
of materials. Once the vibration occurs, it can be stopped in a short time.

3. Lightweight and Durable

Polymer matrix composites are favored for their ability to be both lightweight
and durable.

4. Good fatigue resistance and high damage tolerance

The interface between fiber and matrix in composite materials can prevent the
propagation of crack. The fatigue failure always initiates from the weak links of
fiber. Crack growth or damage continues gradually for a long time, so there is a
significant harbinger before the final destruction.

5. Multi-functional performance

 High instantaneous temperature resistance and good ablation resistance.

Superior electric insulation performance
 high frequency dielectric properties
 Good friction property.
 6. Good processing techniques

 Fiber, matrix and other raw materials can be chosen in accordance with
the use condition and performance requirement of the product, that is,
material can be designed.
 Molding processing methods can be chosen in accordance with the shape,
size, and number of the product.
 The integrated molding can reduce the number of assembly parts and thus
save time, save material, reduce weight.

FIBRES IN PMC :

Various forms:
 Discontinuous (chopped),continuous or woven as a fabric.
 Principal fiber materials in FRPs are glass, carbon, and Kevlar 49.
 Less common fibers include boron, SiC, Al2O3 and steel.
 Glass (in particular E glass) is the most common fiber material in -
today's FRPs; its use to reinforce plastics dates from around 1920.

APPLICATIONS

1. AEROSPACE
About 50% of sales for polymer matrix composites come from the aerospace
industry. And why not? These composites make for a great building material for
airplanes, spacecraft, and the like. Airbus has pioneered the use of polymer
matrix composites in their planes, for example other airline companies are likely
to follow suit, but as mentioned, price remains a hindrance for this project.
The primary matrix materials used in aerospace applications are epoxies, and
the most common reinforcements are carbon/graphite, aramid (e.g. Kevlar), and
high-stiffness glass fibers.The principal advantages of advanced composites in
aerospace applications are their superior specific strength and stiffness, resulting
in weight savings of 10 to 60 percent over metal designs.

2. ECONOMIC AREAS
Polymer matrix composites help boost up economic areas, be it in a country or
in a manufacturing firm. The United States, for example, produced more than a
million tons of fiber composites, and this greatly benefitted the national
economy.

3. TRANSPORT
Transportation has gained a new base-material favorite with polymer matrix
composites. Polymer matrix composites penetrate mostly the automotive
manufacturing and railway industries. You can see them in the form of
dashboards, car covers, engine covers, car floors, and seats. Yup, they’re
practically everywhere in your car.

4. CONSTRUCTION
Polymer matrix composites are used in lighthouses, hydraulic construction,
storage tanks, and door and window components, to name a few. They’re also
used to reconstruct and repair infrastructure.

A potentially high-volume market for PMCs lies in construction applications

especially in construction of Buildings, Bridges, Housing, Highway culverts.

5. SHIPBUILDING
Boats—a large chunk of them, actually are mostly made up of composite
materials. From your yacht, lifeboat, cruise ship, fishing boat, and others, you
can find polymer matrix composites in them.
6.AUTOMOTIVE INDUSTRY

The principal motivation for introducing PMCs is cost savings. Because the
industry is mature and highly competitive. Because of greatly improved
corrosion resistance PMC’s automobiles could last 20 or more years compared
to the current average vehicle lifetime.

7.MEDICAL DEVICES

The impact of PMCs on orthopedic devices such as Hips, Knees, bone plates,
intramedullary nails is expected to be especially significant.

ADVANTAGES OF PMC

 Good inplane stiffness and strength.

 Low density.
 Relatively low cost.
 Corrosion resistance.
  Low coefficient of thermal expansion.
 Relatively mature technology.
 Excellent in-service experience.

LIMITATIONS OF PMC

 Low maximum working temperature.

 Sensitivity to radiation and moisture.
 Processing temperature are generally higher than those with thermosets.
Required special processing equipment.
 Thermoset resins have poor impact resistance.

METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES

Introduction to MMC

Metals have much higher strength and stiffness in

comparison to polymeric materials like Epoxy which is used as matrix in
polymeric material. As we will show in the design of composite laminate, while
reinforcements improve the mechanical properties along the longitudinal
direction, the matrix mechanical properties contribute mainly in the transverse
direction. Hence, better mechanical properties of metal matrix results in better
mechanical properties along the transverse direction of a laminate. In PMCs, the
same thing is achieved by using cross-ply laminate - this also sacrifices
anisotropy in the laminate.
MMCs also have higher service temperature. Though
the density of metals are quite high but the modulus to density ratio is again
significantly high for metals. The use of MMC is still restricted due to the
expensive fabrication and processing technology. The table below shows some
of the commonly used MMCs and their mechanical properties.

Matrix Fibre Fibre Service Density Tensile Modulus

Diameter( Temperature( C) (Mg/m3 ) Strength of
0

m) (MPa) Elasticity
(GPa)
Aluminium Boron 200 350 2.62 1500 220
Aluminium SiC 140 350 2.96 1700 215
Magnesium Boron 140 300 2.18 1310 190
Magnesium Al 2 O 3 20 300 2.8 520 200
Titanium Boron 145 650 3.76 760 210

Metal Matrix Composite (MMC) is a material consisting of a metallic matrix

combined with a ceramic (oxides, carbides) or metallic (lead, tungsten,
molybdenum) dispersed phase.
 Aluminum Matrix Composites (AMC)
 Magnesium Matrix Composite
 Titanium Matrix Composite
 Copper Matrix Composites
 Properties of some Metal Matrix Composites

