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The installation is supplied through a 630 kVA transformer. The process requires a high degree of
supply continuity and part of the installation can be supplied by a 250 kVA standby generator. The
global earthing system is TN-S, except for the most critical loads supplied by an isolation transformer
with a downstream IT configuration.
The single-line diagram is shown in Figure G65 below. The results of a computer study for the
circuit from transformer T1 down to the cable C7 is reproduced on Figure G66. This study was
carried out with Ecodial (a Schneider Electric software).
This is followed by the same calculations carried out by the simplified method described in this
guide.
Fig. G65: Example of single-line diagram
Maximum load current (A) 860 Total voltage drop ΔU (%) 0.65
Fig. G66: Partial results of calculation carried out with Ecodial software (Schneider Electric). The calculation is
The same calculation using the simplified method recommended in this guide
Dimensioning circuit C1
The MV/LV 630 kVA transformer has a rated no-load voltage of 420 V. Circuit C1 must be suitable
for a current of:
per phase
Two single-core PVC-insulated copper cables in parallel will be used for each phase.These cables
will be laid on cable trays according to method F.
Each conductor will therefore carry 433A. Figure G21a indicates that for 3 loaded conductors with
PVC isolation, the required c.s.a. is 240mm2.
The resistance and the inductive reactance, for the two conductors in parallel, and for a length of 5
metres, are:
Circuit C3 supplies two 150kW loads with cos φ = 0.85, so the total load current is:
Two single-core PVC-insulated copper cables in parallel will be used for each phase. These cables
will be laid on cable trays according to method F.
Each conductor will therefore carry 255A. Figure G21a indicates that for 3 loaded conductors with
PVC isolation, the required c.s.a. is 95mm2.
The resistance and the inductive reactance, for the two conductors in parallel, and for a length of 20
metres, are:
Dimensioning circuit C7
Circuit C7 supplies one 150kW load with cos φ = 0.85, so the total load current is:
One single-core PVC-insulated copper cable will be used for each phase. The cables will be laid on
cable trays according to method F.
Each conductor will therefore carry 255A. Figure G21a indicates that for 3 loaded conductors with
PVC isolation, the required c.s.a. is 95mm2.
The resistance and the inductive reactance for a length of 20 metres is:
When using the adiabatic method, the minimum c.s.a. for the protective earth conductor (PE) can be
calculated by the formula given in Figure G58:
This gives:
A single 120 mm2 conductor is therefore largely sufficient, provided that it also satisfies the
requirements for indirect contact protection (i.e. that its impedance is sufficiently low).
Generally, for circuits with phase conductor c.s.a. Sph ≥ 50 mm2, the PE conductor minimum c.s.a.
will be Sph / 2. Then, for circuit C3, the PE conductor will be 95mm2, and for circuit C7, the PE
conductor will be 50mm2.
For circuit C3 of Figure G65, Figures F41 and F40, or the formula given TN system - Protection
against indirect contact may be used for a 3-phase 4-wire circuit.
(The value in the denominator 630 x 11 is the maximum current level at which the instantaneous
short-circuit magnetic trip of the 630 A circuit-breaker operates).
Voltage drop
The voltage drop is calculated using the data given in Figure G28, for balanced three-phase circuits,
motor power normal service (cos φ = 0.8).
C1 C3 C7
where
U20 = phase-to-phase voltage of the open circuited secondary windings of the power supply
transformer(s).
ZT = total impedance per phase of the installation upstream of the fault location (in Ω)
Method of calculating ZT
Each component of an installation (MV network, transformer, cable, busbar, and so on...) is
characterized by its impedance Z, comprising an element of resistance (R) and an inductive
reactance (X). It may be noted that capacitive reactances are not important in short-circuit current
calculations.
The parameters R, X and Z are expressed in ohms, and are related by the sides of a right angled
triangle, as shown in the impedance diagram of Figure G33.
The method consists in dividing the network into convenient sections, and to calculate the R and X
values for each.
Where sections are connected in series in the network, all the resistive elements in the section are
added arithmetically; likewise for the reactances, to give RT and XT.
The impedance (ZT) for the combined sections concerned is then calculated
from
Any two sections of the network which are connected in parallel, can, if predominantly both resistive
(or both inductive) be combined to give a single equivalent resistance (or reactance) as follows:
Let R1 and R2 be the two resistances connected in parallel, then the equivalent resistance R3 will
be given by:
or for reactances
It should be noted that the calculation of X3 concerns only separated circuit without mutual
inductance. If the circuits in parallel are close togother the value of X3 will be notably higher.
The 3-phase short-circuit fault level PSC, in kA or in MVA[1] is given by the power supply authority
concerned, from which an equivalent impedance can be deduced.
Fig. G34: The impedance of the MV network referred to the LV side of the MV/LV transformer
A formula which makes this deduction and at the same time converts the impedance to an
equivalent value at LV is given, as follows:
where
Zs = impedance of the MV voltage network, expressed in milli-ohms
Uo = phase-to-phase no-load LV voltage, expressed in volts
Psc = MV 3-phase short-circuit fault level, expressed in kVA
The upstream (MV) resistance Ra is generally found to be negligible compared with the
corresponding Xa, the latter then being taken as the ohmic value for Za. If more accurate
calculations are necessary, Xa may be taken to be equal to 0.995 Za and Ra equal to 0.1 Xa.
Figure G36 gives values for Ra and Xa corresponding to the most common MV[2] short-circuit levels
in utility power-supply networks, namely, 250 MVA and 500 MVA.
Transformers
The impedance Ztr of a transformer, viewed from the LV terminals, is given by the formula:
where:
The transformer windings resistance Rtr can be derived from the total load-losses as follows:
so that in milli-ohms
where
Note: for an approximate calculation, in the absence of more precise information on transformer
characteristics, Cenelec 50480 suggests to use the following guidelines:
Usc (%) Rtr (mΩ) Xtr (mΩ) Ztr (mΩ) Usc (%) Rtr (mΩ) Xtr (mΩ) Ztr (mΩ)
Fig. G35: Resistance, reactance and impedance values for typical distribution 400 V transformers (no-load voltage =
Busbars
The resistance of busbars is generally negligible, so that the impedance is practically all reactive,
and amounts to approximately 0.15 mΩ/metre[3] length for LV busbars (doubling the spacing
between the bars increases the reactance by about 10% only).
In practice, it's almost never possible to estimate the busbar length concerned by a short-circuit
downstream a switchboard.
Circuit conductors
where
ρ has to be considered:
20 °C PR/XLPE 90 °C PVC 70 °C
Fig. G35b: Values of ρ as a function of the temperature, cable insulation and cable core material, according to
Motors
At the instant of short-circuit, a running motor will act (for a brief period) as a generator, and feed
current into the fault.
In general, this fault-current contribution may be ignored. However, if the total power of motors
running simultaneously is higher than 25% of the total power of transformers, the influence of motors
must be taken into account. Their total contribution can be estimated from the formula:
Iscm = 3.5 In from each motor i.e. 3.5m In for m similar motors operating concurrently.
The motors concerned will be the 3-phase motors only; single-phase-motor contribution being
insignificant.
Fault-arc resistance
Short-circuit faults generally form an arc which has the properties of a resistance. The resistance is
not stable and its average value is low, but at low voltage this resistance is sufficient to reduce the
fault-current to some extent. Experience has shown that a reduction of the order of 20% may be
expected. This phenomenon will effectively ease the current-breaking duty of a CB, but affords no
relief for its fault-current making duty.
Recapitulation table
Xa = 0.995 Za
Supply network
Figure G34
Transformer
[a]
formula:
Three-phase
maximum
circuit current in
kA
[b] If there are several conductors in parallel per phase, then divide the resistance of one conductor by the number of
Psc: 3-phase short-circuit power at MV terminals of the MV/LV transformers (in kVA).
Psc = 500
MVA
RT : Total resistance. XT: Total reactance. Isc : 3-phase maximum short-circuit current Calculations made a
G36
Fig. G37: Example of maximum short-circuit current calculations for a LV installation supplied at 400 V (nominal) from
Notes
General rule
A protective device is necessary at the origin of each circuit where a reduction of permissible
maximum current level occurs.
The protective device may be placed part way along the circuit:
Either
The protective device P1 is calibrated to protect the cable S2 against overloads and short-circuits
Or
No circuit interruption can be tolerated, and the protection of the cabling is of secondary importance.
a. b.
c.
and:
Typical values of Usc for distribution transformers are given in Figure G31
50 to 750 4 6
800 to 3,200 6 6
Fig. G31: Typical values of Usc for different kVA ratings of transformers with MV windings ≤ 20 kV
Example
Usc = 4%
It is assumed that all transformers are supplied from the same MV network, in which case the values
obtained from Figure G31when added together will give a slightly higher fault-level value than would
actually occur.
Other factors which have not been taken into account are the impedance of the busbars and of the
cable between transformers and circuit breakers.
The conservative fault-current value obtained however, is sufficiently accurate for basic installation
design purposes. The choice of circuit breakers and incorporated protective devices against short-
circuit and fault currents is described in Selection of a circuit-breaker .
Methodology
Following a preliminary analysis of the power requirements of the installation, as described in The
consumer substation with LV metering, a study of cabling[1] and its electrical protection is
undertaken, starting at the origin of the installation, through the intermediate stages to the final
circuits.
The cabling and its protection at each level must satisfy several conditions at the same time, in order
to ensure a safe and reliable installation, e.g. it must:
Carry the permanent full load current, and normal short-time overcurrents
Not cause voltage drops likely to result in an inferior performance of certain loads, for example: an
excessively long acceleration period when starting a motor, etc.
Protect the cabling and busbars for all levels of overcurrent, up to and including short-circuit
currents
Ensure protection of persons against indirect contact hazards, particularly in TN- and IT- earthed
systems, where the length of circuits may limit the magnitude of short-circuit currents, thereby
delaying automatic disconnection (it may be remembered that TT- earthed installations are
necessarily protected at the origin by a RCD, generally rated at 300 mA).
The cross-sectional areas of conductors are determined by the general method described
in Practical method for determining the smallest allowable cross-sectional area of circuit
conductors of this Chapter. Apart from this method some national standards may prescribe a
minimum cross-sectional area to be observed for reasons of mechanical endurance. Particular loads
(as noted in Chapter Characteristics of particular sources and loads) require that the cable supplying
them be oversized, and that the protection of the circuit be likewise modified.
Fig. G1: Flow-chart for the selection of cable size and protective device rating for a given circuit
Definitions
At the final circuits level, this design current (according to IEV "International Electrotechnical
Vocabulary" ref 826-11-10) corresponds to the rated kVA of the load. In the case of motor-starting,
or other loads which take a high in-rush current, particularly where frequent starting is concerned
(e.g. lift motors, resistance-type spot welding, and so on) the cumulative thermal effects of the
overcurrents must be taken into account. Both cables and thermal type relays are affected.
At all upstream circuit levels this current corresponds to the kVA to be supplied, which takes
account of the diversity and utilization factors, ks and ku respectively, as shown in Figure G2.
Current carrying capacity Iz is the maximum permissible that the cabling for the circuit can carry
indefinitely, without reducing its normal life expectancy.
The current depends, for a given cross sectional area of conductors, on several parameters:
Constitution of the cable and cable-way (Cu or Alu conductors; PVC or EPR etc. insulation;
number of active conductors)
Ambient temperature
Method of installation
Influence of neighbouring circuits
Overcurrents
An overcurrent occurs each time the value of current exceeds the maximum load current IB for the
load concerned.
This current must be cut off with a rapidity that depends upon its magnitude, if permanent damage to
the cabling (and appliance if the overcurrent is due to a defective load component) is to be avoided.
Overcurrents of relatively short duration can however, occur in normal operation; two types of
overcurrent are distinguished:
Overloads
These overcurrents can occur in healthy electric circuits, for example, due to a number of
small short-duration loads which occasionally occur co-incidentally: motor starting loads, and
so on. If either of these conditions persists however beyond a given period (depending on
protective-relay settings or fuse ratings) the circuit will be automatically cut off.
Short-circuit currents
These currents result from the failure of insulation between live conductors or/and between
live conductors and earth (on systems having low-impedance-earthed neutrals) in any
combination, viz:
Acting to cut-off the current in a time shorter than that given by the I2t characteristic of the circuit
cabling
But allowing the maximum load current IB to flow indefinitely
The characteristics of insulated conductors when carrying short-circuit currents can, for periods up to
5 seconds following short-circuit initiation, be determined approximately by the formula:
I2t = k2 S2
which shows that the allowable heat generated is proportional to the squared cross-sectional-area of
the condutor.
where
Note:
Fig. G5: I2t characteristic of an insulated conductor at two different ambient temperatures.
General rules
Its 3-phase short-circuit fault-current breaking rating is greater than the 3-phase short-circuit
current existing at its point of installation. This corresponds to zone “c” in Figure G6.
Fig. G6: Current levels for determining circuir breaker or fuse characteristics IB ≤ In ≤ Iz zone a I2 ≤
1.45 Iz zone b ISCB ≥ ISC zone c
Applications
Protection by circuit-breaker
By virtue of its high level of precision the current I2 is always less than 1.45 In (or 1.45 Ir) so that the
condition I2 ≤ 1.45 Iz (as noted in the “general rules” above) will always be respected.
Particular case
If the circuit-breaker itself does not protect against overloads, it is necessary to ensure that,
at a time of lowest value of short-circuit current, the overcurrent device protecting the circuit
will operate correctly. This particular case is examined in Calculation of minimum levels of
short-circuit current.
Protection by fuses
The condition I2 ≤ 1.45 Iz must be taken into account, where I2 is the fusing (melting level) current,
equal to k2 x In (k2 ranges from 1.6 to 1.9) depending on the particular fuse concerned.
In < 16 A → k3 = 1.31
In ≥ 16 A → k3 = 1.10
Moreover, the short-circuit current breaking capacity of the fuse ISCF must exceed the level of 3-
phase short-circuit current at the point of installation of the fuse(s).
The use of protective devices which have fault-current ratings lower than the fault level existing at
their point of installation are permitted by IEC and many national standards in the following
conditions:
There exists upstream, another protective device which has the necessary short-circuit rating, and
The amount of energy allowed to pass through the upstream device is less than that which can be
withstood without damage by the downstream device and all associated cabling and appliances.
In pratice this arrangement is generally exploited in:
Possible combinations which have been tested in laboratories are indicated in certain manufacturers
catalogues.
The different admissible methods of installation are listed in Figure G8, in conjonction with the
different types of conductors and cables.
trunking) rackets
Bare conductors - - - - - - + -
Insulated conductors[b] - - + +[a] + - + -
Sheathed Multi- + + + + + + 0 +
cables core
Single 0 + + + + + 0 +
(including -core
armoured and
mineral
insulated)
+ : Permitted.
– : Not Permitted.
0 : Not applicable, or not normally used in practice.
[a] Insulated conductors are admitted if the cable trunking systems provide at least he degree of protection IP4X or
IPXXD and if the cover can only be removed by means of a tool or a deliberate action.
[b] Insulated conductors which are used as protective conductors or protective bonding conductors may use any
appropriate method of installation and need not be laid in conduits, trunking or ducting systems.
Fig. G8: Selection of wiring systems (table A.52.1 of IEC 60364-5-52)
The number given in this table refer to the different wiring systems considered.
Not 40 0 41, 42 0 43 0 0 0
accessible
Window frames 16 0 16 0 0 0 - -
Architrave 15 0 15 0 0 0 - -
Immersed 1 + + + - + 0 - -
– : Not permitted.
Note: The number in each box, e.g. 40, 46, refers to the number of the method of installation in Table A.52.3.
An illustration of some of the many different wiring systems and methods of installation is provided
in Figure G10.
Several reference methods are defined (with code letters A to G), grouping installation methods
having the same characteristics relative to the current-carrying capacities of the wiring systems.
Room
Room
4 Insulated conductors or single-core B1
cables in conduit on a wooden, or
masonry wall or spaced less than
0,3 x conduit diameter from it
C
30 Single-core or multi-core cables:
horizontally or vertically
31 Single-core or multi-core cables: E or F
or vertically
Fig. G10: Examples of methods of installation (part of table A.52.3 of IEC 60364-5-52)
The current-carrying capacities given in the subsequent tables have been determined so that the
maximum insulation temperature is not exceeded for sustained periods of time.
For different type of insulation material, the maximum admissible temperature is given
in Figure G11.
Mineral (bare not exposed to touch and not in contact with 105 at the seath
combustible material)
Fig. G11: Maximum operating temperatures for types of insulation (table 52.1 of IEC 60364-5-52)
Correction factors
In order to take environment or special conditions of installation into account, correction factors have
been introduced.
The cross sectional area of cables is determined using the rated load current IB divided by different
correction factors, k1, k2, ...:
I’B is the corrected load current, to be compared to the current-carrying capacity of the considered
cable.
Ambient temperature
The current-carrying capacities of cables in the air are based on an average air temperature equal to
30 °C. For other temperatures, the correction factor is given in FigureG12 for PVC, EPR and XLPE
insulation material.
10 1.22 1.15
15 1.17 1.12
20 1.12 1.08
25 1.06 1.04
30 1 1
35 0.94 0.96
40 0.87 0.91
45 0.79 0.87
50 0.71 0.82
55 0.61 0.76
60 0.50 0.71
65 - 0.65
70 - 0.58
75 - 0.50
80 - 0.41
Fig. G12: Correction factors for ambient air temperatures other than 30 °C to be applied to the current-carrying
capacities for cables in the air (from table B.52.14 of IEC 60364-5-52)
The current-carrying capacities of cables in the ground are based on an average ground
temperature equal to 20 °C. For other temperatures, the correction factor is given in Figure G13 for
PVC, EPR and XLPE insulation material.
10 1.10 1.07
15 1.05 1.04
20 1 1
25 0.95 0.96
30 0.89 0.93
35 0.84 0.89
40 0.77 0.85
45 0.71 0.80
50 0.63 0.76
55 0.55 0.71
60 0.45 0.65
65 - 0.60
70 - 0.53
75 - 0.46
80 - 0.38
Fig. G13: Correction factors for ambient ground temperatures other than 20 °C to be applied to the current-carrying
capacities for cables in ducts in the ground (from table B.52.15 of IEC 60364-5-52)
The current-carrying capacities of cables in the ground are based on a ground resistivity equal to 2.5
K•m/W. For other values, the correction factor is given in Figure G14.
Correction factor for cables in buried ducts 1.28 1.20 1.18 1.1 1.05 1 0.96
Correction factor for direct buried cables 1.88 1.62 1.5 1.28 1.12 1 0.90
Note 1: The correction factors given have been averaged over the range of conductor sizes and types of installation
included in Tables B.52.2 to B.52.5. The overall accuracy of correction factors is within ±5 %.
Note 2: The correction factors are applicable to cables drawn into buried ducts; for cables laid direct in the ground the
correction factors for thermal resistivities less than 2.5 K•m/W will be higher. Where more precise values are required
migration which can lead to a region of high thermal resistivity around the cable. If partial drying out of the soil is
foreseen, the permissible current rating should be derived by the methods specified in the IEC 60287 series.
Fig. G14: Correction factors for cables in buried ducts for soil thermal resistivities other than 2.5 K.m/W to be applied
to the current-carrying capacities for reference method D (table B.52.16 of IEC 60364-5-52)
Based on experience, a relationship exist between the soil nature and resistivity. Then, empiric
values of correction factors k3 are proposed in Figure G15, depending on the nature of soil.
Nature of soil k3
Very wet soil (saturated) 1.21
Two insulated conductors or two single-core cables, or one twin-core cable (applicable to
single-phase circuits);
Three insulated conductors or three single-core cables, or one three-core cable (applicable
to three-phase circuits).
Where more insulated conductors or cables are installed in the same group, a group reduction factor
(here noted k4) shall be applied.
Examples are given in Figures G16 to G18 for different configurations (installation methods, in free
air or in the ground).
Figure G16 gives the values of correction factor k4 for different configurations of unburied cables or
conductors, grouping of more than one circuit or multi-core cables.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 12 16 20
Bunched in air, 1.00 0.80 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.57 0.54 0.52 0.50 0.45 0.41 0.38 Methods A
on a surface, to F
embedded
orenclosed
Single layer on 1.00 0.85 0.79 0.75 0.73 0.72 0.72 0.71 0.70 No further Method C
wall, floor or reduction factor
unperforated tray for more than
nine circuits or
multi-core cables
Single layer fixed 0.95 0.81 0.72 0.68 0.66 0.64 0.63 0.62 0.61
directly under a
wooden ceiling
Single layer on a 1.00 0.88 0.82 0.77 0.75 0.73 0.73 0.72 0.72 Methods E and F
perforated
horizontal or
vertical tray
Single layer on 1.00 0.87 0.82 0.80 0.80 0.79 0.79 0.78 0.78
ladder support or
cleats etc.