Classification of MMC
APPLICATIONS OF MMC’S

The application of MMCs are currently restricted to the following fields:

i. Aerospace applications - like helicopter transmission system
ii. Acid Battery
iii. Super alloys for high speed Turbine blades

 Magnesium composites with small diameter Carbon filaments are

currently used to develop light weight composite material. This
composites have shown improvement of stiffness along with good
damping properties to reduce noise and vibration.
 Lead-matrix composites are considered as substitute of Lead-alloys in the
acid batteries. Lead matrix with carbon or Al 2O3 reinforcement is found
to Provide good strength without sacrificing the electrochemical benefits
of pure lead.
 Iron, Nickel or Cobalt-alloys are reinforced with Tungsten wires to
produce competitive super alloys at a lower cost. It is observed that such
MMC can give a very high creep-rupture life in temperature as high as
11000 C. Tungsten wire has high thermal conductivity which also helps in
fast cooling.

CERAMIC MATRIX COMPOSITES

Introduction to CMC

The word ceramic is derived from the Greek word keramikos. Keramikos is
used to refer to pottery. In general, ceramics may be defined as solid materials
which exhibit very strong ionic bonding and in few cases covalent bonding.
However, owing to their very low fracture toughness,
ceramics are not appropriate for structural applications. When ceramic materials
are subjected to mechanical or thermal loading, catastrophic failure takes place
because ceramics do not exhibit plastic deformation as metals plastically deform
due to their high mobility of dislocation. Even a minor crack can propagate so
quickly or can grow to critical sizes that result in a sudden failure. Such type of
failure in ceramic materials occurs because of one deadly characteristic, namely,
lack of toughness.
(CMCs) increases toughness of the composites. Ceramic
matrix composites are becoming popular in material selection since 1980s. High
modulus of elasticity of ceramics combined with superior toughness and
strength contributed by the fibres have made CMCs a viable option in material
selection.
 By definition ceramic matrix composites are materials in
which one or more distinct ceramic phases are intentionally added to another, in
order to enhance some property that is not possessed by the monolithic ceramic
materials.. The basic reinforcements which are included in the ceramic matrices
are carbon, glasses, glass-ceramics, oxides and non-oxides. The main function
of the matrix is to keep the reinforcing phase in the desired orientation or
location and act as a load transfer media as well as protect reinforcement from
the environment. Whereas, the primary aim of the reinforcement is to provide
toughness to an otherwise brittle matrix.
Filler materials in particle form are also sometimes added to
the matrix materials during the processing of CMCs to enhance the properties
such as electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, thermal expansion and
hardness. Particles with different shapes such as spherical, irregular and faceted
are commonly used during the processing of CMCs.
Due to the brittleness and presence of flaws, ceramic
materials are susceptible to damage due to shock and impact loading. It is
observed that the reinforcement of fibre can increase the fracture energy by
order of magnitude resulting in high fracture toughness (KIC from 2-3 to 30-40
Mpa- m1/2) . The table below shows some of the commonly used CMCs and
their mechanical properties.

Material Strength (MPa) Fracture Energy KIC (MPa-m1/2 )

(J/m2 )
Glass (without 100 2-4 0.5
reinforcement)
Zirconia toughened 500-1200 40-100 3-5
glass
Short fibre 50-150 600-800 7
toughened Glass

Processing of CMCs

Ceramics are commonly prepared using the following technologies:

1. Sintering,
2. Slip Casting
3. Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD)
4. Lanxide
5. Chemical Reaction

Sintering
 The ceramic powder is mixed with binder & whiskers etc and then shaped
under high pressure.
  The temperature is elevated to improve the strength and burn off the
binder.

Slip Casting
 Slurry is prepared by dissolving material in water (PH control), cast in a
preform and then heat is applied with or without pressure.
 Slurry infiltration: Nicalon fibre, Glass Matrix

Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD)

 Carrier Gas + Gaseous Reactant in the deposition chamber to deposit
coating in fibers eg. TiCl4 + 2BCl3 + 5H2 = TiB2 + 10 HCl

Lanxide
 Reaction of Molten metal and a Gas Al +air = Al2O3 , Al+N - AlN : Used
for small parts

In-situ Process
 In the in-situ process, both fibre and the matrix are developed
simultaneously. The examples below explains the concept.
2AlN+B2 O3 = Al2 O3 + 2BN - least expensive exothermic like:
4Al+3TiO2 +3C=2Al2 O3 +3TiC

Types of Particulate Reinforcement in CMCs

In ceramic matrix composites, a given ceramic matrix is reinforced with either
discontinuous reinforcement, such as particles, whiskers or chopped fibers or
with continuous fibers
 Application of CMC

Properties Application Fibre Mat.

Gas Turbine, Reciprocating
engine parts, Bearings,
Cutting tools, components for
High Temperature, Strength, Creep &
burners, flame holders, hot gas Si3N4 SiC
Wear Resistance
ducts, brake disks and brake
system components for
airplanes.
Wear resistance, Biocompatibility Medical Prostheses ZrO2 Al2O3

Al O MgO
I.C. Substrates, Power 2 3
BeO
Dielectric properties insulation Capacitor &
BaTiO3Sr
Microwave
TiO3

Solid oxide fuel cell, Sodium

Ionic Conduction ZrO2 CeO2
Sulphur battery

ADVANTAGES

 Excellent wear and corrosion resistance in a wide range of environments

and temperatures
 Higher strength to weight ratio
 Higher strength retention at elevated temperature
 Higher chemical stability
 Non-catastrophic failure
 High hardness
 Lightweight

DISADVANTAGES

 Processing routes for CMCs involve high temperatures – can only be

employed with high temperature reinforcements.
 CMCs are designed to improve toughness of monolithic ceramics, the
main disadvantage of which is brittleness.
 High processing temperature results in complexity in manufacturing and
hence expensive processing.
  Difference in the coefficients of thermal expansion between the matrix
and the reinforcement lead to thermal stresses on cooling from the
processing temperatures

CARBON – CARBON COMPOSITES (CCC)

Carbon – Carbon composites are also known as Carbon –Reinforced Carbon

Composite (CFRCC). Amorphous carbon matrix composite Carbon matrix
reinforced by graphite carbon fibres. First developed in 1958, but not
intensively researched until the Space Shuttle Program.

Carbon – Carbon composites refer to a family of complex advanced materials

that consist of carbon fibres (mainly graphite form ) fibres embedded in a
carbon ( mainly graphite form) matrix.

 C/C are special composites in which both matrix and reinforcemnt are
pure carbon .
 These are used for their high strength & modulus of rigidity.
 C/C composites are the woven mesh of carbon fibres.
 It is light weight material which can withstand temperatures upto 30000C.
 C/C structures can be tailored to meet requirements.
 C/C can also be used as insert.
 CCC

Carbon matrices Carbon Fibres

 Thermosetting resins  Rayon based carbon fibres

 Phenolic resins  PAN based carbon fibres
 Furan resins  Pitch – desired carbon fibres
 Polycrylanitrile (PAN)
 PVC

Carbon Carbon Composites are those special composites in which both the
reinforcing fibres and the matrix material are both pure carbon.
 Carbon – Carbon Composites are the woven mesh of carbon – fibres.
 CCC are used for their high strength and modulus of rigidity.
 CCC are light weight material which can withstand temperatures up to
3000o C.
 CCC ‘s structure can be tailored to meet requirements.

Properties of C-C Composites (CCC)

1. Excellent Thermal Shock Resistance ( Over 2000o C)

2. Low Coefficient of Thermal Expansion
3. High Modulus of Elasticity ( 200GPa)
4. High Thermal Conductivity ( 100 W/m*K)
5. Low Density ( 1830Kg/m3)
6. High Strength
7. Low Coefficient of Friction ( in Fibre direction )
8. Thermal Resistance in non- oxidizing atmosphere
9. High Abrasion Resistance
10.High Electrical Conductivity
11.Non – Brittle Failure
CARBON FIBRES
High performance/ composites are tailored to the mechanical properties
requirement of the final structure. The types of carbon fibres commercially
available are high – tensile , high modulus & intermediate modulus fibres.
These fibres are prepared from pitch or polacrylanitrile (PAN) Compared of
carbon atoms bonded together to from a long chain. A super strong material
that’s also extremely light weight. Five times stronger than steel , two times
stiffer and about two third times less in weight.

Fig: Comparison between human hair and carbon fibre

Human hair : 60-100 Microns; Carbon fibre: 5-10 micron.

Processing of carbon fibres:

About 90% of carbon fibres are made by PAN process.
10% are made by Rayon process.

CARBON MATRIX
The carbon matrix in composites has to effectively transfer the mechanical loads
to the fibre reinforcements. It acts as a binder to maintain the alignment of the
fibres & fibre bundles at the same time isolates the fibres from one another.

The most important criteria for the selection of polymer precursors to form
carbon matrix are

1) High carbon yield

2) Minimal shrinkage during pyrolysis
3) Amenable for all types of polymer composite manufacturing routes, such
as resin transfer molding & filament winding.
4) Low solvent content
5) Availability from multiple sources
6) Low cost
7) High pot & storage life times.
Applications of CCC

1. High Performance Braking System

2. Refractrory Material
3. Hot – Pressed Dies (brake pads)
4. Turbo – Jet Engine Components
5. Heating Elements
6. Missile Node Tips
7. Rocket Motor Throats
8. Leading Edges ( Space shuttle , Agni missile)
9. Heat Shields
10.X-Ray Targets
11.Aircraft Brakes
12.Reentry vehicles
13.Biomedical implants
14.Engine pistons
15.Electronic heat sinks
16.Automotive and motorcycle bodies
ADVANTAGES

 Light weight (1.6-2.0/cm3)

 High strength at high temperature (up to 2000oC) in non – oxidizing
atmosphere.
 Low Coefficient of thermal expansion
 High thermal conductivity
 High thermal shock resistance

DISADVANTAGES

 High fabrication cost

 Porosity
 Poor oxidation resistance – formation of gaseous oxides in oxygen
atmosphere.
 Poor inter-laminar properties

FIBRE REINFORCED COMPOSITES

Fibre: A slender, elongated, threadlike object or structure.

Fibers are often used in the manufacture of other materials. They can be spun
into thread or rope. They can be used as a component of composite materials.
They can also be matted into sheets to make products such as paper or felt.

Fig: Fibers as the reinforcement : a. Short fiber b. Continuous fiber (long fiber)
  Fibre Reinforced Composites are composed of fibres embedded in matrix
material. Such a composite is considered to be a discontinuous fibre or
short fibre composite if its properties vary with fibre length.
 On the other hand, when the length of the fibre is such that any further
increase in length does not further increase, the elastic modulus of the
composite, the composite is considered to be continuous fibre reinforced.
 Fibres are small in diameter and when pushed axially, they bend easily
although they have very good tensile properties. These fibres must be
supported to keep individual fibres from bending and buckling.

Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) Composites: "A matrix of polymeric

material that is reinforced by fibers or other reinforcing material”

Role and Selection of fibers:

The points to be noted in selecting the reinforcements include
 compatibility with matrix material
 thermal stability
 density
 melting temperature
The efficiency of discontinuously reinforced composites is
dependent on tensile strength and density of reinforcing phases. The
compatibility, density, chemical and thermal stability of the reinforcement with
matrix material is important for material fabrication as well as end application.
Also, the role of the reinforcement depends upon its type in
structural Composites.The role of the reinforcement is to strengthen and stiffen
the composite through prevention of matrix deformation by mechanical
restraint.
In continuous fiber reinforced Composites, the reinforcement is the
principal load-bearing constituent. Discontinuous fiber reinforced Composites
display characteristics between those of continuous fiber and particulate
reinforced composites.

Why are Fibers of a Thin Diameter?

 Thinner fiber has higher ultimate strength because less chance for
inherent flaws.
 For the same volume of fibers, thinner fibers has larger surface area thus
has stronger bond with matrix. (The total surface area of fibers is
inversely proportional to the diameter of fibers)
 Thinner fiber has larger flexibility and therefore is able to be bent without
breaking
Common fibers
Reinforcements fibers typically are of 10-100mm diameter. E-glass fibers are the low-cost
reinforcement choice for composite materials (~1.5 CHF/kg, which is 50% higher than the
price for steel). They are made from amorphous glass (blend of sand, limestone and other
oxidic compounds). The particular feature of E-glass fibers is a low area density of defects on
the fiber surface which results in a tensile strength of up to 3 GPa. Other type of glass fibers
include C-glass (corrosion resistant), S-glass (high strength), D-glass (dielectric) and A-glass
(alkaline resistant). Carbon fibers are widely used in aerospace engineering. Their stiffness
can be up to 10 times higher than that of glass fibers, and their price per kg can be 20 to 500
times higher. High strength carbon fibers reach stress levels of up to 7 GPa. Depending on
the raw material and manufacturing process, their stiffness can vary from 200 to 1000 GPa.
Carbon nanotubes also belong to the class of carbon fiber materials. They feature a
cylindrical atomic structure (1nm diameter). The modulus and strength of defect-free
nanotubes may reach values as high as 1500 GPa and 200 GPa, respectively. At this stage,
the estimated costs of about 500’000 CHF/kg prohibits their wide-spread use in industrial
applications.
NATURE MADE COMPOSITES

Natural composites Natural composites exist in both

animals and plants. Wood is a composite – it is made from long cellulose fibres
(a polymer) held together by a much weaker substance called lignin. Cellulose
is also found in cotton, but without the lignin to bind it together it is much
weaker. The two weak substances – lignin and cellulose – together form a much
stronger one.
The bone in your body is also a composite. It is made from a
hard but brittle material called hydroxyapatite (which is mainly calcium
phosphate) and a soft and flexible material called collagen (which is a protein).
Collagen is also found in hair and finger nails. On its own it would not be much
use in the skeleton but it can combine with hydroxyapatite to give bone the
properties that are needed to support the body.

REINFORCEMENTS: Fibres- glass, silica, kevlar, carbon, boron, silicon

carbide, and boron carbide fibres

FIBERS
A fiber is characterized by its very high length-to-diameter ratio. The strength-
to-density and the stiffness-to-density ratios are generally used as indicators of
the effectiveness of the fiber. Fibers are the principal constituents in a fiber -
reinforced composite material.
Synthetic / Man-made fibers
These fibers are manufactured synthetically. So, they show superior qualities
than the natural fibers. But, synthetic fibers are not bio-degradable and so a
threat to the environment pollution. The list of man-made fibers includes

 Boron
 Carbon
 Ceramic
 Glass
 Graphite
 Kevlar
 Silica

Characterization of Fibers
Fibers should possess some characteristics so that they can be used with matrix
to form composite materials to give a better product.
 Fiber should be flexible
 Lateral dimension of fibers is in millimeter or micron level
 Fiber must be several times stronger than the matrix to share the high
fraction of total load
 Fiber should have higher elastic properties than the matrix.
 Fiber should have high aspect ratio (length / cross-sectional area)

1. Glass fibers:
Glass fibers are the most common fibers of all reinforcing fibers for polymeric
matrix composites (PMC). The fig. shows one of the forms of glass fiber.
 1) S-glass fibre 2) E-glass fibre

The principal advantages of glass fibers are

 Low cost
 High tensile strength
 High chemical resistance
 Excellent insulating properties

The disadvantages are

 Low tensile modulus
 High density (among the commercial fibers)
 Sensitivity to abrasion during handling (which frequently decreases its
tensile strength)
 Low fatigue resistance
 High hardness (which causes excessive wear on molding dies and cutting
tools)

Mechanical properties of glass fibers:

The table below shows the properties of E-glass and S-glass which are widely
used than other types of glass fibers.

Types of glass fibers:

Glass fibers are available in variety of forms which cater for specific
applications. The cheapest among all the glass fibers is E-glass fiber and S-glass
has the highest tensile strength.
The types of glass fibers are:
A-glass : Has high alkaline content
C-glass: Used in chemical applications since having good corrosion resistance
E-glass: Used in electrical applications & FRP industry and low cost
S-glass: Used for aircraft components and missile casings owing to having high
strength
Z-glass: Used for communication purposes

2. Kevlar Fibers:

Kevlar fibers are highly crystalline aromatic polyamide fibers. They have the
lowest density and the highest tensile strength-to-weight ratio. Kevlar-49 is the
trade name.