Fig. G16: Reduction factors for groups of more than one circuit or of more than one multi-core cable (table B.52.17 of
IEC 60364-5-52)
Figure G17 gives the values of correction factor k4 for different configurations of unburied cables or
conductors, for groups of more than one circuit of single-core cables in free air.
1 2 3
Fig. G17: Reduction factors for groups of more than one circuit of single-core cables to be applied to reference rating
for one circuit of single-core cables in free air - Method of installation F. (table B.52.21 of IEC 60364-5-52)
Figure G18 gives the values of correction factor k4 for different configurations of cables or
conductors laid directly in the ground.
Fig. G18: Reduction factors for more than one circuit, single-core or multi-core cables laid directly in the ground.
Harmonic current
The current-carrying capacity of three-phase, 4-core or 5-core cables is based on the assumption
that only 3 conductors are fully loaded.
However, when harmonic currents are circulating, the neutral current can be significant, and even
higher than the phase currents. This is due to the fact that the 3rd harmonic currents of the three
phases do not cancel each other, and sum up in the neutral conductor.
This of course affects the current-carrying capacity of the cable, and a correction factor noted here
k5 shall be applied.
In addition, if the 3rd harmonic percentage h3 is greater than 33%, the neutral current is greater than
the phase current and the cable size selection is based on the neutral current. The heating effect of
harmonic currents in the phase conductors has also to be taken into account.
The values of k5 depending on the 3rd harmonic content are given in Figure G19.
0 - 15 1.0
15 - 33 0.86
33 - 45 0.86
> 45 1.0[a]
[a] If the neutral current is more than 135 % of the phase current and the cable size is selected on the basis of the
neutral current then the three phase conductors will not be fully loaded. The reduction in heat generated by the phase
conductors offsets the heat generated by the neutral conductor to the extent that it is not necessary to apply any
reduction factor to the current carrying capacity for three loaded conductors.
Fig. G19: Correction factors for harmonic currents in four-core and five-core cables (table E.52.1 of IEC 60364-5-52)
IEC standard 60364-5-52 proposes extensive information in the form of tables giving the admissible
currents as a function of cross-sectional area of cables. Many parameters are taken into account,
such as the method of installation, type of insulation material, type of conductor material, number of
loaded conductors.
As an example, Figure G20 gives the current-carrying capacities for different methods of installation
of PVC insulation, three loaded copper or almunium conductors, free air or in ground.
A1 A2 B1 B2 C D1 D2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Copper
4 24 23 28 27 32 30 33
6 31 29 36 34 41 38 41
10 42 39 50 46 57 50 54
16 56 52 68 62 76 64 70
25 73 68 89 80 96 82 92
4 18.5 17.5 22 21 25 24
6 24 23 28 27 32 30
10 32 31 39 36 44 39
16 43 41 53 48 59 50 53
25 57 53 70 62 73 64 69
35 70 65 86 77 90 77 83
50 84 78 104 92 110 91 99
Note: In columns 3, 5, 6, 7 and 8, circular conductors are assumed for sizes up to and including 16 mm 2. Values for
larger sizes relate to shaped conductors and may safely be applied to circular conductors.
Fig. G20: Current-carrying capacities in amperes for different methods of installation, PVC insulation, three loaded
conductors, copper or aluminium, conductor temperature: 70 °C, ambient temperature: 30 °C in air, 20 °C in ground
where
U20 = phase-to-phase voltage of the open circuited secondary windings of the power supply
transformer(s).
ZT = total impedance per phase of the installation upstream of the fault location (in Ω)
Method of calculating ZT
Each component of an installation (MV network, transformer, cable, busbar, and so on...) is
characterized by its impedance Z, comprising an element of resistance (R) and an inductive
reactance (X). It may be noted that capacitive reactances are not important in short-circuit current
calculations.
The parameters R, X and Z are expressed in ohms, and are related by the sides of a right angled
triangle, as shown in the impedance diagram of Figure G33.
Fig. G33: Impedance diagram
The method consists in dividing the network into convenient sections, and to calculate the R and X
values for each.
Where sections are connected in series in the network, all the resistive elements in the section are
added arithmetically; likewise for the reactances, to give RT and XT.
The impedance (ZT) for the combined sections concerned is then calculated
from
Any two sections of the network which are connected in parallel, can, if predominantly both resistive
(or both inductive) be combined to give a single equivalent resistance (or reactance) as follows:
Let R1 and R2 be the two resistances connected in parallel, then the equivalent resistance R3 will
be given by:
or for reactances
It should be noted that the calculation of X3 concerns only separated circuit without mutual
inductance. If the circuits in parallel are close togother the value of X3 will be notably higher.
The 3-phase short-circuit fault level PSC, in kA or in MVA[1] is given by the power supply authority
concerned, from which an equivalent impedance can be deduced.
Fig. G34: The impedance of the MV network referred to the LV side of the MV/LV transformer
A formula which makes this deduction and at the same time converts the impedance to an
equivalent value at LV is given, as follows:
where
The upstream (MV) resistance Ra is generally found to be negligible compared with the
corresponding Xa, the latter then being taken as the ohmic value for Za. If more accurate
calculations are necessary, Xa may be taken to be equal to 0.995 Za and Ra equal to 0.1 Xa.
Figure G36 gives values for Ra and Xa corresponding to the most common MV[2] short-circuit levels
in utility power-supply networks, namely, 250 MVA and 500 MVA.
Transformers
The impedance Ztr of a transformer, viewed from the LV terminals, is given by the formula:
where:
The transformer windings resistance Rtr can be derived from the total load-losses as follows:
so that in milli-ohms
where
Note: for an approximate calculation, in the absence of more precise information on transformer
characteristics, Cenelec 50480 suggests to use the following guidelines:
if U20 is not known, it may be assumed to be 1.05 Un
in the absence of more precise information, the following values may be used: Rtr = 0.31 Ztr and
Xtr = 0.95 Ztr
Example: for a transformer of 630kVA with Usc=4% / Un = 400V, approximate calculation gives:
Usc (%) Rtr (mΩ) Xtr (mΩ) Ztr (mΩ) Usc (%) Rtr (mΩ) Xtr (mΩ) Ztr (mΩ)
Fig. G35: Resistance, reactance and impedance values for typical distribution 400 V transformers (no-load voltage =
Busbars
The resistance of busbars is generally negligible, so that the impedance is practically all reactive,
and amounts to approximately 0.15 mΩ/metre[3] length for LV busbars (doubling the spacing
between the bars increases the reactance by about 10% only).
In practice, it's almost never possible to estimate the busbar length concerned by a short-circuit
downstream a switchboard.
Circuit conductors
where
ρ has to be considered:
20 °C PR/XLPE 90 °C PVC 70 °C
Cable reactance values can be obtained from the manufacturers. For c.s.a. of less than 50
mm2 reactance may be ignored. In the absence of other information, a value of 0.08 mΩ/metre may
be used (for 50 Hz systems) or 0.096 mΩ/metre (for 60 Hz systems). For busways (busbar trunking
systems) and similar pre-wired ducting systems, the manufacturer should be consulted.
Motors
At the instant of short-circuit, a running motor will act (for a brief period) as a generator, and feed
current into the fault.
In general, this fault-current contribution may be ignored. However, if the total power of motors
running simultaneously is higher than 25% of the total power of transformers, the influence of motors
must be taken into account. Their total contribution can be estimated from the formula:
Iscm = 3.5 In from each motor i.e. 3.5m In for m similar motors operating concurrently.
The motors concerned will be the 3-phase motors only; single-phase-motor contribution being
insignificant.
Fault-arc resistance
Short-circuit faults generally form an arc which has the properties of a resistance. The resistance is
not stable and its average value is low, but at low voltage this resistance is sufficient to reduce the
fault-current to some extent. Experience has shown that a reduction of the order of 20% may be
expected. This phenomenon will effectively ease the current-breaking duty of a CB, but affords no
relief for its fault-current making duty.
Recapitulation table
Xa = 0.995 Za
Supply network
Figure G34
Transformer
with
Figure G35 where
[a]
formula:
Circuit Cables: Xc = 0.08 mΩ/m
conductors[b]
[a]
[b] If there are several conductors in parallel per phase, then divide the resistance of one conductor by the number of
Psc: 3-phase short-circuit power at MV terminals of the MV/LV transformers (in kVA).
Psc = 500
MVA
RT : Total resistance. XT: Total reactance. Isc : 3-phase maximum short-circuit current Calculations
Fig. G37: Example of maximum short-circuit current calculations for a LV installation supplied at 400 V (nominal) from
Notes
It is then sufficient to select a circuit-breaker with an appropriate short-circuit fault rating immediately
above that indicated in the tables.
If more precise values are required, it is possible to make a detailed calculation or to use a software
package, such as Ecodial. In such a case, moreover, the possibility of using the cascading technique
should be considered, in which the use of a current limiting circuit-breaker at the upstream position
would allow all circuit-breakers downstream of the limiter to have a short-circuit current rating much
lower than would otherwise be necessary (See chapter LV switchgear: functions and selection ).
Method
Select the c.s.a. of the conductor in the column for copper conductors (in this example the c.s.a. is
47.5 mm2).
Search along the row corresponding to 47.5 mm2 for the length of conductor equal to that of the
circuit concerned (or the nearest possible on the low side). Descend vertically the column in which
the length is located, and stop at a row in the middle section (of the 3 sections of the Figure)
corresponding to the known fault-current level (or the nearest to it on the high side).
In this case 30 kA is the nearest to 28 kA on the high side. The value of short-circuit current at the
downstream end of the 20 metre circuit is given at the intersection of the vertical column in which the
length is located, and the horizontal row corresponding to the upstream Isc (or nearest to it on the
high side).
The procedure for aluminium conductors is similar, but the vertical column must be ascended into
the middle section of the table.
In consequence, a DIN-rail-mounted circuit-breaker rated at 63 A and Isc of 25 kA (such as a NG
125N unit) can be used for the 55 A circuit in Figure G38.
A Compact rated at 160 A with an Isc capacity of 25 kA (such as a NS160 unit) can be used to
protect the 160 A circuit.
Fig. G38: Determination of downstream short-circuit current level Isc using Figure G39
Note: for a 3-phase system having 230 V between phases, divide the above lengths by
Fig. G39: Isc at a point downstream, as a function of a known upstream fault-current value and the length and c.s.a.
If a protective device in a circuit is intended only to protect against short-circuit faults, it is essential that it will
operate with certainty at the lowest possible level of short-circuit current that can occur on the circuit
In general, on LV circuits, a single protective device protects against all levels of current, from the
overload threshold through the maximum rated short-circuit current breaking capability of the device.
The protection device should be able to operate in a maximum time to ensure people and circuit
safety, for all short-circuit current or fault current that may occur. To check that behavior, calculation
of minimal short-circuit current or fault current is mandatory.
In addition, in certain cases overload protective devices and separate short-circuit protective devices
are used.
Figures G40 to G42 show some common arrangements where overload and short-circuit
protections are achieved by separate devices.
Fig. G42a: Circuit breaker D provides protection against short-circuit faults as far as and including
the load
As shown in Figures G40 and G41, the most common circuits using separate devices control and
protect motors.
Figure G42a constitutes a derogation in the basic protection rules, and is generally used on circuits
of prefabricated bustrunking, lighting rails, etc.
Figure G42b shows the functions provided by the variable speed drive, and if necessary some
additional functions provided by devices such as circuit-breaker, thermal relay, RCD.
Protection to be Protection generally Additional protection if not
provided provided by the variable provided by the variable
speed drive speed drive
Overvoltage Yes
Undervoltage Yes
(short-circuit tripping)
Conditions to be fulfilled
The protective device must therefore satisfy the two following conditions:
Its breaking capacity must be greater than Isc, the 3-phase short-circuit current at its point of
installation
Elimination of the minimum short-circuit current possible in the circuit, in a time tc compatible with
the thermal constraints of the circuit conductors, where:
where S is the cross section area of the cable, k is a factor depending of the cable conductor
material, the insulation material and initial temperature.
Example: for copper XLPE, initial temperature 90 °C, k = 143 (see IEC60364-4-43 §434.3.2 table
43A).
Comparison of the tripping or fusing performance curve of protective devices, with the limit curves of
thermal constraint for a conductor shows that this condition is satisfied if:
Isc (min) > Im (instantaneous or short timedelay circuit-breaker trip setting current level),
(see Fig. G43 )
Isc (min) > Ia for protection by fuses. The value of the current Ia corresponds to the crossing point
of the fuse curve and the cable thermal withstand curve (see Fig. G44 and Fig. G45)
In practice this means that the length of circuit downstream of the protective device must not exceed a
The limiting effect of the impedance of long circuit conductors on the value of short-circuit currents
must be checked and the length of a circuit must be restricted accordingly.
The method of calculating the maximum permitted length has already been demonstrated in TN- and
IT- earthed schemes for single and double earth faults, respectively. Two cases are considered
below:
Using the “conventional method”, the voltage at the point of protection P is assumed to be 80% of
the nominal voltage during a short-circuit fault, so that 0.8 U = Isc Zd, where:
where:
The condition for the cable protection is Im ≤ Isc with Im = magnetic trip current setting of the CB.
with U = 400 V
therefore
In general, the value of Im is given with +/- 20% tolerance, so Lmax should be calculated for
Im+20% (worst case).
k factor values are provided in the following table, taking into account these 20%, and as a function
of cross-section for Sph > 120 mm2[1]
The minimum Isc will occur when the short-circuit is between a phase conductor and the neutral at
the end of the circuit.
A calculation similar to that of example 1 above is required, but for a single-phase fault (230V).
Lmax = k Sph / Im with k calculated for 230V, as shown in the table below
Figure G47 below gives maximum circuit lengths (Lmax) in metres, for:
In other cases, apply correction factors (given in Figure G51) to the lengths obtained.
For the 50 mm2 c.s.a., calculation are based on a 47.5 mm2 real c.s.a.
Operating current level Im of the instantaneous c.s.a. (nominal cross-sectional-area) of conductors (in mm2)
magnetic tripping element (in A)
1.5 2.5 4 6 10 16 25 35 50 70 95 1
2500 5 8 13 21 33 47 63 93 127 1
3200 4 6 10 17 26 36 49 73 99 1
4000 5 8 13 21 29 40 58 79 1
5000 4 7 11 17 23 32 47 63 8
6300 5 8 13 19 25 37 50 6
8000 4 7 10 15 20 29 40 5
10000 5 8 12 16 23 32 4
12500 4 7 9 13 19 25 3
Fig. G47: Maximum circuit lengths in metres for copper conductors (for aluminium, the lengths must be multiplied by
0.62)
Figures G48 to G50 give maximum circuit length (Lmax) in metres for:
1.5 2.5 4 6 10 16 25
Fig. G48: Maximum length of copper-conductor circuits in metres protected by B-type circuit-breakers
1.5 2.5 4 6 10 16 25
Fig. G49: Maximum length of copper-conductor circuits in metres protected by C-type circuit-breakers
1.5 2.5 4 6 10 16 25
1 429 714
Fig. G50: Maximum length of copper-conductor circuits in metres protected by D-type circuit-breakers
Circuit detail
3-phase 3-wire 400 V circuit or 1-phase 2-wire 400 V circuit (no neutral)
3-phase 4-wire 230/400 V circuit or 2-phase 3-wire 230/400 V circuit (i.e with neutral) Sph / S neutra
Sph / S neutra
Fig. G51: Correction factor to apply to lengths obtained from Figures G47 to G50
Note: IEC 60898 accepts an upper short-circuit-current tripping range of 10-50 In for type D circuit-
breakers. European standards, and Figure G50 however, are based on a range of 10-20 In, a range
which covers the vast majority of domestic and similar installations.
Examples
Example 1
In Figure G47, the row Im = 500 A crosses the column c.s.a. = 10 mm2 at the value for Lmax of 67
m. The circuit-breaker protects the cable against short-circuit faults, therefore, provided that its
length does not exceed 67 metres.
Example 2
In a 3-phase 3-wire 400 V circuit (without neutral), the protection is provided by a 220 A circuit-
breaker type NSX250N with an instantaneous short-circuit current trip unit type MA set at 2,000 A (±
20%), i.e. a worst case of 2,400 A to be certain of tripping. The cable c.s.a. = 120 mm2 and the
conductor material is copper.
In Figure G47 the row Im = 2,000 A crosses the column c.s.a. = 120 mm2 at the value for Lmax of
200 m. Being a 3-phase 3-wire 400 V circuit (without neutral), a correction factor
from Figure G51 must be applied. This factor is seen to be 1.73.
The circuit-breaker will therefore protect the cable against short-circuit current, provided that its
length does not exceed 200 x 1.73 = 346 metres.
Notes
1. ^ a b For larger c.s.a.’s, the resistance calculated for the conductors must be increased to
account for the non-uniform current density in the conductor (due to “skin” and “proximity”
effects Suitable values are as follows:
150 mm2: R + 15 %
185 mm2: R + 20 %
240 mm2: R + 25 %
300 mm2: R + 30 %
2. ^ Resistivity for copper EPR/XLPE cables when passing short-circuit current, eg for the max
temperature they can withstand = 90°C (cf Figure G35b).
Verification of the withstand capabilities of cables under short-circuit
conditions.
Thermal constraints
When the duration of short-circuit current is brief (several tenths of a second up to five seconds
maximum) all of the heat produced is assumed to remain in the conductor, causing its temperature
to rise. The heating process is said to be adiabatic, an assumption that simplifies the calculation and
gives a pessimistic result, i.e. a higher conductor temperature than that which would actually occur,
since in practice, some heat would leave the conductor and pass into the insulation.
For a period of 5 seconds or less, the relationship I2t = k2S2 characterizes the time in seconds during
which a conductor of c.s.a. S (in mm 2) can be allowed to carry a current I, before its temperature
reaches a level which would damage the surrounding insulation.
Conductor insulation
PVC ≤ 300 mm2 PVC > 300 mm2 EPR XLPE Rubber 60 °C
Initial temperature °C 70 70 90 60
Material of conductor
Aluminium 76 68 94 93
Fig. G52: Value of the constant k according to table 43A of IEC 60364-4-43
The method of verification consists in checking that the thermal energy I2t per ohm of conductor
material, allowed to pass by the protecting circuit-breaker (from manufacturers catalogues) is less
than that permitted for the particular conductor (as given in Figure G53 below).
S (mm2) PVC XLPE
[a] For 50mm2 cable, the values are calculated for the actual cross-section of 47.5mm2
Fig. G53: Maximum allowable thermal stress for cables I2t (expressed in ampere2 x second x 106)
Example
Figure G53 shows that the I2t value for the cable is 0.3272 x 106, while the maximum “let-through”
value by the circuit-breaker, as given in the manufacturer’s catalogue, is considerably less ( <
0.1.106 A2s).
The cable is therefore adequately protected by the circuit-breaker up to its full rated breaking
capability.
Electrodynamic constraints
For all type of circuit (conductors or bus-trunking), it is necessary to take electrodynamic effects into
account.
To withstand the electrodynamic constraints, the conductors must be solidly fixed and the
connection must be strongly tightened.
For bus-trunking, rails, etc. it is also necessary to verify that the electrodynamic withstand
performance is satisfactory when carrying short-circuit currents. The peak value of current, limited by
the circuit-breaker or fuse, must be less than the busbar system rating. Tables of coordination
ensuring adequate protection of their products are generally published by the manufacturers and
provide a major advantage of such systems.
The main earthing terminal is connected to the earthing electrode (see Chapter E) by the earthing
conductor (grounding electrode conductor in the USA).
Connection
PE conductors must:
Not include any means of breaking the continuity of the circuit (such as a switch, removable links,
etc.)
Connect exposed conductive parts individually to the main PE conductor, i.e. in parallel, not in
series, as shown in Figure G54
Have an individual terminal on common earthing bars in distribution boards.
Fig. G54: A poor connection in a series arrangement will leave all downstream appliances
unprotected
TT scheme
The PE conductor need not necessarily be installed in close proximity to the live conductors of the
corresponding circuit, since high values of earth-fault current are not needed to operate the RCD-
type of protection used in TT installations.
IT and TN schemes
The PE or PEN conductor, as previously noted, must be installed as close as possible to the
corresponding live conductors of the circuit and no ferro-magnetic material must be interposed
between them. A PEN conductor must always be connected directly to the earth terminal of an
appliance, with a looped connection from the earth terminal to the neutral terminal of the appliance
(see Fig. G55).
TN-C scheme (the neutral and PE conductor are one and the same, referred to as a PEN
conductor)
The protective function of a PEN conductor has priority, so that all rules governing PE
conductors apply strictly to PEN conductors
Fig. G55: Direct connection of the PEN conductor to the earth terminal of an appliance
Types of materials
Materials of the kinds mentioned below in Figure G57 can be used for PE conductors, provided that
the conditions mentioned in the last column are satisfied.