The major benefits of Kevlar fiber are

 Lowest density
 Highest tensile strength-to-weight ratio (Aerospace applications &
Ballistic applications)
 Resistance to impact damage
 Negative coefficient of thermal expansion (Used in low thermal
expansion composite panels)

The disadvantages of kevlar fibers are

 Low compressive strengths
 Difficulty in cutting or machining

Kevlar fiber- reinforced composites are

 Bullet proof jackets
 Biomedical
 Armor vehicles
Mechanical properties of Kevlar fibers:

3. Carbon Fibers:

Carbon fibers have carbon content of 95% and contain a blend of amorphous
carbon and graphite carbon. Their high tensile modulus is due to the presence of
graphite form in which carbon atoms are arranged in a crystallagraphic structure
of parallel layers.

Carbon fibers are manufactured from two types of precursors:

1. Textile precursor, PAN (Poly Acrylonitrile)

These fibers are generally categorized into high tensile strength, high
modulus and ultrahigh modulus types.
2. Pitch, petroleum by-product
These fibers have very high modulus but their tensile strength and
strain-to-failure are lower than those of PAN. They are less in cost than
that of PAN.

Advantages of carbon fibers are

 High stiffness (Due to less elongation)
 Less specific gravity
 Can withstand at high temperature
  Negative coefficient of thermal expansion
 Used for aerospace & radar applications

Mechanical properties of carbon fibers:

4. Boron Fibers:
Boron fibers are manufactured by chemical vapor deposition (CVD) of boron
onto a heated substrate (either a tungsten wire or a carbon monofilament). The
most prominent feature of boron fibers is their extremely high tensile modulus,
which is in the range of 379–414 GPa. Coupled with their relatively large
diameter, boron fibers offer excellent resistance to buckling. Even though it is
very costly, it has certain advantages over other fibers which include
 High tensile modulus
 High compressive strength
 Relatively large diameter

Boron fibers are used mostly in aerospace industry and also used in
 Turbine blade
 Transmission shafts

5. Ceramic Fibers:
Silicon carbide (SiC) and aluminum oxide (Al2O3) fibers are examples of
ceramic fibers. They are very notable for their high-temperature applications in
metal and ceramic matrix composites.

The major advantages are

 Suitable for reinforcing metal matrices
 Low thermal expansion
Unit – II
Polymer composites, thermoplastics, thermosettings, manufacturing of PMC,
MMC, CCC and their applications.

Polymer composites:

Polymer Matrix Composites Most commercially produced composites use a polymer matrix material
often called a resin solution. There are many different polymers available depending upon the
starting raw ingredients. There are several broad categories, each with numerous variations. The
most common are known as polyester, vinyl ester, epoxy, phenolic, polyimide, polyamide,
polypropylene, polyether ether ketone (PEEK), and others. The reinforcement materials are often
fibers but can also be common ground minerals [6]. The various methods described below have
been developed to reduce the resin content of the final product. As a rule of thumb, hand lay up
results in a product containing 60% resin and 40% fiber, whereas vacuum infusion gives a final
product with 40% resin and 60% fiber content. The strength of the product is greatly dependent on
this ratio. PMCs are very popular due to their low cost and simple fabrication methods. Use of
nonreinforced polymers as structure materials is limited by low level of their mechanical properties,
namely strength, modulus, and impact resistance. Reinforcement of polymers by strong fibrous
network permits fabrication of PMCs, which is characterized by the following: a) High specific
strength b) High specific stiffness c) High fracture resistance d) Good abrasion resistance e) Good
impact resistance f) Good corrosion resistance g) Good fatigue resistance h) Low cost

1.2.1.2 Fabrication of Composites

The fabrication and shaping of composites into finished products often combines the formation of
the material itself during the fabrication process [11]. The important processing methods are hand
lay-up, bag molding process, filament winding, pultrusion, bulk molding, sheet molding, resin
transfer molding, injection molding, and so on.
1.2.1.2.1 Hand Lay-Up The oldest, simplest, and the most commonly used method for the
manufacture of both small and large reinforced products is the hand lay-up technique. A flat surface,
a cavity or a positive-shaped mold, made from wood, metal, plastic, or a combination of these
materials may be used for the hand lay-up method

1.2.1.2.2 Bag Molding Process It is one of the most versatile processes used in manufacturing
composite parts. In bag molding process, the lamina is laid up in a mold and resin is spread or
coated, covered with a flexible diaphragm or bag, and cured with heat and pressure. After the
required curing cycle, the materials become an integrated molded part shaped to the desired
configuration [12]. Three basic molding methods involved are pressure bag, vacuum bag, and
autoclave.

1.2.1.2.3 Pultrusion It is an automated process for manufacturing composite materials into

continuous, constant cross-section profiles. In this technique, the product is pulled from the die
rather than forced out by pressure. A large number of profiles such as rods, tubes, and various
structural shapes can be produced using appropriate dies.

1.2.1.2.4 Filament Winding Filament winding is a technique used for the manufacture of surfaces of
revolution such as pipes, tubes, cylinders, and spheres and is frequently used for the construction of
large tanks and pipe work for the chemical industry. High-speed precise lay down of continuous
reinforcement in predescribed patterns is the basis of the filament winding method.
1.2.1.2.5 Preformed Molding Compounds A large number of reinforced thermosetting resin products
are made by matched die molding processes such as hot press compression molding, injection
molding, and transfer molding. Matched die molding can be a wet process but it is most convenient
to use a preformed molding compound or premix to which all necessary ingredients are added [13].
This enables the attainment of faster production rate. Molding compounds can be divided into three
broad categories: dough molding, sheet molding, and prepregs.