Supplementary In the same cable Strongly Strongly Correct The PE conductor must be
conductor as the phases, or ecommended recommended insulated to the same level as
in the same cable the phases
run
[a] In TN and IT schemes, fault clearance is generally achieved by overcurrent devices (fuses or circuit-breakers) so
that the impedance of the fault-current loop must be sufficiently low to assure positive protective device operation.
The surest means of achieving a low loop impedance is to use a supplementary core in the same cable as the circuit
conductors (or taking the same route as the circuit conductors). This solution minimizes the inductive reactance and
current may be flowing through it at any time (in the absence of an earth fault). For this reason an insulated conductor
Measurements on the completed installation are the only practical means of assuring adequate protection for
persons.
[e] It must allow the connection of other PE conductors. Note: these elements must carry an indivual green/yellow
striped visual indication, 15 to 100 mm long (or the letters PE at less than 15 cm from each extremity).
[f] These elements must be demountable only if other means have been provided to ensure uninterrupted continuity
of protection.
[g] With the agreement of the appropriate water authorities.
[h] In the prefabricated pre-wired trunking and similar elements, the metallic housing may be used as a PEN
conductor, in parallel with the corresponding bar, or other PE conductor in the housing.
[i] Forbidden in some countries only. Universally allowed to be used for supplementary equipotential conductors.
This technique concerns the use of several transformers instead of employing one high-rated unit. In
this way, a load that is a source of network disturbances (large motors, furnaces, etc.) can be
supplied by its own transformer.
The quality and continuity of supply to the whole installation are thereby improved.
Network islands
Conclusion
The optimisation of the performance of the whole installation governs the choice of earthing system.
Including:
An ideal structure would comprise normal power supply sources, local reserve power supply sources
(see Selection criteria for the TT, TN and IT systems ) and the appropriate earthing arrangements.
A very effective method of obtaining a low-resistance earth connection is to bury a conductor in the form of a
closed loop in the soil at the bottom of the excavation for building foundations.
The resistance R of such an electrode (in homogeneous soil) is given (approximately) in ohms by:
where
The quality of an earth electrode (resistance as low as possible) depends essentially on two factors:
Installation method
Type of soil
Installation methods
Buried ring
The electrode should be buried around the perimeter of the excavation made for the foundations. It
is important that the bare conductor be in intimate contact with the soil (and not placed in the gravel
or aggregate hard-core, often forming a base for concrete). At least four (widely-spaced) vertically
arranged conductors from the electrode should be provided for the installation connections and,
where possible, any reinforcing rods in concrete work should be connected to the electrode.
The conductor forming the earth electrode, particularly when it is laid in an excavation for
foundations, must be in the earth, at least 50 cm below the hard-core or aggregate base for the
concrete foundation. Neither the electrode nor the vertical rising conductors to the ground floor,
should ever be in contact with the foundation concrete.
For existing buildings, the electrode conductor should be buried around the outside wall of the
premises to a depth of at least 1 metre. As a general rule, all vertical connections from an electrode
to above-ground level should be insulated for the nominal LV voltage (600-1,000 V).
where
Fig. E20: Conductor buried below the level of the foundations, i.e. not in the concrete
Earthing rods
Vertically driven earthing rods are often used for existing buildings, and for improving (i.e. reducing
the resistance of) existing earth electrodes.
Copper or (more commonly) copper-clad steel. The latter are generally 1 or 2 metres long and
provided with screwed ends and sockets in order to reach considerable depths, if necessary (for
instance, the water-table level in areas of high soil resistivity)
Galvanised[1] steel pipe ≥ 25 mm diameter or rod ≥ 15 mm diameter, ≥ 2 metres long in each case.
It is often necessary to use more than one rod, in which case the spacing between them should
exceed the depth to which they are driven, by a factor of 2 to 3.
The total resistance (in homogeneous soil) is then equal to the resistance of one rod, divided by the
number of rods in question.
The approximate resistance R obtained is: if the distance separating the rods > 4L
where
Vertical plates
Rectangular plates, each side of which must be ≥ 0.5 metres, are commonly used as earth
electrodes, being buried in a vertical plane such that the centre of the plate is at least 1 metre below
the surface of the soil.
Copper of 2 mm thickness
Galvanised[1] steel of 3 mm thickness
where
Measurements on earth electrodes in similar soils are useful to determine the resistivity value to be applied for
the design of an earth-electrode system
Soft clay 50
Jurassic marl 30 - 40
Measurement and constancy of the resistance between an earth electrode and the
earth
Among the principal factors affecting this resistance are the following:
Frost
Frozen earth can increase the resistivity of the soil by several orders of magnitude. This is
one reason for recommending the installation of deep electrodes, in particular in cold
climates
Ageing
The materials used for electrodes will generally deteriorate to some extent for various
reasons, for example:
Oxidation
Brazed and welded joints and connections are the points most sensitive to oxidation.
Thorough cleaning of a newly made joint or connection and wrapping with a suitable
greased-tape binding is a commonly used preventive measure.
There must always be one or more removable links to isolate an earth electrode so that it can be
tested.
There must always be removable links which allow the earth electrode to be isolated from the
installation, so that periodic tests of the earthing resistance can be carried out. To make such tests,
two auxiliary electrodes are required, each consisting of a vertically driven rod.
When the source voltage U is constant (adjusted to be the same value for each test) then:
In order to avoid errors due to stray earth currents (galvanic -DC- or leakage currents from power
and communication networks and so on) the test current should be AC, but at a different frequency
to that of the power system or any of its harmonics. Instruments using hand-driven generators to
make these measurements usually produce an AC voltage at a frequency of between 85 Hz and 135
Hz.
The distances between the electrodes are not critical and may be in different directions from the
electrode being tested, according to site conditions. A number of tests at different spacings and
directions are generally made to cross-check the test results.
These instruments use a hand-driven or electronic-type AC generator, together with two auxiliary
electrodes, the spacing of which must be such that the zone of influence of the electrode being
tested should not overlap that of the test electrode (C). The test electrode (C) furthest from the
electrode (X) under test, passes a current through the earth and the electrode under test, while the
second test electrode (P) picks up a voltage. This voltage, measured between (X) and (P), is due to
the test current and is a measure of the contact resistance (of the electrode under test) with earth. It
is clear that the distance (X) to (P) must be carefully chosen to give accurate results. If the distance
(X) to (C) is increased, however, the zones of resistance of electrodes (X) and (C) become more
remote, one from the other, and the curve of potential (voltage) becomes more nearly horizontal
about the point (O).
In practical tests, therefore, the distance (X) to (C) is increased until readings taken with electrode
(P) at three different points, i.e. at (P) and at approximately 5 metres on either side of (P), give
similar values. The distance (X) to (P) is generally about 0.68 of the distance (X) to (C).
[a] the principle of measurement is based on assumed [b] showing the effect on the potential
homogeneous soil conditions. Where the zones of influence of gradient when (X) and (C) are widely
electrodes C and X overlap, the location of test electrode P is spaced. The location of test electrode P is
difficult to determine for satisfactory results. not critical and can be easily determined.
Fig. E26: Measurement of the resistance to the mass of earth of electrode (X) using an earth-electrode-testing
ohmmeter
Notes
1. ^ a b Where galvanised conducting materials are used for earth electrodes, sacrificial
cathodic protection anodes may be necessary to avoid rapid corrosion of the electrodes
where the soil is aggressive. Specially prepared magnesium anodes (in a porous sack filled
with a suitable “soil”) are available for direct connection to the electrodes. In such
circumstances, a specialist should be consulted.
Selection criteria for the TT, TN and IT systems.
The three systems are equivalent in terms of protection of persons if all installation and operating rules are
correctly followed.
The selection criteria for the best system(s) depend on the regulatory requirements, the required continuity of
service, operating conditions and the types of network and loads
In terms of the protection of persons, the three system earthing arrangements (SEA) are equivalent
if all installation and operating rules are correctly followed. Consequently, selection does not depend
on safety criteria.
Above all, the applicable regulations which in some cases impose certain types of SEA
Secondly, the decision of the owner if supply is via a private MV/LV transformer (MV subscription)
or the owner has a private energy source (or a separate-winding transformer)
If the owner effectively has a choice, the decision on the SEA is taken following discussions with the
network designer (design office, contractor).
First of all, the operating requirements (the required level of continuity of service) and the
operating conditions (maintenance ensured by electrical personnel or not, in-house personnel or
outsourced, etc.)
Secondly, the particular characteristics of the network and the loads (see Fig. E17 ).
Electrical characteristics
Fault current - -- -- + --
Fault voltage - - - + -
Protection
Continuous overvoltage + + + - +
Transient overvoltage + - - + -
Overvoltage if transformer - + + + +
breakdown(primary/secondary)
Electromagnetic compatibility
Continuity of service
Installation
Special devices - + + - -
Maintenance
Cost of repairs - -- -- - --
Installation damage + - - ++ -
Very large network with high-quality earth electrodes for exposed conductive parts (10 Ω max.)
Very large network with low-quality earth electrodes for exposed conductive parts (> 30 Ω) TN
Type of loads
Loads with a low insulation level (electric furnaces,welding machines, heating elements, TN[i]
immersion heaters, equipment in large kitchens)
Installation where the continuity of earth circuits is uncertain (work sites, old installations) TT[s]
[a] When the SEA is not imposed by regulations, it is selected according to the level of operating characteristics
(continuity of service that is mandatory for safety reasons or desired to enhance productivity, etc.). Whatever the
SEA, the probability of an insulation failure increases with the length of the network. It may be a good idea to break
up the network, which facilitates fault location and makes it possible to implement the system advised above for each
type of application.
[b] The risk of flashover on the surge limiter turns the isolated neutral into an earthed neutral. These risks are high for
regions with frequent thunder storms or installations supplied by overhead lines. If the IT system is selected to ensure
a higher level of continuity of service, the system designer must precisely calculate the tripping conditions for a
second fault.
[c] Risk of RCD nuisance tripping.
[d] Whatever the SEA, the ideal solution is to isolate the disturbing section if it can be easily identified.
[e] Risks of phase-to-earth faults affecting equipotentiality.
[f] Insulation is uncertain due to humidity and conducting dust.
[g] The TN system is not advised due to the risk of damage to the generator in the case of an internal fault. What is
more, when generator sets supply safety equipment, the system must not trip for the first fault.
[h] The phase-to-earth current may be several times higher than In, with the risk of damaging or accelerating the
these loads from the rest of the installation (transformers with local neutral connection).
[j] When load equipment quality is not a design priority, there is a risk that the insulation resistance will fall rapidly.
that must be countered. Whatever the SEA, it is advised to supply these circuits using transformers with a local
neutral connection.
[l] Requires the use of transformers with a local TN system to avoid operating risks and nuisance tripping at the first
[m] Excessive limitation of the phase-to-neutral current due to the high value of the zero-phase impedance (at least 4
to 5 times the direct impedance). This system must be replaced by a star-delta arrangement.
[n] The high fault currents make the TN system dangerous. The TN-C system is forbidden.
[o] Whatever the system, the RCD must be set to Δn ≤ 500 mA.
[p] An installation supplied with LV energy must use the TT system. Maintaining this SEA means the least amount of
modifications on the existing network (no cables to be run, no protection devices to be modified).
[q] Possible without highly competent maintenance personnel.
[r] This type of installation requires particular attention in maintaining safety. The absence of preventive measures in
the TN system means highly qualified personnel are required to ensure safety over time.
[s] The risks of breaks in conductors (supply, protection) may cause the loss of equipotentiality for exposed
conductive parts. A TT system or a TN-S system with 30 mA RCDs is advised and is often mandatory. The IT system
Fig. E17: Influence of networks and loads on the selection of system earthing arrangements.
TT system
Technique for the protection of persons: the exposed conductive parts are earthed and residual current
devices (RCDs) are used
Operating technique: interruption for the first insulation fault
Note: If the exposed conductive parts are earthed at a number of points, an RCD must be installed
for each set of circuits connected to a given earth electrode.
Main characteristics
Simplest solution to design and install. Used in installations supplied directly by the public LV
distribution network.
Does not require continuous monitoring during operation (a periodic check on the RCDs may be
necessary).
Protection is ensured by special devices, the residual current devices (RCD), which also prevent
the risk of fire when they are set to ≤ 500 mA.
Each insulation fault results in an interruption in the supply of power, however the outage is limited
to the faulty circuit by installing the RCDs in series (selective RCDs) or in parallel (circuit
selection).
Loads or parts of the installation which, during normal operation, cause high leakage currents,
require special measures to avoid nuisance tripping, i.e. supply the loads with a separation
transformer or use specific RCDs (see TT system - Protective measures).
TN system
Main characteristics
IT system
IT system:
Protection technique:
Interconnection and earthing of exposed conductive parts
Indication of the first fault by an insulation monitoring device (IMD)
Interruption for the second fault using overcurrent protection (circuit-breakers or fuses)
Operating technique:
Monitoring of the first insulation fault
Mandatory location and clearing of the fault
Interruption for two simultaneous insulation faults
Fig. E15: IT system
Main characteristics
he different earthing schemes (often referred to as the type of power system or system earthing arrangements)
described characterise the method of earthing the installation downstream of the secondary winding of a MV/LV
transformer and the means used for earthing the exposed conductive-parts of the LV installation supplied from
it
The choice of these methods governs the measures necessary for protection against indirect-contact
hazards.
The earthing system qualifies three originally independent choices made by the designer of an
electrical distribution system or installation:
The type of connection of the electrical system (that is generally of the neutral conductor) and of
the exposed parts to earth electrod (s)
A separate protective conductor or protective conductor and neutral conductor being a single
conductor
The use of earth fault protection of overcurrent protective switchgear which clear only relatively
high fault currents or the use of additional relays able to detect and clear small insulation fault
currents to earth
In practice, these choices have been grouped and standardised as explained below.
Each of these choices provides standardised earthing systems with three advantages and
drawbacks:
Connection of the exposed conductive parts of the equipment and of the neutral conductor to the
PE conductor results in equipotentiality and lower overvoltages but increases earth fault currents
A separate protective conductor is costly even if it has a small cross-sectional area but it is much
more unlikely to be polluted by voltage drops and harmonics, etc. than a neutral conductor is.
Leakage currents are also avoided in extraneous conductive parts
Installation of residual current protective relays or insulation monitoring devices are much more
sensitive and permits in many circumstances to clear faults before heavy damage occurs (motors,
fires, electrocution). The protection offered is in addition independent with respect to changes in
an existing installation
One point at the supply source is connected directly to earth. All exposed- and extraneous-
conductive-parts are connected to a separate earth electrode at the installation. This electrode may
or may not be electrically independent of the source electrode. The two zones of influence may
overlap without affecting the operation of protective devices.
The source is earthed as for the TT system (above). In the installation, all exposed- and extraneous-
conductive-parts are connected to the neutral conductor. The several versions of TN systems are
shown below.
TN-C system
The neutral conductor is also used as a protective conductor and is referred to as a PEN
(Protective Earth and Neutral) conductor. This system is not permitted for conductors of less than 10
mm2 or for portable equipment.
The TN-C system requires an effective equipotential environment within the installation with
dispersed earth electrodes spaced as regularly as possible since the PEN conductor is both the
neutral conductor and at the same time carries phase unbalance currents as well as 3rd order
harmonic currents (and their multiples).
The PEN conductor must therefore be connected to a number of earth electrodes in the installation.
Caution: In the TN-C system, the “protective conductor” function has priority over the “neutral
function”. In particular, a PEN conductor must always be connected to the earthing terminal of a load
and a jumper is used to connect this terminal to the neutral terminal.
TN-S system
The TN-S system (5 wires) is obligatory for circuits with cross-sectional areas less than 10 mm2 for
portable equipment.
The protective conductor and the neutral conductor are separate. On underground cable systems
where lead-sheathed cables exist, the protective conductor is generally the lead sheath. The use of
separate PE and N conductors (5 wires) is obligatory for circuits with cross-sectional areas less than
10 mm2 for portable equipment.
Fig. E5: TN-S system
TN-C-S system
The TN-C and TN-S systems can be used in the same installation. In the TN-C-S system, the TN-C
(4 wires) system must never be used downstream of the TN-S (5 wires) system, since any accidental
interruption in the neutral on the upstream part would lead to an interruption in the protective
conductor in the downstream part and therefore a danger.
No intentional connection is made between the neutral point of the supply source and earth
(see Fig. E8).
In practice all circuits have a leakage impedance to earth, since no insulation is perfect. In parallel
with this (distributed) resistive leakage path, there is the distributed capacitive current path, the two
paths together constituting the normal leakage impedance to earth (see Fig. E9).
Fig. E9: IT system (isolated neutral)
In a LV 3-phase 3-wire system, 1 km of cable will have a leakage impedance due to C1, C2, C3 and
R1, R2 and R3 equivalent to a neutral earth impedance Zct of 3,000 to 4,000 Ω, without counting the
filtering capacitances of electronic devices.
An impedance Zs (in the order of 1,000 to 2,000 Ω) is connected permanently between the neutral
point of the transformer LV winding and earth (see Fig. E11). All exposed- and extraneous-
conductive-parts are connected to an earth electrode. The reasons for this form of power-source
earthing are to fix the potential of a small network with respect to earth (Zs is small compared to the
leakage impedance) and to reduce the level of overvoltages, such as transmitted surges from the
MV windings, static charges, etc. with respect to earth. It has, however, the effect of slightly
increasing the first-fault current level.
Fig. E11: IT system (impedance-earthed neutral).
Earthing connections.
In a building, the connection of all metal parts of the building and all exposed conductive parts of electrical
equipment to an earth electrode prevents the appearance of dangerously high voltages between any two
simultaneously accessible metal parts
Definitions
National and international standards (IEC 60364) clearly define the various elements of earthing
connections. The following terms are commonly used in industry and in the literature. Bracketed
numbers refer to Figure E1
Fig. E1: An example of a block of flats in which the main earthing terminal (6) provides the main
equipotential connection; the removable link (7) allows an earth-electrode-resistance check
Earth electrode (1): A conductor or group of conductors in intimate contact with, and providing an
electrical connection with Earth (cf details in section 1.6 of Chapter E.)
Earth: The conductive mass of the Earth, whose electric potential at any point is conventionally
taken as zero
Electrically independent earth electrodes: Earth electrodes located at such a distance from one
another that the maximum current likely to flow through one of them does not significantly affect
the potential of the other(s)
Earth electrode resistance: The contact resistance of an earth electrode with the Earth
Earthing conductor (2): A protective conductor connecting the main earthing terminal (6) of an
installation to an earth electrode (1) or to other means of earthing (e.g. TN systems);
Exposed-conductive-part: A conductive part of equipment which can be touched and which is not
a live part, but which may become live under fault conditions
Protective conductor (3): A conductor used for some measures of protection against electric shock
and intended for connecting together any of the following parts:
Exposed-conductive-parts
Extraneous-conductive-parts
The main earthing terminal
Earth electrode(s)
The earthed point of the source or an artificial neutral
Extraneous-conductive-part: A conductive part liable to introduce a potential, generally earth
potential, and not forming part of the electrical installation (4).
For example:
Connections
The bonding is carried out by protective conductors and the aim is to ensure that, in the event of an
incoming extraneous conductor (such as a gas pipe, etc.) being raised to some potential due to a
fault external to the building, no difference of potential can occur between extraneous-conductive-
parts within the installation.
The bonding must be effected as close as possible to the point(s) of entry into the building, and be
connected to the main earthing terminal (6).
The connection is made by protective conductors with the object of providing a low-resistance path
for fault currents flowing to earth.
Components
Effective connection of all accessible metal fixtures and all exposed-conductive-parts of electrical
appliances and equipment, is essential for effective protection against electric shocks.
as exposed-conductive-parts as extraneous-conductive-parts
Metallic covering:
Exposed metal parts of class 1 insulated appliances
Metallic wall covering
Non-electrical elements Building services elements other than electrical
metallic fittings associated with cableways (cable trays, Metal pipes, conduits, trunking, etc. for gas,water and
cable ladders, etc.) heating systems, etc.
Metallised papers
Component parts not to be considered:
as exposed-conductive-parts as extraneous-conductive-parts
Distribution takes place via cableways that carry single insulated conductors or cables and include a
fixing system and mechanical protection.
Fig. E36: Radial distribution using cables in a hotel
Busways, also referred to as busbar trunking systems, stand out for their ease of installation, flexibility and
number of possible connection points
Busbar trunking is intended to distribute power (from 20 A to 5000 A) and lighting (in this application,
the busbar trunking may play a dual role of supplying electrical power and physically holding the
lights).
A busbar trunking system comprises a set of conductors protected by an enclosure (see Fig. E37).
Used for the transmission and distribution of electrical power, busbar trunking systems have all the
necessary features for fitting: connectors, straights, angles, fixings, etc. The tap-off points placed at
regular intervals make power available at every point in the installation.
Fig. E37: Busbar trunking system design for distribution of currents from 25 to 4000 A
Busbar trunking systems are present at every level in electrical distribution: from the link between
the transformer and the low voltage switch switchboard (MLVS) to the distribution of power sockets
and lighting to offices, or power distribution to workshops.
Fig. E38: Radial distribution using busways
Mid-sized premises (industrial workshops with injection presses and metalwork machines or
large supermarkets with heavy loads).
The short-circuit and current levels can be fairly high (respectively 20 to 70 kA and 100 to
1,000 A)
Small sites (workshops with machine-tools, textile factories with small
machines,supermarkets with small loads). The short-circuit and current levels are lower
(respectively 10 to 40 kA and 40 to 400 A)
Sub-distribution using busbar trunking meets user needs in terms of:
Busbar trunking systems are suited to the requirements of a large number of buildings.
Standards
Busbar trunking systems must meet all rules stated in IEC 61439-6.
This defines the manufacturing arrangements to be complied with in the design of busbar trunking
systems (e.g.: temperature rise characteristics, short-circuit withstand, mechanical strength, etc.) as
well as test methods to check them.
The new standard IEC61439-6 describes in particular the design verifications and routine
verifications required to ensure compliance.
By assembling the system components on the site according to the assembly instructions, the
contractor benefits from conformity with the standard.
Flexibility
Simplicity
Design can be carried out independently from the distribution and layout of current consumers.
Performances are independent of implementation: the use of cables requires a lot of derating
coefficients.
Clear distribution layout
Reduction of fitting time: the trunking system allows fitting times to be reduced by up to 50%
compared with a traditional cable installation.
Manufacturer’s guarantee.
Controlled execution times: the trunking system concept guarantees that there are no unexpected
surprises when fitting. The fitting time is clearly known in advance and a quick solution can be
provided to any problems on site with this adaptable and scalable equipment.
Easy to implement: modular components that are easy to handle, simple and quick to connect.
Dependability
Continuity of service
The large number of tap-off points makes it easy to supply power to any new current consumer.
Connecting and disconnecting is quick and can be carried out in complete safety even when
energized. These two operations (adding or modifying) take place without having to stop
operations.
Quick and easy fault location since current consumers are near to the line
Maintenance is non existent or greatly reduced
Busbar trunking systems allow circuits to be combined. Compared with a traditional cable
distribution system, consumption of raw materials for insulators is divided by 4 due to the busbar
trunking distributed network concept (see Fig. E39).
Reusable device and all of its components are fully recyclable.
Does not contain PVC and does not generate toxic gases or waste.
Reduction of risks due to exposure to electromagnetic fields.
Fig. E39: Example of a set of 14 x 25A loads distributed along 34 meters (for busway, Canalis KS
250A)
Busbar trunking systems are getting even better. Among the new features we can mention:
Increased performance with a IP55 protection index and new ratings of 160 A through to 1000 A
(Ks).
New lighting offers with pre-cabled lights and new light ducts.
New fixing accessories. Quick fixing system, cable ducts, shared support with “VDI” (voice, data,
images) circuits.
white color to enhance the working environment, naturally integrated in a range of electrical
distribution products.
conformity with European regulations on reducing hazardous materials (RoHS).
Fig. E43: A busway for medium power distribution: Canalis KN (40 up to 160 A)
Fig. E44: A busway for medium power distribution: Canalis KS (100 up to 1000 A)
Fig. E45: A busway for high power distribution: Canalis KT (800 up to 5000 A).
In buildings all consumers are connected in low voltage. It means that MV distribution consists in:
connection to utility,
distribution to MV/LV substation(s),
MV/LV substation(s) itself.
The design of an electrical distribution architecture can be described by a 3-stage process, with
iterative possibilities. This process is based on taking account of the installation characteristics and
criteria to be satisfied.
Internal MV circuits.
Internal MV circuits are dedicated to the supply of the secondary MV/LV substations dispersed in the
installation. They are three typical principles commonly used for this purpose Fig. D11:
Single feeder
Dual feeder
Open ring.
Comparison of these three typical principles of internal distribution is given Fig. D12.
MV circuit configuration
Layout
Selection guide
As recommended in IEC60364-8-1 §6.3, MV/LV substation location can be determined by using the
barycenter method:
taking into account service conditions: in dedicated premises if the layout in the workshop is too
restrictive (temperature, vibrations, dust, etc.)
Placing heavy equipment (transformers, generators, etc.) close to walls or to main exits for ease of
maintenance.
A layout example is given in the following diagram (Fig. D13):
Fig. D13: The position of the global load barycentre guides the positioning of power sources
In centralized layout, each load is connected directly to the power source. (Fig. D14):
Fig. D14: Example of centralized layout with point to point links
In distributed layout, loads are connected to sources via a busway. This type of distribution is well
adapted to supply many loads that are spread out, where easy change is requested or future new
connection (need of flexibility) (Fig. D15):
Load distribution
Flexibility of design
Operation flexibility
The use of decentralized distribution with busway is a way to merge all the circuits in one: it makes it
possible to take into account the diversity factor (ks), which means cost savings on conductor sizing
(See Fig. D17). The choice between centralized and decentralized solutions, according to the
diversity factor, allows to find an economic optimum between investment costs, installation costs and
operating costs.
No electrical power can be delivered until the generator has reached its rated speed. This type of
device is therefore not suitable for an uninterrupted power supply. Depending, if the generator is
sized to supply power to all or only part of the installation, there is either total or partial redundancy.
A back-up generator runs generally disconnected from the network. A source changeover and an
interlocking system is therefore required (see Fig. D18).
Sensitivity of loads to power interruption (see Voltage Interruption Sensitivity for definition),
Availability of the public distribution network (see Service reliability for the definition),
Other constraints (e.g.: generators compulsory in hospitals or high buildings)
In addition the presence of generators can be decided to reduce the energy bill or due to the
opportunity for co-generation. These two aspects are not taken into account in this guide.
The presence of a back-up generator is essential if the loads cannot be shed (only short interruption
acceptable) or if the utility network availability is low.
Determining the number of back-up generator units is in line with the same criteria as determining
the number of transformers, as well as taking account of economic and availability considerations
(redundancy, start-up reliability, maintenance facility).
Configuration of LV circuits.
This is the reference configuration and the most simple. A load is connected to one single source.
This configuration provides a minimum level of availability, since there is no redundancy in case of
power source failure.
Fig. D21
The power supply is provided by more than 1 transformer generally connected in parallel to the
same main LV switchboard.
Fig. D22
In order to increase the availability it is possible to split the main LV switchboard into 2 parts, with a
normally open bus-coupler (NO). This configuration may require an Automatic Transfer Switch
between the coupler and transformer incomers.
These 2 configurations are more often used when power demand is greater than 1 MVA.
Fig. D22: Normally open coupled transformers
Fig. D23
Transformers are physically distant, and operated in parallel. They are connected by a busway, the
load can always be supplied in the case of failure of one of the sources. The redundancy can be:
LV ring configuration
Fig. D24
As the previous configuration this type of installation is commonly used in automotive industry or
large site manufacturing industry.
Fig. D25
This configuration is implemented in cases where maximum availability is required. The principle
involves having 2 independent power sources, e.g.:
Configuration combinations
Fig. D26
For the different possible configurations, the most probable and usual set of characteristics is given
in the following table:
Characteristic to be Configuration
considered
Brief description
Installation characteristics
Characteristic Category
Activity Mechanical
Site topology single storey building 10000m2 (8000m2 dedicated to the process,
2000m2 for ancillary areas)
Maintainability Standard
HVAC
Process utilities
Possible flexibility:
Power interruptions
sensitivity Sheddable circuits:
social premises
maintenance premises
printing machines
No interruptions acceptable:
High sensitivity:
IT
Other constraints
Building with lightning classification: lightning surge arresters
installed
Technological characteristics
Criteria Category
Criteria Category
Number and distribution of Surface area and power 2 possible solutions: 1 substation or 2 substations
substations distribution
MLVS
Presence of UPS Criticality UPS unit for IT devices and office workstations
Fig. D32: Detailed single-line diagram (1 substation based on fig.D22)
Transformers Service conditions cast resin transfo (avoids constraints related to oil)
Sub-distribution: Prisma
MCB’s.
6, 8, 10, 13, 16, 20, 25, 32, 40, 50, 63, 80, 100 and 125 A.
Permissible I2t (let-through energy) in A2s for circuit-breakers type B with rated current up to and
including 63A.
Permissible I2t (let-through energy) in A2s for circuit-breakers type C with rated current up to and
including 63A.
Cables withstanding capacities.
The code allows the breaking capacity of a circuit-breaker to be less than its associated prospective fault
current when back-up protection is employed in cascading through a suitable upstream protective
devices. Back-up protection consists of an upstream short-circuit protective device (SCPD) that helps a
downstream circuit-breaker to break fault currents greater than its maximum breaking current.
However, where an MCCB, MCB or fuse is the upstream SCPD, and the downstream SCPD is an MCB,
coordination tests can be used to validate that the I2t of the specific combination will not exceed the I2t
value of the downstream MCB at its maximum breaking capacity.
The I 2t of the upstream SCPD “A” and downstream MCB “B” operating together at 20 kA, will be equal
to or less than the I 2t of MCB “B” at 10 kA. The I 2t to be used in the conductor fault current assessment
would be that of MCB “B” at 10 kA.
MCCB’s.
(MCCBs) may have fixed or adjustable protection settings, normally a three position toggle operating
handle giving on-off-tripped indication plus reset function, and a performance level relative to the
incoming supply such that they can be installed at a point close to the supply transformer.
Ratings: 16A to 1600A (may be upto 3200A), with the short circuit withstanding capacities upto 100kA in
selections.
Rated Short-Time Withstand Current.
Circuit-breakers of Selectivity Category B have a short-time delay (STD)
allowing timegraded
selectivity between circuit-breakers in series.
Icw is the fault current the circuit-breaker will withstand for the maximum
short-time
delay time.
Preferred times are: 0.05, 0.1, 0.25, 0.5 and 1.0 second.
IEEE Std 80 is quite descriptive, detailed and easy to follow, so only an overview will be
presented here and IEEE Std 80 should be consulted for further details (although references
will be given herein).
Prerequisites
The following information is required / desirable before starting the calculation:
Resistivity of any surface layers intended to be laid (for touch and step only)
Earthing Grid Conductor Sizing
Determining the minimum size of the earthing grid conductors is necessary to ensure
that the earthing grid will be able to withstand the maximum earth fault current. Like a
normal power cable under fault, the earthing grid conductors experience an adiabatic
short circuit temperature rise. However unlike a fault on a normal cable, where the
limiting temperature is that which would cause permanent damage to the cable's
insulation, the temperature limit for earthing grid conductors is the melting point of the
conductor. In other words, during the worst case earth fault, we don't want the
earthing grid conductors to start melting!
The minimum conductor size capable of withstanding the adiabatic temperature rise
associated with an earth fault is given by re-arranging IEEE Std 80 Equation 37:
is
is the thermal capacity of the conductor per unit volume(Jcm - 3ºC - 1)
Tm = 1084 ºC
αr = 0.00381 ºC - 1
ρr = 1.78 μΩ.cm
As described in IEEE Std 80 Section 11.3.1.1, there are alternative methods to formulate
this equation, all of which can also be derived from first principles).
There are also additional factors that should be considered (e.g. taking into account
future growth in fault levels), as discussed in IEEE Std 80 Section 11.3.3.
Touch voltages - there is a dangerous potential difference between the earth and a
metallic object that a person is touching
Step voltages - there is a dangerous voltage gradient between the feet of a person
standing on earth
The earthing grid can be used to dissipate fault currents to remote earth and reduce the
voltage gradients in the earth. The touch and step potential calculations are performed in
order to assess whether the earthing grid can dissipate the fault currents so that
dangerous touch and step voltages cannot exist.
Step 1: Soil Resistivity
The resistivity properties of the soil where the earthing grid will be laid is an important
factor in determining the earthing grid's resistance with respect to remote earth. Soils
with lower resistivity lead to lower overall grid resistances and potentially smaller
earthing grid configurations can be designed (i.e. that comply with safe step and touch
potentials).
It is good practice to perform soil resistivity tests on the site. There are a few standard
methods for measuring soil resistivity (e.g. Wenner four-pin method). A good discussion
on the interpretation of soil resistivity test measurements is found in IEEE Std 80 Section
13.4.
Sometimes it isn't possible to conduct soil resistivity tests and an estimate must suffice.
When estimating soil resistivity, it goes without saying that one should err on the side of
caution and select a higher resistivity. IEEE Std 80 Table 8 gives some guidance on range
of soil resistivities based on the general characteristics of the soil (i.e. wet organic soil =
10 Ω.m, moist soil = 100 Ω.m, dry soil = 1,000 Ω.m and bedrock = 10,000 Ω.m).
Applying a thin layer (0.08m - 0.15m) of high resistivity material (such as gravel, blue
metal, crushed rock, etc) over the surface of the ground is commonly used to help
protect against dangerous touch and step voltages. This is because the surface layer
material increases the contact resistance between the soil (i.e. earth) and the feet of a
person standing on it, thereby lowering the current flowing through the person in the
event of a fault.
IEEE Std 80 Table 7 gives typical values for surface layer material resistivity in dry and
wet conditions (e.g. 40mm crushed granite = 4,000 Ω.m (dry) and 1,200 Ω.m (wet)).
The effective resistance of a person's feet (with respect to earth) when standing on a
surface layer is not the same as the surface layer resistance because the layer is not
thick enough to have uniform resistivity in all directions. A surface layer derating factor
needs to be applied in order to compute the effective foot resistance (with respect to
earth) in the presence of a finite thickness of surface layer material. This derating factor
can be approximated by an empirical formula as per IEEE Std 80 Equation 27:
This derating factor will be used later in Step 5 when calculating the maximum allowable
touch and step voltages.
Step 3: Earthing Grid Resistance
A good earthing grid has low resistance (with respect to remote earth) to minimise
ground potential rise (GPR) and consequently avoid dangerous touch and step voltages.
Calculating the earthing grid resistance usually goes hand in hand with earthing grid
design - that is, you design the earthing grid to minimise grid resistance. The earthing
grid resistance mainly depends on the area taken up by the earthing grid, the total length
of buried earthing conductors and the number of earthing rods / electrodes.
IEEE Std 80 offers two alternative options for calculating the earthing grid resistance
(with respect to remote earth) - 1) the simplified method (Section 14.2) and 2) the
Schwarz equations (Section 14.3), both of which are outlined briefly below. IEEE Std 80
also includes methods for reducing soil resistivity (in Section 14.5) and a treatment for
concrete-encased earthing electrodes (in Section 14.6).
Simplified Method
IEEE Std 80 Equation 52 gives the simplified method as modified by Sverak to include the
effect of earthing grid depth:
Where is the earthing grid resistance with respect to remote earth (Ω)
Schwarz Equations
The Schwarz equations are a series of equations that are more accurate in modelling the
effect of earthing rods / electrodes. The equations are found in IEEE Std 80 Equations 53,
54, 55(footnote) and 56, as follows:
Where is the earthing grid resistance with respect to remote earth (Ω)
is the mutual earth resistance between the grid conductors and earthing electrodes
(Ω)
And the grid, earthing electrode and mutual earth resistances are:
Where is the soil resistivity (Ω.m)
70kg person:
50kg person:
70kg person:
is the step voltage limit (V)
for grids with earth electrodes along the grid perimeter or corners
and are the maximum length of the grids in the x and y directions (m)
is the maximum distance between any two points on the grid (m)
is the total length of earthing electrodes / rods (m)
is the total length of earthing electrodes / rods (m)
and are the maximum length of the grids in the x and y directions (m)
is the maximum grid current found earlier in Step 4 (A)
is the irregularity factor (as derived above in the mesh voltage calculation)
Redesign the earthing grid to lower the grid resistance (e.g. more grid conductors,
more earthing electrodes, increasing cross-sectional area of conductors, etc). Once
this is done, re-compute the earthing grid resistance (see Step 3) and re-do the touch
and step potential calculations.
Limit the total earth fault current or create alternative earth fault return paths
22 earthing rods will be installed on the corners and perimeter of the grid
V
m
V.
ntroduction
Number of Earthing Electrode and Earthing Resistance depends on the resistivity of
soil and time for fault current to pass through (1 sec or 3 sec). If we divide the area for
earthing required by the area of one earth plate gives the number of earth pits
required.
There is no general rule to calculate the exact number of earth pits and size of
earthing strip, but discharging of leakage current is certainly dependent on the
cross section area of the material so for any equipment the earth strip size is
calculated on the current to be carried by that strip.
First the leakage current to be carried is calculated and then size of the strip is
determined.
For most of the electrical equipment like transformer, diesel generator set etc., the
general concept is to have 4 number of earth pits. 2 no’s for body earthing with 2
separate strips with the pits shorted and 2 nos for Neutral with 2 separate strips with
the pits shorted.
The Size of Neutral Earthing Strip should be capable to carry neutral current of that equipment.
The Size of Body Earthing should be capable to carry half of neutral Current.
For example for 100kVA transformer, the full load current is around 140A.
The strip connected should be capable to carry at least 70A (neutral current) which
means a strip of GI 25x3mm should be enough to carry the current and for body a
strip of 25×3 will do the needful. Normally we consider the strip size that is generally
used as standards.
However a strip with lesser size which can carry a current of 35A can be used for body
earthing. The reason for using 2 earth pits for each body and neutral and then shorting
them is to serve as back up. If one strip gets corroded and cuts the continuity is
broken and the other leakage current flows through the other run thery by completing
the circuit.
Similarly for panels the no of pits should be 2 nos. The size can be decided on the
main incomer circuit breaker.
For example if main incomer to breaker is 400A, then body earthing for panel can have a strip
size of 25×6 mm which can easily carry 100A.
Number of earth pits is decided by considering the total fault current to be dissipated
to the ground in case of fault and the current that can be dissipated by each earth pit.
Normally the density of current for GI strip can be roughly 200 amps per square cam.
Based on the length and dia of the pipe used the number of earthing pits can be
finalized.
The earth resistance of single rod or pipe electrode is calculated as per IS 3040:
R=100xρ/2×3.14xL (loge(4xL/d))
Where:
ρ = Resistivity of soil (Ω meter),
L = Length of electrode (cm),
D = Diameter of electrode (cm)
Example:
Calculate number of CI earthing pipe of 100mm diameter, 3 meter length. System has
fault current 50KA for 1 sec and soil resistivity is 72.44 Ω-Meters.
Example:
Calculate GI strip having width of 12mm , length of 2200 meter buried in ground at
depth of 200mm, soil resistivity is 72.44 Ω-meter.
2 1.0
3 1.66
4 2.15
5 2.54
6 2.87
7 3.15
8 3.39
9 3.61
10 3.8
For electrodes equally spaced around a hollow square, e.g. around the perimeter of a
building, the equations given above are used with a value of λ taken from following
table.
For three rods placed in an equilateral triangle, or in an L formation, a value of λ =
1.66 may be assumed.
Factors for electrodes in a hollow square (BS
7430)
2 2.71
3 4.51
4 5.48
5 6.13
6 6.63
7 7.03
8 7.36
9 7.65
10 7.9
12 8.3
14 8.6
16 8.9
18 9.2
20 9.4
In practice, the effective earth resistance will usually be higher than calculation.
Example:
Calculate Total Earthing Rod Resistance of 200 Number arranges in Parallel having 4
Meter Space of each and if it connects in Hollow Square arrangement. The Earthing
Rod is 4 Meter Long and having 12.2mm Diameter, Soil Resistivity 500 Ω.
1 No of Motor 1
Up to 10 No’s of Motor 0.75
Up to 20 No’s of Motor 0.65
Up to 30 No’s of Motor 0.6
Up to 40 No’s of Motor 0.5
Up to 50 No’s of Motor 0.4
Demand Factor
Text Book of Design of Elect. Installation- Jain
Utility Demand Factor
Demand Factor
Saudi Electricity Company Distribution Standard
Utility Demand Factor
Residential 0.6
Commercial 0.7
Flats 0.7
Hotel 0.75
Mall 0.7
Restaurant 0.7
Office 0.7
School 0.8
Common Area in building 0.8
Public Facility 0.75
Street Light 0.9
Indoor Parking 0.8
Outdoor Parking 0.9
Park / Garden 0.8
Hospital 0.8
Workshops 0.6
Ware House 0.7
Farms 0.9
Fuel Station 0.7
Factories 0.9
Demand Factor
Text Book of Principal of Power System-V.K.Mehta
Utility Demand Factor
Between transformers
1.30 1.30 1.35 1.05
Between feeders
1.15 1.15 1.15 1.05
Between substations
1.10 1.10 1.10 1.10
From users to
transformers 2.00 1.46 1.44
Lighting 90%
Heating and air conditioning 80%
Socket-outlets 70%
Lifts and catering hoist
For the most powerful motor 100%
For the second most powerful motor 75%
For all motors 80%
Diversity Factor
Text Book of Principal of Power System-V.K.Mehta
Area Residence Ltg Commercial Ltg Ind. Ltg
Main-Tie-Main.