1.2.1.2.6 Resin Transfer Molding Resin transfer molding (RTM) has the potential of becoming a
dominant low-cost process for the fabrication of large, integrated, high performance products. In
this process, a dry reinforced material that has been cut and shaped into a preformed piece,
generally called a perform, is placed in a prepared mold cavity. The resin is often injected at the
lowest point and fills the mold upward to reduce the entrapping of air. When the resin starts to leak
into the resin trap, the tube is clamped to minimize resin loss. When excess resin begins to flow from
the vent areas of the mold, the resin flow is stopped and the mold component begins to cure. Once
the composite develops sufficient green strength it can be removed from the tool and postcured
(Figure 1.3).

1.2.1.2.7 Injection Molding Injection molding is a manufacturing process for both thermoplastic and
thermosetting plastic materials. Composites is fed into a heated barrel, mixed, and forced into a
mold cavity where it cools and hardens to the configuration of the mold cavity. Injection molding is
used to create many things such as wire spools, packaging, bottle caps, automotive dashboards,
pocket combs, and most other plastic products available today. It is ideal for producing high volumes
of the same object [15]. Some advantages of injection molding are high production rates, repeatable
high tolerances, and the ability to use a wide range of materials, low labor cost, minimal scrap losses,
and little need to finish parts after molding. Some disadvantages of this process are expensive
equipment investment, potentially high running costs, and the need to design moldable parts.

1.2.1.3 Applications PMCs are used for manufacturing i) Aerospace structures: The military aircraft
industry has mainly led the use of polymer composites. In commercial airlines, the use of composites
is gradually increasing. Space shuttle and satellite systems use graphite/ epoxy for many structural
parts [16]. ii) Marine: Boat bodies, canoes, kayaks, and so on. iii) Automotive: Body panels, leaf
springs, drive shaft, bumpers, doors, racing car bodies, and so on. iv) Sports goods: Golf clubs, skis,
fishing rods, tennis rackets, and so on. v) Bulletproof vests and other armor parts. vi) Chemical
storage tanks, pressure vessels, piping, pump body, valves, and so on. vii) Biomedical applications:
Medical implants, orthopedic devices, X-ray tables. viii) Bridges made of polymer composite
materials are gaining wide acceptance due to their lower weight, corrosion resistance, longer life
cycle, and limited earthquake damage. ix) Electrical: Panels, housing, switchgear, insulators, and
connectors. And many more.

The word plastic comes from the Greek word Plastikos, meaning “able to be shaped and molded”.
Plastics can be broadly classified into two major groups on the basis of their chemical structure i.e.
thermoplastics and thermosetting plastics. Thermoplastics The material that softens when heated
above the glass transition temperature or melting temperature and becomes hard after cooling is
called thermoplastics. Thermoplastics can be reversibly melted by heating and solidified by cooling in
limited number of cycles without affecting the mechanical properties. On increasing the number of
recycling of thermoplastics may result in color degradation, thereby affecting their appearance and
properties. In the molten state, they are liquids, and in the mushy state they are glassy or partially
crystalline. The molecules are joined end-to-end into a series of long chains, each chain being
independent of the other. Above the melting temperature, all crystalline structure disappears and
the long chain becomes randomly scattered. The molecular structure of thermoplastic (figure 1) has
an influence on the chemical resistance and resistance against environmental effects like UV
radiation. The properties may also vary from optical transparency to opaque, depending on the
molecular structure. The important properties of the thermoplastics are high strength and
toughness, better hardness, chemical resistance, durability, self lubrication, transparency and water
proofing. With the application of heat, thermoplastic softens and it can be molded into desired
shapes. Some thermoplastics can be joined with the application of heat and pressure. There are
several techniques available for the joining of thermoplastics such as mechanical fastening, fusion
bonding, hot gas welding, solvent bonding, ultrasonic welding, induction welding, and dielectric
welding. The different types of thermoplastic are: Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS), Acetals,
Acrylics, Cellulosics, Fluorocarbons, Polyamides, Polycarbonates, Polyethylene (PE), Polypropylenes
(PP), Polystyrenes, Polyetheretherketone, Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC), Liquid Crystal Polymers (LCP),
Polyphenylene Sulphide (PPS) and Vinyls.

Applications Thermoplastics can be used to manufacture the dashboards and car trims, toys, phones,
handles, electrical products, bearings, gears, rope, hinges and catches, glass frames, cables, hoses,
sheet, and windows, etc. Thermosets The property of material becoming permanently hard and rigid
after cooling when heated above the melting temperature is called thermosets. The solidification
process of plastics is known as curing. The transformation from the liquid state to the solid state is
irreversible process, further heating of thermosets result only in the chemical decomposition. It
means that the thermosets can’t be recycled. During curing, the small molecules are chemically
linked together to form complex inter-connected network structures (figure 2). This cross-linking
prevents the slippage of individual chains. Therefore, the mechanical properties (tensile strength,
compressive strength, and hardness) are not temperature dependent, as compared to
thermoplastics. Hence, thermosets are generally stronger than the thermoplastics.

The joining of thermosets by thermal processes like ultrasonic welding, laser welding, and gas
welding is not possible, but mechanical fastening and adhesive bonding may be used for low
strength applications. The different types of thermosets are Alkyds, Allylics, Amine, Bakelite, Epoxy,
Phenolic (PF), Polyester, Silicone, Polyurethane (PUR), and Vinyl Ester. Applications Thermosets are
commonly used for high temperature applications. Some of the common products are electrical
equipments, motor brush holders, printed circuit boards, circuit breakers, encapsulation, kitchen
utensils, handles and knobs, and spectacle lenses.

METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES A Metal Matrix Composite (MMC) is a composite material in which one
constituent is a metal or alloy forming at least one percolating network, while the other constituent
is embedded in this metal matrix and usually serves as reinforcement. The reinforcement in MMC
could be particulate, fibers or whiskers with volume fraction ranging from a few percent to 40%.
Compared to other materials, MMCs generally have much higher strength, stiffness and wear
resistance as well as lower weight and thermal coefficient of expansion. In some cases they have
lower lifecycle costs than other conventional materials. MMCs have been available for quite some
time but have only been recognized by industries in the 2nd half of the twentieth century. Increased
interest in utilizing MMCs has motivated researchers to develop different types of MMCs. Over the
last three decades, researchers on MMCs have provided not only new types of MMCs but also
characterized them in terms of physical, thermo-mechanical, tribological and machining properties.
Most of these studies were based on aluminium matrix composite materials (Surappa et al 2003).
These studies focused on the machinability, specifically the tool life and the optimization of cutting
tool performance

MANUFACTURING METHODS OF MMCs There are different processes for manufacturing MMC which
can be divided into two categories based on the operating state of matrix metal: 1. Solid state
processes; 2. Liquid state processes. Powder metallurgical processes, diffusion bonding, and vapour
deposition are the techniques that come under the solid state technique. On the other hand liquid
state process includes: a) Stir casting; b) Gas pressure infiltration process; c) Squeeze or pressure
casting; d) Vortex casting; e) Injection method. Particle reinforced metal matrix composites are
commonly produced by means of powder metallurgy or via melt based approaches. Both routes are
potential to produce a ‘near net shape’ product which minimizes further machining operations.
Among the above methods, the liquid state processing technique is preferred to fabricate the
composite because of their low cost and ease of fabrication. (Brian Ralph et al 1997, Basavarajappa
et al 2006). 1.5 APPLICATION OF METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES Metal matrix composites are widely
used in different industries due to its high strength to weight ratio and improved thermo-mechanical
properties. MMCs have been used in different industrial areas including,

APPLICATION OF METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES Metal matrix composites are widely used in different
industries due to its high strength to weight ratio and improved thermo-mechanical properties.
MMCs have been used in different industrial areas including,
a. Aerospace; b. Marine; c. Transportation; d. Electrical and thermal; e. Sporting and
recreational products; f. Filamentary superconducting magnets; g. Wear-resistant materials

b.
MMCs are also used in commercial aircrafts like Boeing 777. The fan-exit guide vanes of
Pratt and Whitney engines are made from MMC instead of carbon/epoxy composite.
Missiles wings and fins are made from MMC because of its enhanced strength, stiffness, and
low weight than steel and titanium (Kunz and Bampton 2001). In sports and recreational
industry, Golf club shafts, heads, skating shoes, track shoe spikes, baseball shafts,
horseshoes, and bi-cycle frames are also made form MMC (Zhu et al 2005). On the other
hand, it has been used as microwave housing, carrier plates, and integrated heat sink in
electronic packaging (Chawla et al 2006).
Ccc

Carbon-Carbon Composites are composite materials consisting of a carbon matrix reinforced by

carbon fibers.
Structure of Carbon-Carbon Composites Carbon-Carbon (C/C) Composites may be manufactured
with different orientation of the reinforcing phase (carbon fibers): unidirectional structure, bi-
directional structure (cloth made of multiple carbon fiber yarns), multi-directional structure (3D, 4D,
5D, etc.). Multi-directional reinforcement provides maximum level of mechanical properties in the
directions of the woven structure. The simplest multi-directional reinforcement consists of 3D
orthogonal structure woven of straight carbon fiber yarns
Fabrication of Carbon-Carbon Composites by Liquid Phase Infiltration process Preparation of
carbon/Graphite fiber preform of the desired structure and shape. Infiltration of the preform with
a liquid precursor: petroleum pitch/phenolic resin/coal tar. Pyrolysis/carbonization (chemical
decomposition by heat in the absence of Oxygen) of the polymer precursor at 1000-1830ºF (538-
1000ºC) under normal or high pressure. Infiltration – pyrolysis cycle is repeated several (3-10) times
until the desired density is achieved. Graphitization heat treatment. At this stage amorphous
carbon is transformed into crystalline graphite. The temperature of the treatment may vary within
the range 2700- 5400°F (1500-3000°C). Typical graphitization temperature is 4530°F (2500°C).
Graphitization of carbon-carbon composites results in increase of Modulus of Elasticity and strength
of the composite

Fabrication of Carbon-Carbon Composites by Chemical Vapor Deposition process Preparation of

carbon/Graphite fiber preform of the desired structure and shape. Densification of the composite
by Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) technique. The CVD process involves infiltration of the
preform with a pressurized hydrocarbon gas (propane, methane, propylene, acetylene, benzene) at
1800-2200ºF (982-1204ºC). The gas is pyrolyzed forming carbon deposition on the fiber surface. The
process duration is determined by the thickness of the preform, through which the gas diffuses.
Graphitization heat treatment. At this stage amorphous carbon is transformed into crystalline
graphite. The temperature of the treatment may vary within the range 2700- 5400°F (1500-3000°C).
Typical graphitization temperature is 4530°F (2500°C). Graphitization of carbon-carbon composites
results in increase of Modulus of Elasticity and strength of the composite. Fabrication of Carbon-
Carbon Composites by Chemical Vapor Deposition process results in higher (as compared to Liquid
Phase Infiltration technique) Modulus of Elasticity and mechanical strength.