Load Configuration.
Both Bus#1 & Bus#2 are supplying normal loads that mean interruption for PT1 or PT2 is accepted for fault located
between M2-PT2 and main supply.
No critical load (instantaneous interruption is not allowed) connected on Bus #1 and Bus #2. It shall be supplied
from UPS.
Load on Bus #1 has a standby load on Bus#2 or vice versa, so if the bus #2 fail, load on bus #1 is operated.
Basic Operation.
This diagram may be useful for our discussion. The basic M1-T-M2 configuration is shown. During normal
operation M1 & M2 breakers are closed and tie breaker T is opened. Supply coming from PT-1 and PT-2.
This drawing indicate when M2 open, T and M1 CBs are closed (abnormal condition). This condition is done for
maintenance purpose for equipment located between M2 to upstream (main source). Load transfer from
bus #2 to bus #1 can be carried out without interruption done by ATS scheme.
If fault located on bus #2 to tie breaker T or bus #1 to tie breaker T, load transfer is prohibited by ATS
scheme. But for fault located from M2 to upstream load transfer is allowed with deenergizing bus #2 loads
first, then tie-breaker T closed by ATS scheme. Loads may be in service after this tranfer, if the loads is set
in auto position.
We cannot maintain the supply on fault bus (e.g. bus #2 or bus #1) before correction is made.
A redundant bus tie or switch isolator acting as maintenance bypass to ATS operation.
Based on discussion above, I do not know, where we have to install those equipment to maintain supply
for fault on respectively bus.
Normally Closed Tie Breaker Operation.
It is possible to operate tie breaker in closed position, but we have to consider a short-circuit level on that
bus. By calculation (Short-circuit study), a fault on bus #1 or bus #2 the magnitude become double. So, we
have to ensure the equipment s.c. rating (buse, breakers, feeder loads, feeder breakers, and etc) meet the
requirements for tie-in in closed position.
Note:
Temporary closing three breakers for maintenance purpose is allowed within 3 cycles to 1 (one) second is
accepted.
Relay application.
1). Bus differential for bus#1 and bus #2 may be applied (we apply on 4.16 kV systems).
2). Directional relay may be applied on incoming breaker M1 & M2 if the NC for tie breaker T is applied.
3). Restrictive earth fault is applied for transformer with low resistance grounding.
4). Please consider to provide better coordination for instantaneous relay between incoming breaker and
load breakers as well as ground fault protection.
5). Syncheck relay is required for synchronising bus # & bus #2 before closing tie breaker T. We provide
permissive closed for ATS schecme. ATS can only be operated if the upstream system is in synchronising
condition (Generating buses are in remote but located closed to each other).
Conclusions.
1). We cannot maintain load on bus faulted before repairing is made.
2). I do not know the location for instaling redudant bus tie breaker or isolator to prevent faulted bus total
failure.
3). Comprehensive study shall be caried out to operate tie breaker in NC. Especially in selecting electrical
equipment and relay coordination.
4). Pay more attention on safety aspect in establishing the ATS scheme.
http://www.sayedsaad.com/substation/index_SF6circuitbreaker.html.
This article discusses the design issues in implementation that must be considered by
the designer.
This power must be dropped down to a lower voltage level for the controls and DC
power supplies. 110Vac is common in North America, and 220 V AC Is common in
Europe and the Commonwealth countries. It is also common for a control cabinet to
supply a higher voltage to other equipment, such as motors.
Motor controller example
An example of a wiring diagram for a motor controller is shown in Figure 1. Note
that symbols are discussed in detail later).
Dashed lines indicate a single purchased component. This system uses 3 phase AC
power (L1, L2 and L3) connected to the terminals. The three phases are then
connected to a power interrupter. Next, all three phases are supplied to a motor starter
that contains three contacts, M, and three thermal overload relays (breakers).
Figure 1 – A Motor Controller Schematic
The contacts, M, will be controlled by the coil, M. The output of the motor starter goes
to a three phase AC motor. Power is supplied by connecting a step down
transformer to the control electronics by connecting to phases L2 and L3. The lower
voltage is then used to supply power to the left and right rails of the ladder below. The
neutral rail is also grounded.
The diagram also shows numbering for the wires in the device. This is essential for
industrial control systems that may contain hundreds or thousands of wires. These
numbering schemes are often particular to each facility, but there are tools to help
make wire labels that will appear in the final controls cabinet.
Figure 2 – A Physical
Layout for the Control Cabinet
Once the electrical design is complete, a layout for the controls cabinet is developed, as
shown in Figure 2. The physical dimensions of the devices must be considered,
and adequate space is needed to run wires between components.
In the cabinet the AC power would enter at the terminal block, and be connected to the main
breaker.
It would then be connected to the contactors and overload relays that constitute the
motor starter. Two of the phases are also connected to the transformer to power the
logic. The start and stop buttons are at the left of the box (note: normally these are
mounted elsewhere, and a separate layout drawing would be needed).
The final layout in the cabinet might look like the one shown in Figure 1.
Figure 3 – Final PLC Panel Wiring
When being built the system will follow certain standards that may be company policy,
or legal requirements. This often includes items such as;
Hold downs – the will secure the wire so they don’t move
Labels – wire labels help troubleshooting
Strain reliefs – these will hold the wire so that it will not be pulled out of screw
terminals
Grounding – grounding wires may be needed on each metal piece for safety
A photograph of an industrial controls cabinet is shown in Figure 4:
Figure 4 –
An industrial control cabinet with wire runs, terminal strip, buttons on PLC panel front, etc.
When including a PLC in the ladder diagram still remains. But, it does tend to become
more complex. Figure 5 below shows a schematic diagram for a PLC based motor
control system, similar to the previous motor control example.
This figure shows the E-stop wired to cutoff power to all of the devices in the circuit,
including the PLC. All critical safety functions should be hardwired this way.
Figure 5 – An Electrical Schematic with a PLC.
The voltage drops interfere with the test voltage and thereby disturb the measurement.
Internal test voltage (approx. 40V, AC, <15 mA) is used, as there is no mains voltage
between neutral and protection conductors.
Important advantage of this measurement against Fault Loop test (L–PE) is, that the RCD
does definitly not trip during the measurement, this is due to the low test current.
Used test instrument Eurotest 61557 uses special (patented) measurement principle
to filter the test signal and therefore assures correct measurement results.
Result = Ut / It = RN-PE
Where:
The test result in this case is quite low (maximum a couple of ohms), showing that
a TN-system is involved.
Figure 2
– Resistance measurement between neutral and protection conductor in TN-system
Result 1 = RN + RPE
Result 2 = Ipsc = 230V × 1,06 / (RN + RPE)
Where:
The test result in this case is quite high (in excess of ten ohms), showing that a TT-
system is involved.
Figure 3 –
Resistance measurement between the neutral and the protection conductor in a TT-system
Result 1 = RN + RPE + RE + RO
Result 2 = Ipsc = 230V × 1,06 / (RN + RPE + RE + RO)
As it could be presumed, that resistance R E is much higher than the sum of all
other resistances, the following can be noted:
Result 1 ≈ RE
Result 2 = Ipsc = 230V × 1,06 / RE
Where:
Attention! – A high test result in itself is not sufficient evidence that an IT-system is involved
(it could be just an interrupted protection conductor in a TN or TT-system).
For non-linear (or distorting) loads, the quadratic sum of the fundamental current and the
harmonic currents must be calculated in order to obtain the actual rms current.
Let’s break the calculation of the power into few parts, so we can easily follow:
But beware, very few loads are totally resistive. Incandescent lighting is losing ground to
solutions that offer higher performance levels, but which are on the other hand less “pure”
from an electrical viewpoint.
The current consumed (Ia) is given by the following formulae. For single-phase:
Where:
The displacement factors are cosφ 1 = 0.92 for M1 and cosφ2 = 0.72 for M2 the efficiencies are
η1 = 0.91 and η2 = 0.93 respectively.
The reactive power can in this case be calculated by determining the value of tanφ
from cosφ. the relationship with the tangent is given by the formula:
Calculation of the reactive power:
Calculation of the total current consumption for M1, M2, M1 + M2 and the
corresponding power factor:
The active power (in W) and the reactive power (in VAr) can be added together algebraically,
while the apparent power and currents can only be added together geometrically.
Active power circuits which corresponds (to the nearest efficiency) to the energy
supplied,
Reactive power so that the compensation devices (capacitors) can be sized,
Apparent power so that the power of the source can be determined and
Current consumed so that the trunking and protection devices can be calculated.
M1 M2 M1 + M2 (Total t)
The THDi (Total Harmonic Distortion) expresses the ratio between the share of all the
harmonic currents and the total current as a percentage.
I1 being the rms value of the fundamental and in In the rms value of the nth order
harmonic. The principle is to apply a current reduction factor that can be calculated
based on the THDi.
For a permissible THDi value of 33%, the current must thus in theory be reduced in
each phase by a factor K:
If the factor is not applied, the current will then be increased by:
This remains acceptable and explains why the standard does not recommend any
derating or oversizing of cross-sections up to 33% THDi.
Above 33%. the standard recommends an increase in the current IB which results in
necessary oversizing of the neutral conductor.
Reduction of the current or oversizing of multi-core cables may also be necessary for
the phase conductors. It should be noted that the standard recommends a
reduction factor of 0.84. which in fact corresponds to a pessimistic THDi of 65%.
Related to the neutral conductor, it is considered that if all the harmonics are 3rd order
and its multiples, they will be added together and the current due to the harmonics in
the neutral will then be IN = 3 × Iph, which can be expressed using an equivalent
notation, THDn = 3 THDi.
Devices whose load is said to be non-linear do not consume a current that is a reflection
of the voltage applied. This leads to unnecessary power consumption: the distorting power
that generates an additional current, the consequences of which must not be overlooked.
But this current is never expressed directly because it involves a fairly complex
mathematical calculation, the fourier transform, to ascertain its relative overall part (THDi:
total harmonic distortion) or the value order by order: ih 2, ih3, ih4, ih5,..ihn.
With no precise measurements, it is difficult to know exactly the current level that
corresponds to each harmonic order. It is therefore preferable to simply increase the
cross-section of the neutral conductor as a precaution, since it is known that the main
3rd order harmonics and their multiples are added together in the neutral. and to adapt
the protection of this conductor.
Standard IEC 60364 indicates the increasing factors to be applied to the cross-section
The current reduction factor K N or rather its inverse which will be used to oversize
the neutral conductor will then be:
With a total 3rd order harmonic distortion of 65%, the current of the phase
conductors must be increased by 119% and that in the neutral conductor by 163%.
If the THDi were to reach 100%, 1/KN would theoretically reach 2.12. This value
would be impossible to reach as it would mean that the harmonic had totally replaced
the fundamental.
The theoretical overcurrent limit for the neutral in relation to the phases is:
These calculations demonstrate that the harmonic currents above all must not be ignored both
in terms of “hidden” power consumption and in terms of sizing the conductors which may
be overloaded. The relative complexity of the calculations leads to the use of generic derating
values which normally cover most cases, just as software is used elsewhere.
Go back to currents and power calculations ↑
This requires a minimum cross-section of 70 mm2 per phase. The neutral conductor
must be sized to withstand a current of 1.45 × 170 A = 247 A, i.e. a cross-section
of 95 mm2.
A circuit breaker must therefore be chosen that is capable of withstanding the current
that may cross the neutral:
The measured current consumed Ia is 0.07 A. As cosφ and the power factor are
different, it is not possible to calculate the value of the tanφ or that of the reactive
power Q (VAR) for the receiver in question.
The measured cosφ and power Q which would be calculated can only be calculated for the
reactive power part connected with the sinusoidal component of the signal, in fact the current
of the fundamental at 50Hz: 0.045 A measured in this case.
The powers relative to this linear and sinusoidal part of the load can be calculated as
follows
It can also be seen that the sinusoidal active power of the device 8.7 W is very similar
to the measured total active power 9 W. It can therefore be deduced that a large part
of power S (16 – 10.3 = 5.7 VA) is consumed without producing any active power. The
fluorescent luminaire and electronic ballast in the example consumes unproductive
power in the form of harmonic currents.
The total harmonic distortion is easy to calculate and represents expressed as a rate.
The spectral decomposition of the signal carried out on this luminaire shows that
the main harmonic is 3rd order (34 mA) but that all the following odd-order
harmonics are present and decaying. The main purpose of the above example is to
demonstrate that active power information (in W) only for a non-linear receiver is very
inadequate.
The cosφ has no real relevance or meaning as it is only applicable to the fundamental
signal. Only the apparent power and power factor (PF or ?\.,) information can really quantify
and qualify the power that must be supplied by the source.
Many modern devices (light bulbs, computer equipment, domestic appliances and
electronic equipment) have this particular feature of consuming non-linear currents.
For domestic use, where only the power in W is billed (sic), the power savings shown
for these products is attractive. In practice, the currents consumed are higher than it
seems and the energy distributor is supplying wasted energy.
non-linear loads thus becomes meaningful and useful here, but also at the design
Important: Unlike linear loads (page 29), for non-linear loads the active powers (in W)
can be added together algebraically, the apparent powers must only be added
together geometrically, and likewise the currents which must be the same order.
The reactive powers Q must not be added together except to as certain the relative
part of the power associated with the sinusoidal fundamental signal and the part
connected with the harmonic signals.
Suppose we have
connected on protection CT of ratio 200/1 A and current setting is 150%.
Hence, pick up current of the relay is, 1 × 150 % = 1.5 A Now, suppose
fault current in the CT primary is 1000 A. Hence, fault current in the CT
secondary i.e. in the relay coil is, 1000 × 1/200 = 5A Therefore PSM of the
relay is, 5 / 1.5 =3.33
Time Setting Multiplier of Relay
The operating time of an electrical relay mainly depends upon two factors :
1. How long distance to be traveled by the moving parts of the relay for closing
relay contacts and
2. How fast the moving parts of the relay cover this distance.
So far adjusting relay operating time, both of the factors to be adjusted. The
adjustment of travelling distance of an electromechanical relay is commonly
known as time setting. This adjustment is commonly known as time setting
multiplier of relay. The time setting dial is calibrated from 0 to 1 in steps
0.05 sec. But by adjusting only time setting multiplier, we can not set the
actual time of operation of an electrical relay. As we already said, the time of
operation also depends upon the speed of operation. The speed of moving
parts of relay depends upon the force due to current in the relay coil. Hence,
it is clear that, speed of operation of an electrical relay depends upon the
level of fault current. In other words, time of operation of relay depends
upon plug setting multiplier. The relation between time of operation and plug
setting multiplier is plotted on a graph paper and this is known as time /
PSM graph. From this graph one can determine, the total time taken by the
moving parts of an electromechanical relay, to complete its total travelling
distance for different PSM. In time setting multiplier, this total travelling
distance is divided and calibrated from 0 to 1 in steps of 0.05. So when time
setting is 0.1, the moving parts of the relay has to travel only 0.1 times of
the total travelling distance, to close the contact of the relay. So, if we get
total operating time of the relay for a particular PSM from time / PSM graph
and if we multiply that time with the time setting multiplier, we will get,
actual time of operation of relay for said PSM and TSM. For getting clear
idea, let us have a practical example. Say a relay has time setting 0.1 and
you have to calculate actual time of operation for PSM 10. From time / PSM
graph of the relay as shown below, we can see the total operating time of
the relay is 3 seconds. That means, the moving parts of the relay take total
3 seconds to travel 100 % travelling distance. As the time setting multiplier
is 0.1 here, actually the moving parts of the relay have to travel only 0.1 ×
100% or 10% of the total travel distance, to close the relay contacts. Hence,
actual operating time of the relay is 3 × 0.1 = 0.3 sec. i.e. 10% of 3 sec.
Time vs PSM Curve of Relay
This is relation curve between operating time and plug setting multiplier of
an electrical relay. The x-axis or horizontal axis of the Time / PSM graph
represents, PSM and Y-axis or vertical axis represents time of operation of
the relay. The time of operation represents in this graph is that, which
required to operate the relay when time setting multiplier set at 1. From the
Time / PSM curve of a typical relay shown below, it is seen that, if PSM is 10,
the time of operation of relay is 3 sec. That means, the relay will take 3
seconds to complete its operation, with time setting 1. It is also seen from
the curve that, for lower value of plug setting multiplier, i.e. for lower value
of fault current, the time of operation of the relay is inversely proportional to
the fault current. But when PSM becomes more than 20, the operating time
of relay becomes almost constant. This feature is necessary in order to
ensure discrimination on very heavy fault current flowing through sound
feeders.
Calculation of Relay Operation Time
For calculating actual relay operating time, we need to know these following
operation.
1. Current setting.
2. Fault current level.
3. Ratio of current transformer.
4. Time / PSM curve.
5. Time setting.
Step-1 From CT ratio, we first see the rated secondary current of CT. Say
the CT ratio is 100 / 1 A, i.e. secondary current of CT is 1 A. Step-2 From
current setting we calculate the trick current of the relay. Say current setting
of the relay is 150 % therefore pick up current of the relay is 1 × 150% =
1.5 A. Step-3 Now we have to calculate PSM for the specified faulty current
level. For that, we have to first divide primary faulty current by CT ratio to
get relay faulty current. Say the faulty current level is 1500 A, in the CT
primary, hence secondary equivalent of faulty current is 1500/(100/1) = 15
Modern digital motor protection relays are having some extra features, i.e.
protection against no load running of a motor and thermal protection. In
case of no load running, the relay senses the motor current. If it is less than
the specified value then it will trip the motor. We can also connect the
temperature probe to the relay, which will monitor the bearing and winding
temperature and trip the motor if it exceeds the specified value.
Feeder Protection Relays.
Distance Protection Relay
One of the important protections in Power System Protection is Feeder
Protection. Different types of relays were used for feeder protection
like electromagnetic type relays, static type relays etc. But now a day we are
using Numerical relays for all protections. The benefits of Numerical relays
are,
1. Accurate tripping,
2. Less tolerance,
3. Fault events and counter storage
4. Display of fault parameters on screen
(Fault parameters means current, voltage, resistance and reactance values
during fault and fault distance, Numerical relays can store thousands of
tripping events). The main inputs needed for distance protection
is Voltage and Current from corresponding feeder PT and CT.
According to site condition we will set certain impedance values in relay
settings (i.e., R and X values) for fault detection. Relay will monitor Current &
Voltage in the feeder line (PT and CT secondary), and from these values, the
relay will calculate Impedance value Z. i.e., Z=V/I. In normal load condition
the impedance values on line will be high. But when fault comes on the feeder
line, the impedance will decrease and becomes less than the impedance
setting in the relay, then the distance relay will trip with in 40 ms in zone 1
(different zones are there and that will be explained later) and isolate power
equipments from fault. I.e., during fault, relay will trip and shows the fault
parameters like fault current, voltage, reactance, resistance and fault distance
on relay screen. Suppose if the fault is on 25km, then relay will show Fault
Distance (FD) = 25km, and thus it becomes easy to identify the location where
there is fault. For Distance protection now a day Quadrilateral characteristics
is used. We already discussed that for fault identification we have to set
different parameters in relay. i.e.,
1. Forward and Backward Resistance (RF, RB),
2. Forward and backward Reactance (XF, XB),
3. RCA (Relay Characteristics Angle) and
4. Line Impedance per km.
These parameters are used for making Quadrilateral characteristics. Suppose
if RCA=70° and we are using parallelogram characteristics (Quadrilateral),
we can plot the graph by setting Forward Resistance (RF) value in positive X
axis, Backward Resistance (RB) in negative X axis, Forward Reactance (XF)
value in positive Y axis, and Backward Reactance (XB) in negative Y axis.
And plot parallelogram with a slope of RCA angle. Thus we will get a
parallelogram graph and the protection zone is inside the parallelogram.
Means during fault the impedance will reach inside the parallelogram then the
relay will trip. In graph there are 4 quadrants of operation
1. First quadrant (R and X values + ve) If the load is inductive and the
fault is in forward direction from Relay, then the relay will trip in this
quadrant values.
2. Second quadrant (R – ve and X + ve) If the load is capacitive and the
fault is in reverse direction from Relay, then the relay will trip in this
quadrant values.
3. Third quadrant (R – ve and X - ve) If the load is inductive and the fault
is in reverse direction from Relay, then the relay will trip in this quadrant
values.
4. Fourth quadrant (R + ve and X - ve) If the load is capacitive and the
fault is in forward direction from Relay, then the relay will trip in this
quadrant values.
Different Zones of operation, fault distance calculation and other feeder
protection relays etc. will be explained in next article... Remark: A model of
quadrilateral characteristics is shown below….
Types of Electrical Protection Relays or Protective Relays.
Definition of Protective Relay
A relay is automatic device which senses an abnormal condition of electrical
circuit and closes its contacts. These contacts in turns close and complete
the circuit breaker trip coil circuit hence make the circuit breaker tripped for
disconnecting the faulty portion of the electrical circuit from rest of the
healthy circuit. Now let’s have a discussion on some terms related to
protective relay. Pickup Level of Actuating Signal: The value of actuating
quantity (voltage or current) which is on threshold above which the relay
initiates to be operated. If the value of actuating quantity is increased, the
electromagnetic effect of the relay coil is increased and above a certain level
of actuating quantity the moving mechanism of the relay just starts to move.
Reset Level: The value of current or voltage below which a relay opens its
contacts and comes in original position. Operating Time of Relay: Just after
exceeding pickup level of actuating quantity the moving mechanism (for
example rotating disc) of relay starts moving and it ultimately close the relay
contacts at the end of its journey. The time which elapses between the instant
when actuating quantity exceeds the pickup value to the instant when the
relay contacts close. Reset Time of Relay: The time which elapses between
the instant when the actuating quantity becomes less than the reset value to
the instant when the relay contacts returns to its normal position. Reach of
Relay: A distance relay operates whenever the distance seen by the relay is
less than the pre-specified impedance. The actuating impedance in the relay
is the function of distance in a distance protection relay. This impedance or
corresponding distance is called reach of the relay. Power system protection
relays can be categorized into different types of relays.
Types of Relays
Types of protection relays are mainly based on their characteristic, logic, on
actuating parameter and operation mechanism. Based on operation
mechanism protection relay can be categorized as electromagnetic relay,
static relay and mechanical relay. Actually relay is nothing but a combination
of one or more open or closed contacts. These all or some specific contacts
the relay change their state when actuating parameters are applied to the
relay. That means open contacts become closed and closed contacts become
open. In electromagnetic relay these closing and opening of relay contacts
are done by electromagnetic action of a solenoid. In mechanical relay these
closing and opening of relay contacts are done by mechanical displacement
of different gear level system. In static relay it is mainly done
by semiconductor switches like thyristor. In digital relay on and off state can
be referred as 1 and 0 state. Based on Characteristic the protection relay
can be categorized as-
1. Definite time relays
2. Inverse time relays with definite minimum time(IDMT)
3. Instantaneous relays.
4. IDMT with inst.
5. Stepped characteristic.
6. Programmed switches.
7. Voltage restraint over current relay.
Based on of logic the protection relay can be categorized as-
1. Differential.
2. Unbalance.
3. Neutral displacement.
4. Directional.
5. Restricted earth fault.
6. Over fluxing.
7. Distance schemes.
8. Bus bar protection.
9. Reverse power relays.
10. Loss of excitation.
11. Negative phase sequence relays etc.
Based on actuating parameter the protection relay can be categorized as-
1. Current relays.
2. Voltage relays.
3. Frequency relays.
4. Power relays etc.
Based on application the protection relay can be categorized as-
1. Primary relay.
2. Backup relay.
Primary relay or primary protection relay is the first line of power system
protection whereas backup relay is operated only when primary relay fails to
be operated during fault. Hence backup relay is slower in action than
primary relay. Any relay may fail to be operated due to any of the following
reasons,
1. The protective relay itself is defective.
2. DC Trip voltage supply to the relay is unavailable.
3. Trip lead from relay panel to circuit breaker is disconnected.
4. Trip coil in the circuit breaker is disconnected or defective.
5. Current or voltage signals from CT or PT respectively is unavailable.
As because backup relay operates only when primary relay fails, backup
protection relay should not have anything common with primary protection
relay. Some examples of Mechanical Relay are-
1. Thermal
o OT trip (Oil Temperature Trip)
o WT trip (Winding Temperature Trip)
o Bearing temp trip etc.
2. Float type
o Buchholz
o OSR
o PRV
o Water level Controls etc.
3. Pressure switches.
4. Mechanical interlocks.
5. Pole discrepancy relay.
List Different Protective Relays are used for Different Power System
Equipment Protection
Now let’s have a look on which different protective relays are used in
different power system equipment protection schemes.
Relays for Transmission & Distribution Lines Protection
Lines to be
SL Relays to be used
protected
Differential
Relay or
Overall
differential
Relay
Overflux
3 nos Non-Directional
Relay
O/L Relay
11/132 KV Buchholz
1 no Non-Directional
1 Generator -- Relay
E/L Relay
Transformer OLTC
and/or standby E/F +
Buchholz
REF Relay
Relay
PRV Relay
OT Trip
Relay
WT Trip
Relay
Differential
Relay or
13.8/220 KV 3 nos Non-Directional Overall
15.75/220 KV O/L Relay differential
18/400 KV 1 no Non-Directional Relay
2 -- Overflux
21/400 KV E/L Relay
Generator and/or standby E/F + Relay
Transformer REF Relay Buchholz
Relay
OLTC
Buchholz
Relay
PRV Relay
OT Trip
Relay
WT Trip
Relay
Differential
Relay
Overflux
Relay
3 nos Non-Directional Buchholz
O/L Relay Relay
220 /6.6KV 3 nos Non-
1 no Non-Directional OLTC
3 Station Directional O/L
E/L Relay Buchholz
Transformer Relay
and/or standby E/F + Relay
REF Relay PRV Relay
OT Trip
Relay
WT Trip
Relay
Differential
Relay
Overflux
Relay
Buchholz
Relay
3 nos Non-
Gen-volt/6.6KV 3 nos Non-Directional OLTC
4 Directional O/L
UAT O/L Relay Buchholz
Relay
Relay
PRV Relay
OT Trip
Relay
WT Trip
Relay
Differential
Relay
Buchholz
Relay
OLTC
132/33/11KV 3 nos O/L Relay
3 nos O/L Relay Buchholz
6 above 8 MVA & 1 no Directional E/L
1 no E/L Relay Relay
below 31.5 MVA Relay
PRV Relay
OT Trip
Relay
WT Trip
Relay
Differential
Relay
Overflux
Relay
Buchholz
Relay
3 nos O/L Relay
132/33KV, 31.5 3 nos O/L Relay OLTC
7 1 no Directional E/L
MVA & above 1 no E/L Relay Buchholz
Relay
Relay
PRV Relay
OT Trip
Relay
WT Trip
Relay
Differential
Relay
Overflux
Relay
Buchholz
220/33 KV,
Relay
31.5MVA & 3 nos O/L Relay 3 nos O/L Relay
OLTC
8 50MVA 1 no Directional E/L 1 no Directional E/L
Buchholz
220/132KV, 100 Relay Relay
Relay
MVA
PRV Relay
OT Trip
Relay
WT Trip
Relay
Differential
Relay
Overflux
Relay
Buchholz
3 nos Directional O/L
Relay
Relay 3 nos Directional
OLTC
(with dir.highset) O/L Relay
Buchholz
400/220KV 1 no Directional E/L (with dir.highset)
9 Relay
315MVA relay. 1 no Directional E/L
PRV Relay
Restricted E/F relay relay.
OT Trip
3 nos Directional O/L Restricted E/F relay
Relay
Relay for action
WT Trip
Relay
Over Load
(Alarm)
Relay
In the figure above, the applied voltage to the primary is V1 and voltage
across the primary winding is E1. Total current supplied to primary is I1. So
the voltage V1 applied to the primary is partly dropped by I1Z1 or I1R1 +
j.I1X1 before it appears across primary winding. The voltage appeared across
winding is countered by primary induced emf E1. So voltage equation of this
portion of the transformer can be written as,
The equivalent circuit for that equation can be drawn as below,
Now if we
see the voltage drop in secondary from primary side, then it would be ′K′
times greater and would be written as K.Z2.I2. Again I2′.N1 = I2.N2
Therefore,
Again in the case of secondary, the voltage induced across the secondary
winding, E2 does not totally appear across the load since it also drops by an
amount I2R2, where R2 is the secondary winding resistance and I2 is
secondary current or load current. Similarly, voltage equation of the
secondary side of the transformer will be
Theory of Transformer On Load, With Resistance As Well As Leakage
Reactance in Transformer Windings
Now we will consider the condition, when there is leakage reactance of
transformer as well as winding resistance of transformer.
In the
figure above, when START push is closed, the starter coil is energized
through the transformer. As the starter coil is energized, normally open (NO)
contacts 5 are closed hence motor gets supply voltage at its terminal and it
starts rotating. This start coil also closes contact 4 which makes the starter
coil energized even the START push button contact is released from its close
position. To stop the motor there are several normally closed (NC) contacts
in series with the starter coil as shown in the figure. One of them is STOP
push button contact. If the STOP push button is pressed, this button contact
opens and breaks the continuity of the starter coil circuit consequently
makes the starter coil de-energized. Hence the contact 5 and 4 come back to
their normally open position. Then, in absence of voltage at motor terminals
it will ultimately stop running. Similarly any of the other NC contacts (1, 2 &
3) connected in series with starter coil if open; it will also stop the motor.
These NC contacts are electrically coupled with various protection relays to
stop operation of the motor in different abnormal conditions. Let’s look at
the thermal over load relay and its function in motor thermal overload
protection. The secondary of the CTs in series with motor supply circuit, are
connected with a bimetallic strip of the thermal over load relay (49). As
shown in the figure below, when current through the secondary of any of the
CTs, crosses it’s predetermined values for a predetermined time, the bi-
metallic strip is over heated and it deforms which ultimately causes to
operate the relay 49. As soon as the relay 49 is operated, the NC contacts 1
and 2 are opened which de-energizes the starter coil and hence stop the
motor.
Another thing we have to remember during providing motor thermal
overload protection. Actually every motor does have some predetermined
overload tolerance value. That means every motor may run beyond its rated
load for a specific allowable period depending on its loading condition. How
long a motor can run safely for a particular load is specified by the
manufacturer. The relation between different loads on motor and
corresponding allowable periods for running the same in safe condition is
referred as thermal limit curve of the motor. Let’s look at the curve of a
particular motor, given below.
Here Y axis or
vertical axis represents the allowable time in seconds and X axis or
horizontal axis represents percentage of overload. Here it is clear from the
curve that, motor can run safely without any damage due to overheating for
prolonged period at 100 % of the rated load. It can run safely 1000 seconds
at 200 % of normal rated load. It can run safely 100 seconds at 300 % of
normal rated load. It can run safely 15 seconds at 600 % of normal rated
load. The upper portion of the curve represents the normal running condition
of the rotor and the lower most portion represents the mechanical locked
condition of the rotor. Now the operating time Vs actuating current curve of
the chosen thermal over load relay should be situated below the thermal
limit curve of the motor for satisfactory and safe operation. Let’s have a
discussion on more details-
Remember the
characteristics of starting current of the motor – During start up of the
induction motor, the stator current goes beyond 600 % of normal rated
current but it stays up to 10 to 12 seconds after that stator current suddenly
falls to normal rated value. So if the thermal overload relay is operated
before that 10 to 12 seconds for the current 600 % of normal rated then the
motor cannot be started. Hence, it can be concluded that the operating time
Vs actuating current curve of the chosen thermal over load relay should be
situated below the thermal limit curve of the motor but above the starting
current characteristics curve of the motor. Probable position of the thermal
current relay characteristics is bounded by these two said curves as shown
in the graph by highlighted area.
Another thing has to be remembered during choosing of thermal overload
relay. This relay is not an instantaneous relay. It has a minimum delay in
operation as the bimetallic strip required a minimum time to be heated up and
deformed for maximum value of operating current. From the graph it is found
that the thermal relay will be operated after 25 to 30 seconds if either the
rotor is suddenly mechanically blocked or motor is fail to start. At this situation
the motor will draw a huge current from the supply. If the motor is not isolated
sooner, severer damage may occur.
This
problem is overcome by providing time over current relay with high pickup.
The time current characteristics of these over current relays are so chosen
that for lower value of over load, the relay will not operate since thermal
overload relay will be actuated before it. But for higher value of overload and
for blocked rotor condition time over load relay will be operated instead of
thermal relay because former will actuate much before the latter. Hence both
the bimetallic over load relay and time over current relay are provided for
complete motor thermal overload protection. There is one main disadvantage
of bimetallic thermal over load relay, as the rate of heating and cooling of bi-
metal is affected by ambient temperature, the performance of the relay may
differ for different ambient temperatures. This problem can be overcome by
using RTD or resistance temperature detector. The bigger and more
sophisticated motors are protected against thermal over load more accurately
by using RTD. In stator slots, RTDs are placed along with stator winding.
Resistance of the RTD changes with changing temperature and this changed
resistive value is sensed by a Wheatstone bridge circuit. This motor thermal
overload protection scheme is very simple. RTD of stator is used as one arm
of balanced Wheatstone bridge. The amount of current through the relay 49
depends upon the degree of unbalancing of the bridge. As the temperature of
the stator winding is increased, the electrical resistance of the detector
increases which disturbs the balanced condition of the bridge. As a result
current start flowing through the relay 49 and the relay will be actuated after
a predetermined value of this unbalanced current and ultimately starter
contact will open to stop the supply to the motor.
4% 2
5% 3
6% 4
7 % and over 5
The general winding faults in transformer are either earth faults or inter-
turns faults. Phase to phase winding faults in a transformer is rare. The
phase faults in an electrical transformer may be occurred due to bushing
flash over and faults in tap changer equipment. Whatever may be the faults,
the transformer must be isolated instantly during fault otherwise major
breakdown may occur in the electrical power system. Incipient faults are
internal faults which constitute no immediate hazard. But it these faults are
over looked and not taken care of, these may lead to major faults. The faults
in this group are mainly inter-lamination short circuit due to insulation failure
between core lamination, lowering the oil level due to oil leakage, blockage
of oil flow paths. All these faults lead to overheating. So transformer
protection scheme is required for incipient transformer faults also. The earth
fault, very nearer to neutral point of transformer star winding may also be
considered as an incipient fault. Influence of winding connections and
earthing on earth fault current magnitude. There are mainly two conditions
for earth fault current to flow during winding to earth faults,
1. A current exists for the current to flow into and out of the winding.
2. Ampere-turns balance is maintained between the windings.
The value of winding earth fault current depends upon position of the fault on
the winding, method of winding connection and method of earthing. The star
point of the windings may be earthed either solidly or via a resistor. On delta
side of the transformer the system is earthed through an earthing
transformer. Grounding or earthing transformer provides low impedance path
to the zero sequence current and high impedance to the positive and negative
sequence currents.
Star Winding with Neutral Resistance Earthed
In this case the neutral point of the transformer is earthed via a resistor and
the value of impedance of it, is much higher than that of winding impedance
of the transformer. That means the value of transformer winding impedance
is negligible compared to impedance of earthing resistor. The value of earth
current is, therefore, proportional to the position of the fault in the winding.
As the fault current in the primary winding of the transformer is proportional
to the ratio of the short circuited secondary turns to the total turns on the
primary winding, the primary fault current will be proportional to the square
of the percentage of winding short circuited. The variation of fault current
both in the primary and secondary winding is shown below.
Star Winding with Neutral Solidly Earthed
In this case the earth fault current magnitude is limited solely by the winding
impedance and the fault is no longer proportional to the position of the fault.
The reason for this non linearity is unbalanced flux linkage.
Protection of Lines or Feeder.
As the length of electrical power transmission line is generally long enough
and it runs through open atmosphere, the probability of occurring fault in
electrical power transmission line is much higher than that of electrical
power transformers and alternators. That is why a transmission line requires
much more protective schemes than a transformer and an
alternator.Protection of line should have some special features, such as-
1. During fault, the only circuit breaker closest to the fault point should be
tripped.
2. If the circuit breaker closest the faulty point, fails to trip the circuit breaker
just next to this breaker will trip as back up.
3. The operating time of relay associated with protection of line should be as
minimum as possible in order to prevent unnecessary tripping of circuit
breakers associated with other healthy parts of power system.
In the above figure, overall time setting of relay at point D is minimum and
successively this time setting is increased for the relays associated with the
points towards the point A. In case of any fault at point F will obviously trip
CB-3 at point D. In failure of opening CB-3, CB-2 will be operated as overall
time setting is higher in relay at point C. Although, the time setting of relay
nearest to the source is maximum but still it will trip in shorter period, if
major fault occurs near the source, as the time of operation of relay is
inversely proportional to faulty current.
Over Current Protection of Parallel Feeders
For maintaining stability of the system it is required to feed a load from
source by two or more than two feeders in parallel. If fault occurs in any of
the feeders, only that faulty feeder should be isolated from the system in
order to maintain continuity of supply from source to load. This requirement
makes the protection of parallel feeders little bit more complex than simple
non direction over current protection of line as in the case of radial feeders.
The protection of parallel feeder requires to use directional relays and to
grade the time setting of relay for selective tripping.
There are two feeders connected in parallel from source to load. Both of the
feeders have non-directional over current relay at source end. These relays
should be inverse time relay. Also both of the feeders have directional relay
or reverse power relay at their load end. The reverse power relays used here
should be instantaneous type. That means these relays should be operated
as soon as flow of power in the feeder is reversed. The normal direction of
power from source to load. Now, suppose a fault occurs at point F, say the
fault current is If. This fault will get two parallel paths from source, one
through circuit breaker A only and other via CB-B, feeder-2, CB-Q, load bus
and CB-P. This is clearly shown in figure below, where IA and IB are current
of fault shared by feeder-1 and feeder-2 respectively.
As per Kirchoff's current law, IA + IB = If.
Now, IA is flowing through CB-A, IB is flowing through CB-P. As the direction
of flow of CB-P is reversed it will trip instantly. But CB-Q will not trip as flow
of current (power) in this circuit breaker is not reversed. As soon as CB-P is
tripped, the fault current IB stops flowing through feeder and hence there is
no question of further operating of inverse time over current relay. I A still
continues to flow even CB-P is tripped. Then because of over current IA, CB-A
will trip. In this way the faulty feeder is isolated from system.
Differential Pilot Wire Protection
This is simply a differential protection scheme applied to feeders. Several
differential schemes are applied for protection of line but Mess Price Voltage
balance system and Translay Scheme are most popularly used.
Merz Price Balance System
The working principle of Merz Price Balance system is quite simple. In this
scheme of line protection, identical CT is connected to each of the both ends
of the line. The polarity of the CTs are same. The secondary of these current
transformer and operating coil of two instantaneous relays are formed a closed
loop as shown in the figure below. In the loop pilot wire is used to connect
both CT secondary and both relay coil as shown.
Now, from the figure it is quite clear that when the system is under normal
condition, there would not be any current flowing through the loop. As the
secondary current of one CT will cancel out secondary current of other CT.
Now, if any fault occurs in the portion of the line between these two CTs, the
secondary current of one CT will no longer equal and opposite of secondary
current of other CT. Hence there would be a resultant circulating current in
the loop. Due this circulating current, the coil of both relays will close the trip
circuit of associate circuit breaker. Hence, the faulty line will be isolated from
both ends.
Busbar Protection | Busbar Differential Protection Scheme.
In early days only conventional over current relays were used for busbar
protection. But it is desired that fault in any feeder
or transformer connected to the busbar should not disturb busbar system. In
viewing of this time setting of busbar protection relays are made lengthy. So
when faults occurs on busbar itself, it takes much time to isolate the bus
from source which may came much damage in the bus system.In recent
days, the second zone distance protection relays on incoming feeder, with
operating time of 0.3 to 0.5 seconds have been applied for busbar
protection. But this scheme has also a main disadvantage. This scheme of
protection can not discriminate the faulty section of the busbar. Now
days, electrical power system deals with huge amount of power. Hence any
interruption in total bus system causes big loss to the company. So it
becomes essential to isolate only faulty section of busbar during bus fault.
Another drawback of second zone distance protection scheme is that,
sometime the clearing time is not short enough to ensure the system stability.
To overcome the above mentioned difficulties, differential busbar protection
scheme with an operating time less than 0.1 sec., is commonly applied to
many SHT bus systems.
Differential Busbar Protection
Current Differential Protection
The scheme of busbar protection, involves, Kirchoff’s current law, which
states that, total current entering an electrical node is exactly equal to total
current leaving the node. Hence, total current entering into a bus section is
equal to total current leaving the bus section.
The principle of differential busbar protection is very simple. Here, secondaries
of CTs are connected parallel. That means, S1 terminals of all CTs connected
together and forms a bus wire. Similarly S2 terminals of all CTs connected
together to form another bus wire. A tripping relay is connected across these
two bus wires.
Essentially all the CTs used for differential busbar protection are of same
current ratio. Hence, the summation of all secondary currents must also be
equal to zero. Now, say current through the relay connected in parallel with
all CT secondaries, is iR, and iA, iB, iC, iD, iE and iF are secondary currents.
Now, let us apply KCL at node X. As per KCL at node X,
So, it is clear that under normal condition there is no current flows through
the busbar protection tripping relay. This relay is generally referred as
Relay 87. Now, say fault is occurred at any of the feeders, outside the
protected zone. In that case, the faulty current will pass through primary of
the CT of that feeder. This fault current is contributed by all other feeders
connected to the bus. So, contributed part of fault current flows through the
corresponding CT of respective feeder. Hence at that faulty condition, if we
apply KCL at node K, we will still get, iR = 0.