Properties of Carbon-Carbon Composites Excellent thermal shock resistance; Low Coefficient of

Thermal Expansion; High Modulus of Elasticity (up to 29000 ksi / 200 GPa); High Thermal
Conductivity (about 700 BTU*in/(hr*ft²*ºF) / 101 W/m*K; Low density (about 114 lb/ft³ /
1.83*10³kg/m³); High strength; Low coefficient of friction (in the fiber direction); Excellent
heat resistance in non-oxidizing atmosphere. C/C Composites retain their mechanical properties up
to 5432ºF (3000ºC). High abrasion resistance; High electrical conductivity; Non-brittle failure.

UNIT-iII

Manufacturing methods: Autoclave, tape production, moulding methods, Filament winding, hand lay
up, pultrusion, RTM.

Autoclave:
Autoclave molding Autoclave molding technique is similar to vacuum bag and pressure bag molding
method with some modifications. This method employs an autoclave to provide heat and pressure
to the composite product during curing. In this method, prepregs are stacked in a mold in a definite
sequence and then spot welded to avoid any relative movement in between the prepreg sheets.
After stacking the prepregs, the whole assembly is vacuum bagged to remove any air entrapped in
between the layers. The schematic of autoclave molding process is shown in figure 2. After a definite
period of time when it is ensured that all air is removed, the entire assembly is transferred to
autoclave. Here, heat and pressure is applied for a definite interval of time. In this process, matrix is
uniformly distributed and intimate contact is achieved through proper bonding between fibers and
matrix. After the processing, the assembly is cooled to a definite rate and then vacuum bag is
removed. The composite part is taken out from the mold. Initially, a release gel is applied onto the
mold surface to avoid sticking of polymer to the mold surface. The raw materials used in these
techniques are given in the table 1.

Application: The process is mainly used in applications requiring high strength to weight ratio
components such as aircraft parts, marine, military, space craft and missiles. Advantages 1. This
composite processing method allows high volume fraction of reinforcement in the composite part. 2.
This method is applicable for both thermoplastic and thermosetting polymer composites. 3. High
degree of uniformity in part consolidation, better adhesion characteristics between layers and good
control over resin and reinforcement is achieved. 4. No void content in the finished part due to
removing entrapped air through vacuum. 5. If cores and inserts are used, there is better bonding of
these attachments due to vacuum bag processing. 6. Complete wetting of fibers is achieved.
Disadvantages 1. There is limitation on part size which depends upon autoclave size. 2. It is a costly
technique for composite processing. 3. Rate of production is low and skilled labour is required in this
process.

RTM

Resin transfer molding Resin transfer molding is a closed molding process. In this technique, as the
name indicates, resin is transferred over the already placed reinforcement. Reinforcement in terms
of either woven mat or strand mat form is placed on the surface of lower half mold. A release gel is
applied on the mold surface for easy removal of the composite. The mold is properly closed and
clamped. The clamping can be done either perimeter clamping or press clamping mechanism. The
resin is pumped into the mold through ports and air is displaced through other vents. The uniformity
of resin flow can be enhanced by using a catalyst as an accelerator and vacuum application. After
curing, the mold is opened and composite product is taken out. The schematic of resin transfer
molding process is shown in figure 1. Resin transfer molding can incorporate soft or hard mold
depending upon the expected duration of run. For soft mold, thermosetting polymers like epoxy and
polyester can be used for molding material. For hard mold, materials like steel and aluminium can be
used. The cost of mold varies from very low to high cost mold with short to long life molds. The
process can be automated to reduce cycle time. For complex shapes to be produced, preformed
fiber reinforcements are used. The viscosity of the resin plays an important role in resin transfer
molding process because injection time depends upon viscosity of the resin. If viscosity of resin is
high, high pressure is required which may cause displacement of fibers, known as fiber wash.
Important components of resin transfer molding process: There are mainly five components in the
resin transfer molding system which govern the processing of composites. These components are: 1.
Resin and catalyst container 2. Pumping unit 3. Mixing chamber 4. Resin injector 5. Molding unit
There are two separate containers for resin and catalyst. Resin container is larger than the catalyst
container. Both the containers have separate outlets which pass through pumping unit and opens in
mixing chamber. Pumping unit transfers the resin and catalyst to the mixing chamber. Resin and
catalyst is mixed thoroughly in the mixing chamber. Resin injector is used to inject the mixture to the
mold cavity. Molding unit has two halves namely upper half mold and lower half mold. Heating
arrangement is integrated with molding unit. Vents are provided to release the gases in the mold
cavity during clamping. Application: 1. Hollow shapes and complex structure can be produced. 2.
Automotive body parts, big containers, bat2. Automotive body parts, big containers, bathtubs are
commonly processed through resin transfer molding technique. Advantages: 1. Composite part
produced with this method has good surface finish on both side surface of the product. 2. Any
combination of reinforced materials (including 3D) in any orientation can be achieved. 3. Fast cycle
time can be achieved through temperature control tooling device. 4. Process can be manual control,
semi-automated or highly automated. 5. Composite part thickness is uniform which is determined by
the mold cavity. 6. There is low emission during composite processing. 7. Strict dimensional
tolerances are possible to achieve. 8. Ability to incorporate inserts and other attachments into mold.
9. The process does not require high injection pressure. 10. Material wastage is reduced as near net
shape parts are produced. 11. Higher production rate is associated with process automation.
Disadvantages: 1. Mold cavity limits the size of the composite. 2. High tooling cost. 3. There is
limitation on reinforcing materials due to the flow and resin saturation of fibers.