Here, bus section A or zone A is bounded by CT1, CT2 and CT3 where CT1 and
CT2 are feeder CTs and CT3 is bus CT. Similarly bus section B or zone B is
bounded by CT4, CT5 and CT6where CT4 is bus CT, CT5 and CT6 are feeder CT.
Therefore, zone A and B are overlapped to ensure that, there is no zone left
behind this busbar protection scheme. ASI terminals of CT1, 2 and 3 are
connected together to form secondary bus ASI BSI terminals of CT 4, 5 and 6
are connected together to form secondary bus BSI. S2 terminals of all CTs are
connected together to form a common bus S2. Now, busbar protection relay
87A for zone A is connected across bus ASI and S2. Relay 87B for zone B is
connected across bus BSI and S2. This section busbar differential
protection scheme operates in some manner simple current differential
protection of busbar. That is, any fault in zone A, with trip only CB 1, CB2and
bus CB. Any fault in zone B, will trip only CB5, CB6 and bus CB. Hence, fault in
any section of bus will isolate only that portion from live system. In current
differential protection of busbar, if CT secondary circuits, or bus wires is open
the relay may be operated to isolate the bus from live system. But this is not
desirable.
DC Circuit of Differential Busbar Protection
A typical DC circuit for busbar differential protection scheme is given
This article discusses the design issues in implementation that must be considered by
the designer.
This power must be dropped down to a lower voltage level for the controls and DC
power supplies. 110Vac is common in North America, and 220 V AC Is common in
Europe and the Commonwealth countries. It is also common for a control cabinet to
supply a higher voltage to other equipment, such as motors.
Dashed lines indicate a single purchased component. This system uses 3 phase AC
power (L1, L2 and L3) connected to the terminals. The three phases are then
connected to a power interrupter. Next, all three phases are supplied to a motor starter
that contains three contacts, M, and three thermal overload relays (breakers).
Figure 1 – A Motor Controller Schematic
The contacts, M, will be controlled by the coil, M. The output of the motor starter goes
to a three phase AC motor. Power is supplied by connecting a step down
transformer to the control electronics by connecting to phases L2 and L3. The lower
voltage is then used to supply power to the left and right rails of the ladder below. The
neutral rail is also grounded.
The diagram also shows numbering for the wires in the device. This is essential for
industrial control systems that may contain hundreds or thousands of wires. These
numbering schemes are often particular to each facility, but there are tools to help
make wire labels that will appear in the final controls cabinet.
Figure 2 – A Physical
Layout for the Control Cabinet
Once the electrical design is complete, a layout for the controls cabinet is developed, as
shown in Figure 2. The physical dimensions of the devices must be considered,
and adequate space is needed to run wires between components.
In the cabinet the AC power would enter at the terminal block, and be connected to the main
breaker.
It would then be connected to the contactors and overload relays that constitute the
motor starter. Two of the phases are also connected to the transformer to power the
logic. The start and stop buttons are at the left of the box (note: normally these are
mounted elsewhere, and a separate layout drawing would be needed).
The final layout in the cabinet might look like the one shown in Figure 1.
Figure 3 – Final PLC Panel Wiring
When being built the system will follow certain standards that may be company policy,
or legal requirements. This often includes items such as;
Hold downs – the will secure the wire so they don’t move
Labels – wire labels help troubleshooting
Strain reliefs – these will hold the wire so that it will not be pulled out of screw
terminals
Grounding – grounding wires may be needed on each metal piece for safety
A photograph of an industrial controls cabinet is shown in Figure 4:
Figure 4 –
An industrial control cabinet with wire runs, terminal strip, buttons on PLC panel front, etc.
When including a PLC in the ladder diagram still remains. But, it does tend to become
more complex. Figure 5 below shows a schematic diagram for a PLC based motor
control system, similar to the previous motor control example.
This figure shows the E-stop wired to cutoff power to all of the devices in the circuit,
including the PLC. All critical safety functions should be hardwired this way.
Figure 5 – An Electrical
Schematic with a PLC.
For both drinking water and wastewater treatment, 4 different sizes of plants have
been distinguished. The size of plants can be expressed in quantity of treated water
per day, or in corresponding number of inhabitants.
Four different types of (waste) water treatment plants have been distinguished,
depending on destination and size:
Power demand 25-125 kVA 125-1250 kVA 1.25-5 MVA 5-25 MVA
Electrical Distribution
The most relevant characteristics of the electrical installation are taken into account,
The impact of such errors may range from simply being a nuisance (tripping occurs
repeatedly on energisation, requiring investigation to locate and correct the errors) through
to failure to trip under fault conditions, leading to major equipment damage, disruption to
supplies and potential hazards to personnel.
The strategies available to remove these risks are many, but all involve some kind
of testing at site. Commissioning tests at site are therefore invariably performed
before protection equipment is set to work. The aims of commissioning tests are:
1. To ensure that the equipment has not been damaged during transit or installation
2. To ensure that the installation work has been carried out correctly
3. To prove the correct functioning of the protection scheme as a whole
The tests carried out will normally vary according to the protection scheme
involved, the relay technology used, and the policy of the client. In many cases, the
The following tests are invariably carried out, since the protection scheme will
not function correctly if faults exist.
Wiring diagram check, using circuit diagrams showing all the reference numbers of the
interconnecting wiring
General inspection of the equipment, checking all connections, wires on relays
terminals, labels on terminal boards, etc.
Insulation resistance measurement of all circuits [details]
Perform relay self-test procedure and external communications checks on
digital/numerical relays [details]
Test main current transformers
Polarity check
Magnetisation Curve
Test main voltage transformers
Polarity check
Ratio check
Phasing check
Check that protection relay alarm/trip settings have been entered correctly [details]
Tripping and alarm circuit checks to prove correct functioning
In addition, the following checks may be carried out, depending on the factors noted
above (not covered in this technical article):
Secondary injection test on each relay to prove operation at one or more setting values
Primary injection tests on each relay to prove stability for external faults and to
determine the effective current setting for internal faults (essential for some types of
electromechanical relays)
Testing of protection scheme logic
All the deliberate earth connections on the wiring to be tested should first be removed,
for example earthing links on current transformers, voltage transformers and
DC supplies. Some insulation testers generate impulses with peak voltages
exceeding 5kV. In these instances any electronic equipment should be disconnected
while the external wiring insulation is checked.
The insulation resistance measured depends on the amount of wiring involved, its
grade, and the site humidity. Generally, if the test is restricted to one cubicle, a
reading of several hundred megohms should be obtained. If long lengths of site wiring
Digital and numerical relays will have a self-test procedure that is detailed in the
appropriate relay manual. These tests should be followed to determine if the relay is
operating correctly.
This will normally involve checking of the relay watchdog circuit, exercising all
digital inputs and outputs and checking that the relay analogue inputs are within
For these tests, the relay outputs are normally disconnected from the remainder of the
protection scheme, as it is a test carried out to prove correct relay, rather than
scheme, operation.
To shorten testing
and commissioning times of SIPROTEC relays, extensive test and diagnostic functions are available to the
user in DIGSI 5
Unit protection schemes involve relays that need to communicate with each
other. This leads to additional testing requirements. The communications path
between the relays is tested using suitable equipment to ensure that the path is
complete and that the received signal strength is within specification. Numerical relays
may be fitted with loopback test facilities that enable either part of or the entire
communications link to be tested from one end.
After completion of these tests, it is usual to enter the relay settings required. This
can be done manually via the relay front panel controls, or using a portable PC and
suitable software.
Whichever, method is used, a check by a second person that the correct settings have
been used is desirable, and the settings recorded. Programmable scheme logic that is
required is also entered at this stage.
SIPROTEC relay wiring test editor for monitoring and testing of binary inputs, binary outputs and LED
(click to expand)
Polarity checks.
Each current transformer should be individually tested to verify that the primary and
secondary polarity markings are correct (see Figure 1).
Care must be taken that the test equipment is suitably rated. The short-time
current rating must be in excess of the CT secondary current rating, to allow for
measurement of the saturation current. This will be in excess of the CT secondary
current rating. As the magnetising current will not be sinusoidal, a moving iron or
dynamometer type ammeter should be used.
It is often found that current transformers with secondary ratings of 1A or less have a knee-
point voltage higher than the local mains supply. In these cases, a step-up interposing
transformer must be used to obtain the necessary voltage to check the magnetisation curve.
The voltage transformer polarity can be checked using the method for CT polarity
tests. Care must be taken to connect the battery supply to the primary winding, with
the polarity ammeter connected to the secondary winding. If the voltage transformer is
of the capacitor type, then the polarity of the transformer at the bottom of the capacitor
stack should be checked.
Ratio check of VT
This check can be carried out when the main circuit is first made live. The voltage
transformer secondary voltage is compared with the secondary voltage shown on the
nameplate.
Namplate of a single phase voltage transformer (photo credit: emadrlc.blogspot.com)
Phasing check of VT
Provided an existing proven VT is available on the same primary system, and that
secondary earthing is employed, all that is now necessary to prove correct phasing is
a voltage check between, say, both ‘A’ phase secondary outputs. There should be
nominally little or no voltage if the phasing is correct.
However, this test does not detect if the phase sequence is correct, but the phases are
displaced by 120o from their correct position, i.e. phase A occupies the position of phase C or
phase B in Figure 3.
This can be checked by removing the fuses from phases B and C (say) and measuring
the phase-earth voltages on the secondary of the VT. If the phasing is correct, only
phase A should be healthy, phases B and C should have only a small residual voltage.
Figure 3 – Voltage
transformer phasing check
Correct phasing should be further substantiated when carrying out ‘on load’ tests
on any phase-angle sensitive relays, at the relay terminals. Load current in a known
phase CT secondary should be compared with the associated phase to neutral VT
secondary voltage.
The phase angle between them should be measured, and should relate to the
At some point during commissioning, the alarm and trip settings of the relay
elements involved will require to be entered and/or checked. Where the complete
scheme is engineered and supplied by a single contractor, the settings may already
have been entered prior to despatch from the factory, and hence this need not be
repeated.
The method of entering settings varies according to the relay technology used.
For electromechanical and static relays, manual entry of the settings for each relay
element is required. This method can also be used for digital/numerical relays.
However, the amount of data to be entered is much greater, and therefore it is usual to use
appropriate software, normally supplied by the manufacturer, for this purpose. The
software also makes the essential task of making a record of the data entered much easier.
The maximum allowable step potential is 5,664V, which exceeds the step
voltage calculated above and the earthing system passes the step potential
criteria. Having passed both touch and step potential criteria, we can
conclude that the earthing system is safe. Once the data has been entered, it
should be checked for compliance with the recommended settings as calculated from
the protection setting study. Where appropriate software is used for data entry, the
checks can be considered complete if the data is checked prior to download of the
settings to the relay.
Example 8.4
Consider the network shown in Fig. 8.10. The system parameters are given below
We shall find the fault current for when a (a) 1LG, (b) LL and (c) 2LG fault occurs at bus-2.
Let us choose a base in the circuit of the generator. Then the per unit impedances of the generator are:
The MVA base of the motor is 40, while the base MVA of the total circuit is 50. Therefore the per unit
impedances of the motor are
For the transmission line
Therefore
Let us neglect the phase shift associated with the Y/ Δ transformers. Then the positive, negative and zero
sequence networks are as shown in Figs. 8.11-8.13.
Fig. 8.11 Positive sequence network of the power system of Fig. 8.10.
Fig. 8.12 Negative sequence network of the power system of Fig. 8.10.
Fig. 8.13 Zero sequence network of the power system of Fig. 8.10.
From Figs. 8.11 and 8.12 we get the following Ybus matrix for both positive and negative sequences
Inverting the above matrix we get the following Zbus matrix
Again from Fig. 8.13 we get the following Ybus matrix for the zero sequence
(a) Single-Line-to-Ground Fault : Let a bolted 1LG fault occurs at bus-2 when the system is unloaded
with bus voltages being 1.0 per unit. Then from (8.7) we get
per unit
per unit
(b) Line-to-Line Fault : For a bolted LL fault, we can write from (8.16)
per unit
per unit
The zero and negative sequence currents are then computed from (8.25) and (8.26) as
per unit
per unit
Let us now assume that a 2LG fault has occurred in bus-4 instead of the one in bus-2. Therefore
Also we have
Hence
per unit
Also
per unit
per unit
We shall now compute the currents contributed by the generator and the motor to the fault. Let us denote
the current flowing to the fault from the generator side by Ig , while that flowing from the motor by Im . Then
from Fig. 8.11 using the current divider principle, the positive sequence currents contributed by the two
buses are
per unit
per unit
Similarly from Fig. 8.12, the negative sequence currents are given as
per unit
per unit
Finally notice from Fig. 8.13 that the zero sequence current flowing from the generator to the fault is 0.
Then we have
per unit
Therefore the fault currents flowing from the generator side are
In the above two examples we have neglected the phase shifts of the Y/ Δ transformers. However according
to the American standard, the positive sequence components of the high tension side lead those of the low
tension side by 30° , while the negative sequence behavior is reverse of the positive sequence behavior.
Usually the high tension side of a Y/ Δ transformer is Y-connected. Therefore as we have seen in Fig. 7.16,
the positive sequence component of Y side leads the positive sequence component of the Δ side by 30°
while the negative sequence component of Y side lags that of the Δ side by 30° . We shall now use this
principle to compute the fault current for an unsymmetrical fault.
Example 8.6
Let us consider the same system as given in Example 8.5. Since the phase shift does not alter the zero
sequence, the circuit of Fig. 8.13 remains unchanged. The positive and the negative sequence circuits must
however include the respective phase shifts. These circuits are redrawn as shown in Figs. 8.14 and 8.15.
Note from Figs. 8.14 and 8.15 that we have dropped the √3 α vis-à-vis that of Fig. 7.16. This is because the
per unit impedances remain unchanged when referred to the either high tension or low tension side of an
ideal transformer. Therefore the per unit impedances will also not be altered.
Fig. 8.14 Positive sequence network of the power system of Fig. 8.10 including transformer
phase shift.
Fig. 8.15 Negative sequence network of the power system of Fig. 8.10 including transformer
phase shift.
Since the zero sequence remains unaltered, these currents will not change from those computed in
Example 8.6. Thus
Now the positive sequence fault current from the generator Iga1 , being on the Y-side of the Y/ Δ transformer
will lead I ma1 by 30° . Therefore
per unit
per unit
Finally the negative sequence current I ga2 will lag I ma2 by 30° . Hence we have
per unit
per unit
Therefore
Also the fault currents flowing from the motor remain unaltered. Also note that the currents flowing into the
fault remain unchanged. This implies that the phase shift of the Y/ Δ transformers does not affect the fault
currents.
Example 8.7
Let us consider the same power system as given in Example 1.2, the sequence diagrams of which are
given in Figs. 7.18 to 7.20. With respect to Fig. 7.17, let us define the system parameters as:
Transformer T2 : Three single-phase units each rated 100 MVA, 130Y/25 kV, X = 10%
Line C-F : X1 = X2 = 50 Ω , X0 = 75 Ω
Let us choose the circuit of Generator 3 as the base, the base MVA for the circuit is 300. The base voltages
are then same as those shown in Fig. 1.23. Per unit reactances are then computed as shown below.
Generator G1 :
, X0 = 0.15
Generator G2 :
, X0 = 0.0656
Generator G3 : , X0 = 0.15
Transformer T1 :
Transformer T2 :
Transformer T3 :
Line B-C :
,
Line C-D :
,
Line C-F :
,
Neglecting the phase shifts of Y/ Δ connected transformers and assuming that the system is unloaded, we
shall find the fault current for a 1LG fault at bus-1 (point C of Fig. 7.17).
From Figs. 7.18 and 7.19, we can obtain the positive and negative sequence Thevenin impedance at
point C as (verify)
X1 = X2 = j 0.2723 per unit
Similarly from Fig. 7.20, the Thevenin equivalent of the zero sequence impedance is
per unit
(8.17)
(8.18)
Therefore
(8.19)
(8.20)
(8.21)
(8.22)
(8.23)
The Thevenin equivalent circuit for 2LG fault is shown in Fig. 8.8. From this figure we get
(8.24)
The zero and negative sequence currents can be obtained using the current divider principle as
(8.25)
(8.26)
Example 8.3
Let us consider the same generator as given in Examples 8.1 and 8.2. Let us assume that the generator is
operating without any load when a bolted 2LG fault occurs in phases b and c. The equivalent circuit for this
fault is shown in Fig. 8.9. From this figure we can write
Fig. 8.9 Equivalent circuit of the generator in Fig. 8.4 for a 2LG fault in phases b and c.
Combining the above three equations we can write the following vector-matrix form
Hence
We can also obtain the above values using (8.24)-(8.26). Note from Example 8.1 that
Then
Now the sequence components of the voltages are
and Vb = Vc = 0. Therefore
Line-to-Line Fault
The faulted segment for an L-L fault is shown in Fig. 8.5 where it is assumed that the fault has occurred at
node k of the network. In this the phases b and c got shorted through the impedance Zf . Since the system
is unloaded before the occurrence of the fault we have
(8.8)
Fig. 8.5 Representation of L-L fault.
(8.9)
(8.10)
(8.11)
Therefore no zero sequence current is injected into the network at bus k and hence the zero sequence
remains a dead network for an L-L fault. The positive and negative sequence currents are negative of each
other.
Now from Fig. 8.5 we get the following expression for the voltage at the faulted point
(8.12)
Again
(8.13)
(8.14)
(8.15)
Equations (8.12) and (8.15) indicate that the positive and negative sequence networks are in parallel. The
sequence network is then as shown in Fig. 8.6. From this network we get
(8.16)
Fig. 8.6 Thevenin equivalent of an LL fault.
Example 8.2
Let us consider the same generator as given in Example 8.1. Assume that the generator is unloaded when
a bolted ( Zf = 0) short circuit occurs between phases b and c. Then we get from (8.9) I fb = - I fc . Also since
the generator is unloaded, we have I fa = 0. Therefore from (7.34) we get
Then
Also since the neutral current I n is zero, we can write V a = 1.0 and
Single-Line-to-Ground Fault
Let a 1LG fault has occurred at node k of a network. The faulted segment is then as shown in Fig. 8.2 where
it is assumed that phase-a has touched the ground through an impedance Zf . Since the system is unloaded
before the occurrence of the fault we have
(8.1)
(8.2)
(8.3)
Solving (8.3) we get
(8.4)
This implies that the three sequence currents are in series for the 1LG fault. Let us denote the zero, positive
and negative sequence Thevenin impedance at the faulted point as Z kk0 , Z kk1 and Z kk2respectively. Also
since the Thevenin voltage at the faulted phase is Vf we get three sequence circuits that are similar to the
ones shown in Fig. 7.7. We can then write
(8.5)
(8.6)
Again since
(8.7)
Example 8.1
A three-phase Y-connected synchronous generator is running unloaded with rated voltage when a 1LG
fault occurs at its terminals. The generator is rated 20 kV, 220 MVA, with subsynchronous reactance of 0.2
per unit. Assume that the subtransient mutual reactance between the windings is 0.025 per unit. The neutral
of the generator is grounded through a 0.05 per unit reactance. The equivalent circuit of the generator is
shown in Fig. 8.4. We have to find out the negative and zero sequence reactances.
Since no current flows in phases b and c, once the fault occurs, we have from Fig. 8.4
Then we also have
Therefore
From (7.38) we can write Z1 = j ω ( Ls + Ms ) = j 0.225. Then from Fig. 7.7 we have
Comparing the above two values with (7.37) and (7.39) we find that Z 0 indeed is equal to j ω ( Ls - 2 Ms )
and Z2 is equal to j ω ( Ls + Ms ). Note that we can also calculate the fault current from (8.7) as
Introduction
The sequence circuits and the sequence networks developed in the previous chapter will now be used for
finding out fault current during unsymmetrical faults.
The power system is balanced before the fault occurs such that of the three sequence networks
only the positive sequence network is active. Also as the fault occurs, the sequence networks are
connected only through the fault location.
The fault current is negligible such that the pre-fault positive sequence voltages are same at all
nodes and at the fault location.
All the network resistances and line charging capacitances are negligible.
All loads are passive except the rotating loads which are represented by synchronous machines.
Based on the assumptions stated above, the faulted network will be as shown in Fig. 8.1 where the voltage
at the faulted point will be denoted by Vf and current in the three faulted phases are Ifa , I fb and I fc .
We shall now discuss how the three sequence networks are connected when the three types of faults
discussed above occur.
Fig. 8.1 Representation of a faulted segment.
.
.
.
.
separately we get, .
.
When the alternator is short-circuited, the currents in all the three-phases rise rapidly to a high
value of about 10 to 18 times of full load current, during the first quarter cycle. The flux crossing
the air gap is large during a first couple of cycles. The reactance during these first two or three
cycle is least and the short circuit current is high. This reactance is called subtransient reactance
and is denoted by X”. The first few cycles come under subtransient state.
After a first few cycles, the decrement in the r.m.s. value of short circuit current is less rapid than
the decrements during the first few cycles. This state is called the Transient State and the
reactance in this state is called transient reactance X’. The circuit breaker contacts separate in
the transient state.
Finally the transient dies out and the current reaches a steady sinusoidal state called the Steady
State. The reactance in this state is called steady state reactance Xd. Since the short circuit
current of the alternator lags behind the voltage by 90 degree, the reactance involved are direct
axis reactance.
As clear from the figure above, the d.c. components in the three phases are different; hence the
waveforms of the three phases are not identical. If voltage of phase, say, Y, is maximum at the
instant of short circuit, the DC component of short circuit current is zero. Hence the waveform is
symmetrical as shown in figure below.
Where
As the short circuit occurs, the short-circuit current attains high value. The circuit breakercontact
starts separating after the operation of the protective relay. The contacts of thecircuit
breaker separate during ‘transient state.’ The r.m.s. value of the current at the instant of the
contact separation is called the breaking current of the circuit-breaker and is expressed in kA.
If a circuit-breaker closes on existing fault, the current would increase to a high value during the
first, half cycle. The highest peak value of the current is reached during the peak of the first current
loop. This peak value is called making current of the circuit breaker and is expressed in kA. This
is the reason making current of Circuit Breaker is higher than the Breaking Current.
Now we will go into the discussion back while taking an example of Electrical circuit.
Consider the circuit given below.
If the battery is ON at t=0 and kept ON.
Inductor voltage = 0
As we know that Inductor does not allow sudden change in currents. So just after the
moment when switch is ON, the current in inductor is zero. That means at t=0+ inductor
acts as open circuit. But as the time passes inductor allows current. This happens until
coil voltage drop is equal to applied voltage.
But after some time, i.e. when coil voltage drop is equal to applied voltage, then current
flowing through the circuit is constant as inductor voltage is zero which means rate of
change of current is zero. This state is called Steady State.
So if we solve the differential equation of the circuit, we’re actually finding the response
as a function of time, which includes both transient and steady state response.
The Relay detects the abnormal condition by continuously monitoring electrical quantities which
are different for healthy and faulty condition. The electrical quantities which may change during
fault condition are voltage, current, frequency and phase angle. If one or more of the above
electrical quantities change, that signals the presence, type and location of the fault to the Relay.
After detecting the fault condition, Relay pick-up, its contact will change from NO to NC or vice
versa. So we can wire up a particular kind of Relay contact to Breaker tripping circuit. So
whenever, the Relay picks up, the tripping of Breaker will take place.
You may like to Read, Why CT Secondary Shall Never be Kept Open?
A simplified Relay circuit is shown in figure below. Figure below shows one of the three phase
system for simplicity.
As shown in the figure above, Current Transformer CT secondary winding is directly connected
to the Relay coil. Under normal condition, the current through the Relay coil is not sufficient
enough to pull the plunger and close the circuit of Breaker Tripping Coil. Notice here that Breaker
Tripping coil is solely responsible for the tripping of Circuit Breaker. If trip coil of breaker fails, then
tripping of Breaker will not take place. This is the reason, two trip coils are normally provided in
Circuit Breaker to get reliable operation of Breaker. Not only two Trip Coils are provided in CB
rather a Trip Coil monitoring Relay is also used. If case of fault i.e. if it happens to be any open
circuit in Trip Coil, then the Trip Coil Supervision Relay will be flagged to attract the attention of
the operator.
In case of fault, the current through the CT secondary will go up which will cause increased current
through the Relay coil. If it happens that the current through the Relay coil exceeds the setting
value or pick-up value then the coil will get produce sufficient magnetic pull to the plunger and
thus plunger will complete the CB trip circuit. As soon as the CB trip circuit is complete, current
will start flowing in the Trip Coil which in turn will pull a lever to trip the Circuit Breaker CB.
In the above figure, it is shown that Relay coil is directly pulling the plunger to complete the
Breaker Trip Coil circuit but in actual practice, Relay coil when picked up will change its contact
status. Let us say Relay Normally Open (NO) contact is wired to the Breaker Trip Coil Circuit.
Therefore when the Relay coil is in de-energized state, the circuit of Trip Coil of CB is not complete
and hence no tripping of the CB. During fault condition as the current through the Relay coil
exceeds the pick-up value, the Relay coil will get actuated which in turn will force its contact to
change over i.e. NO contact will change to Normally Close (NC) thereby closing the Trip Coil
circuit of the Breaker.
Since Trip Coil circuit of Breaker is complete, current will flow through the Trip Coil causing CB to
trip.
A Digital Relay comprises both Hardware and Software. The Hardware part is briefly
described below.
CPU: CPU stand for Central Processing Unit which is responsible for the processing of
protection algorithms and digital filtering.
Memory:Memory is of two types. One is RAM (Random Access Memory) and ROM
(Read Only Memory). RAM serves for the purpose of retaining the input data to the Relay
and processing the data during the compilation of algorithm.
ROM is used to store Software needed for the working of Relay. ROM is also needed for
storing Event and Disturbance data. Event and Disturbance Recording is a must feature
for a digital relay because these data are used for troubleshooting any event. A typical
Numerical Relay can store as much as 520 Events and 50 Disturbances. The most
attractive feature of such relay is that it works on FIFO (First In, First Out). Suppose if it
happens to be the number of disturbances exceeds 50 then the Relay will delete the last
Disturbance and will register new disturbance.
Input Module: The analog single from the Power System is stepped down using Current
Transformer and Potential Transformer and then fed to the Numerical Relay using low
pass filter. Low pass filter is incorporated in the input module to eliminate any noise single
induced in the line due to corona or induction effect of nearby high voltage line. The output
from the Filter is then fed to Sample and Hold (S/H)circuit.
A Sample and Hold (S/H) circuit is used to keep the rapidly changing instantaneous
value constant during the period of conversion for processing.
In addition to the analog input, Numerical Relay is designed to accept digital input too.
Separate terminals are provided for the analog and digital inputs.
The CPU accepts the input in digital form but the input from Current Transformer CT and
Potential Transformer PT are analog in nature. Therefore and A/D converter is used to
convert the analog signal to digital signal. In case more than one analog quantity is to be
converted into digital form, Multiplexer is used for selecting any analog input at a time to
convert into digital form.
Output Module:
Output module provided in Numerical Relay is digital contacts which are actuated when
a trip decision is taken by the CPU. These output digital contacts are a pulse which is
generated as a response signal. The timing of pulse can be changed by the user.
Digital Input / Communication Module: Numerical Relay is provided with serial and
parallel ports for the interconnection with control and communication system of the
substation. Digital output contacts of Numerical Relay is used for wiring with the Auxiliary
Relays to extend tripping command to the Circuit Breaker.
Hardware for Metering: In principle, the hardware setup discussed above can be used
for both measurement and protection function. However, considering the order of
difference between current magnitudes in case of fault and load, there can be loss of
accuracy during metering applications. Consider a hypothetical case where in maximum
load current is 100 A and maximum fault current is 20 times this load current i.e. 2000 A.
Let a 12 bit unipolar A/D converter be used for sampling current signal. This implies that
resolution of A/D converter is 2000/(212-1)=0.488 A. This resolution may be inadequate
for metering purposes.
One solution is to increase resolution i.e. the number of bits in A/D converter. For
example, one may use 16 bit A/D converter in place of 12 bit A/D converter.
However, increasing the number of bits of A/D converter also affects the selection of
processor. A good design guideline is to choose a processor with double the number of
bits of A/D converter. This ensures that truncation and numerical precision problems
associated with finite precision arithmetic do not cause significant loss of accuracy. For
example, with 16 bit A/D converter, 32 bit processor is the natural choice. Alternatively, a
variable gain amplifier can be used along with the A/D converter. At low currents, high
gain setting is used and at high currents low gain setting is preferred. However, during
the change from one setting to another, loss of information can take place. Therefore, a
simple solution would be to keep metering and protection functionality separate.
In the next post we will be discussing about some interesting features of Numerical Relay.
So be there and follow ELECTRICAL CONCEPTS.
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As we know that Current Transformers (CTs) are always used with secondary winding
connected with Ammeter, Relays or Wattmeter Coils. A precaution which shall always be
taken is that Never open the secondary winding circuit of a Current Transformer
while its Primary Winding is energized.
If the secondary winding circuit of a CT is kept open then it will lead to severe
consequence to the personnel opening the CT secondary and to the CT itself. The
question arises why?
To understand this, first we should know the basic difference between a Power
Transformer and a CT. The basic difference between a Power Transformer and a CT is
that, in Power Transformer the primary current is the reflection of the secondary current
by N1I1 = N2I2while in CT the primary current is dependent on the load current or line
current as Ct is connected in series with the line. So primary current of CT (assuming
constant line current) is constant irrespective of whether the secondary of CT is
connected with burden or not.
During normal operation of CT, the primary and secondary winding produces mmf which
by lenze’s law opposes each other. As the secondary mmf is slightly less than the primary
mmf, the net mmf is small. This net mmf is the working / magnetizing mmf of the core of
CT.
Now, in case secondary winding is kept open then secondary current will be zero while
the primary current of CT will remain same. Therefore the opposing mmf of secondary
will no longer exist. Hence the net mmf is due to primary current only i.e. N1I1 which is
very large. This large mmf will produce large flux in the core and will saturate the core.
Again, due to large flux in the core the flux linkage of secondary winding will be large
which in turn will produce a large voltage across the secondary terminals of the CT. This
large voltage across the secondary terminals will be very dangerous and will lead to the
insulation failure and there is a good chance that the person who is opening the CT
secondary while primary is energized will die due to shock.
Also, because of excessive core flux, the hysteresis and eddy current loss will be very high and
the CT will get overheated. As CT is oil filled, because of overheating, the oil of CT will get boil
and start to vaporize. Because of vaporization of CT oil, the CT housing will get pressurized and
blast. This blasting will lead to fire and smoke. Again, it is not the end here but due to smoke, the
nearby lines will trip due to earth fault which may trip the Power Generating Station.
So both of these are devices that isolate a portion of a power distribution system. But the
first is a safety device, to protect people working on the lines. The second is an automatic
device, to cut off power to a section where a continuing fault has occurred.
Circuit Breaker is switch capable of making or breaking the circuit under no-load as well as on-
load condition. It can make or break circuit either manually or by remote control. A Circuit Breaker
in conjunction with Relay can break the circuit under fault condition.
When contacts of CB are separated under fault condition, an arc is stuck between the fixed and
moving contacts. The current is thus able to continue till the arc persists. The production of arc
not only delays the current interruption but it also produces huge amount of heat which if exceeds
a limit may damage the system or CB itself. Therefore, the design of CB is done in such a way to
minimize the arcing period so that
1) Heat produced during arcing may not exceeds the dangerous value.
It is worth here to mention that a typical Breaker opening and closing time remain around 30-35
ms and 60-70 ms respectively. Notice that CB opening time is less than the closing time to ensure
fast fault clearing.
When a short circuit occurs, heavy current flows through the contacts of circuit breaker before
they are opened by the protective system. At the instant when the contacts begin to open after
getting trip command from the Relay, the contact area decreases rapidly and large fault current
causes increased current density and hence rise in temperature. The heat produced in the
medium in between the contacts is sufficient enough to ionize the medium. This ionized medium
acts as a conductor and arc is stuck in between the contacts of the circuit breaker. It shall be
noted here that the potential difference between the fixed and moving contacts is quite small and
just enough to maintain the arc. This arc provides a low resistance path to the current and thus
due to arcing the current in the circuit remain uninterrupted as long as arcing persists.
During the arcing period the current flowing through the contacts of circuit breaker deepens upon
the arc resistance. The greater the arc resistance the smaller will be the current flowing through
the contacts of CB. The arcing resistance depends upon the following factors:
Degree of Ionization:
The more the ionization of medium between the contacts, the less will be the arcing resistance.
Length of Arc:
The arc resistance increases as the length of arc increases i.e. as the separation between the
contacts of Breaker increases the arcing resistance also increases.
The arcing resistance increases with decrease in the cross sectional area of the arc.
Another way for extinction of arc is to demonize the medium in between the contacts. If the arc
path is demonized the arc extinction will definitely be facilitated. This may be achieved by cooling
the arc or by quickly removing the ionized particles from the space in between the contacts. This
principle of arc extinction is used in all modern Circuit Breakers.
As discussed earlier in the post, main contact will open first. This is shown in the figure
above. Observe in figure that, though main contacts are open, arcing contacts are still
close. As main contacts open, the piston in the cylinder moves causes the SF6 gas to
compress due to reduction of volume Vp.
Step-2: Arcing Contacts Open
As soon as arcing contacts separates from contact 1, an arc is strikes. Due to this arcing,
heat is produced. This heat of arc further increases the pressure of SF 6 in the chamber
Vt. Mind that, the pressure of arc extinguisher i.e. SF6 is increased by the heat of arc. This
is the reason; such breaker is called self compensating type. Here self compensating
means that, the capacity of breaker to interrupt the fault is proportional to fault current.
Step-3: Arcing Contact separates from Nozzle
When arcing contact separates from the insulating Nozzle, the pressurized SF 6 gas in
volume Vt is released in the arc. This causes the arc to extinguish at the moment the
current passes though the natural zero. Thus, the pressurized SF6 gas extinguishes the
arc and hence circuit is interrupted.
In case of small current like in unloaded transformer or reactor, the thermal energy of arc
is not enough to pressurize the SF6 gas. In such case the pressure developed in the
SF6 gas chamber Vp in Step-1 is extinguishes the arc.
Types of SF6 Circuit Breaker
As discussed, in 220 kV, 400 kV and 765 kV applications, the SF6 gas pressure is
maintained at 6.5 bar. You will be amazed that, even though voltage level is increasing,
same pressure of SF6 i.e. 6.5 bar is used for 220, 400 and 765 kV applications. Actually
as we go up at higher voltage level, the number of contacts increases in SF6 circuit
Breaker. Based on this philosophy, SF6 circuit breaker can be classified into following
types:
Single Breaker Circuit Breaker
Double Break Circuit Breaker
Multi Break Circuit Breaker
Single Break SF6 Circuit Breaker
In Single Break Circuit Breaker, only one moving and fixed contacts are present. This
means that, there will only be one interrupter unit in such breaker. Single break SF6 circuit
breaker is used for 220 kV applications.
Double Break SF6 Circuit Breaker
In such type of breaker, there are two set of moving and fixed contacts connected in
series. Therefore, to enclose two set of contacts, there must be two interrupt unit in series.
This type of breaker is used in 400 kV applications. In double break circuit
breaker, grading capacitorsare used to equalize the voltage distribution across each
contact. Thus for 400 kV application, the voltage across each contact will be 200 kV.
Therefore it is logical to use SF6 gas at a pressure same as used in 200 kV application.
Ha ha..got it?
Multi Break SF6 Circuit Breaker
In multi break circuit break, more than two set of fixed and moving contacts are used.
Such type of breaker is used in 765 kV applications.
strength and pressure characteristic becomes almost flat as shown in figure below.
The dielectric strength in this region is above 12 kV /mm. In vacuum interrupters vacuum
level of the order of 10-6 to 10-10 Torr is used. This is called high vacuum range. During
the passage of time and after arc interruptions, the vacuum level goes on reducing.
However it remains in the range of 10– 5 Torr and 10-8 Torr. Vacuum in the range of 10-3 is
sufficient for interruption.
In Gas Insulated Switchgear SF6 gas is used as an insulating medium and as an arc
quenching medium in Circuit Breaker. But there are some GIS where Clean Air is used
an insulating medium and Vacuum as an interrupting medium. For example, in Siemens
8VN1GIS (up to 145 kV), vacuum is used as an interrupting medium while clean air is
used as insulating medium.
Due to advancement of technology, today Gas Insulated Switchgear or GIS are available
for voltage ranging from 12 kV to 1200 kV. GIS is basically modular switchgear as shown
in figure below.
Siemens press picture
The various modules are factory assembled and are filled with SF 6 gas. Thereafter, they
are taken to site for final assembly. Such sub-stations are compact and can be installed
conveniently on any floor of a multi-storied building or in an underground sub-station.
As the units are factory assembled, the installation time is substantially reduced. Such
installations are preferred in cosmopolitan cities, industrial townships, hydro-stations
where land is very costly and higher cost of SF6 insulated switchgear is justified by saving
due to reduction in floor-area requirement.
SF6 insulated switchgear or GIS is also preferred in heavily polluted areas where dust
chemical fumes and salt layers can cause frequent flashovers in conventional outdoor
substations.
Types of Gas Insulated Switchgear
Based on the constructional feature, GIS can be classified into following types:
Isolated Phase GIS
Basically in such kind of GIS, the modules are assembled phase wise i.e. Breaker, CT,
Isolators of individual phases are assembled separately. Modules for each phase of a bay
are separate. That is why such GIS are called Isolated Phase GIS. It is quite obvious that
the space requirement for Isolated Phase GIS is more.
Integrated Three Phase GIS
As the name suggests, all three phases’ equipment like Breaker, CT, Isolators etc. are
kept in a single module filled with gas. The space requirement for such GIS is 1/3 rd of
space requirement in Isolated Phase GIS.
Hybrid GIS
Hybrid GIS is an optimal combination of Isolated Phase and Integrated Three Phase GIS.
Highly Integrated Switchgear (HIS)
In HIS type of Gas Insulated Switchgear, total substation equipments are encapsulated
together in single enclosure. With the HIS, the circuit breakers, disconnectors, earthing
switches and instrument transformers are accommodated in compressed gas tight
enclosures, which make the switchgear extremely compact. HIS, the gas insulated
switchgear can be used for indoor and outdoor purpose as HIS requires less than half the
space of a comparable air insulated switchgear. Figure below shows the HIS.
Siemens press picture
Notice that, the GIS in above figure is used for outdoor purpose but the same could be
used for indoor purpose. I used this picture to just show you that GIS does not mean that
every equipment is kept in a room filled with SF6 gas rather GIS mean equipment kept in
a module filled with SF6 gas.
Advantages of SF6 Gas Insulated Switchgear
The space occupied by Gas Insulated Switchgear installation is only about 10% of that of
conventional outdoor sub-station. Thus the high cost of GIS is partly compensated by saving
in cost of space.
Protection from pollution. The moisture, pollution, dust etc., have little influence on Gas
Insulated Switchgear. However, to facilitate installation and maintenance, such substations
are generally housed inside a small building. The construction of the building need not be very
strong like convention power houses.
Reduced Switching overvoltages. The overvoltages while closing and opening line, cables,
motors, capacitors etc. are low.
Reduced Installation Time. The principle of modular construction reduces the installation
time to a few weeks. Conventional sub-stations require a few months for installation.
The gas pressure (4 kg/cm2) is relatively low and does not pose serious leakage problems.
Increased Safety. As the enclosures are at earth potential, there is no possibility of accidental
contact by service personnel to live parts.
Disadvantage of SF6 Gas Insulated Switchgear
High cost compared to conventional outdoor sub-station.
Excessive damage in case of internal fault. Long outage periods as repair of damaged part at
site may be difficult.
Requirement of cleanliness are very stringent. Dust or moisture can cause internal flashovers.
Procurement of gas and supply of gas to site is problematic. Adequate stock of gas must be
maintained.
However, in a system with multiple sources or parallel paths, we require earth fault relays to be
directional as discussed in earlier post How to Incorporate Directional Featurein a Relay.
As we discussed in earlier post How to Incorporate Directional Feature in a Relay, that for making
a Relay directional we need Reference Phasor. The reference phasor is called asPolarizing
Quantity. For ground fault relaying both Voltage and Current Polarization can be used.
We will consider each Voltage and Current Polarization separately for Earth Fault Protection.
Voltage Polarization:
Let the system be initially unloaded and a ground fault occur on phase A.
Therefore Ib = Ic = 0 and Ia = 3I0.
For Single Line to Ground fault there is a drop in voltage of phase A while phase B and C voltages
remain unchanged. Phasor diagram for Voltage and current for SLG fault can be drawn as below.
In the phasor diagram only 3I0 is shown as Ib = Ic =0 and Ia = 3I0 for Single Line to Ground fault.
Now we will find the Zero Sequence Voltage under the fault.
It is then clear that zero Torque Line which separates the plane into Operate and Do Not Operate
zone leads -3V0by 30 degrees. Thus, for fault in the correct region, 3I0 lags -3V0 hence falls in
operate region. If fault is behind the relay, 3I0 will lead -3V0 by about 45 to 60 degrees and hence
will lie in do not operate region. Hence, earth fault directional unit will not pick-up.
Current Polarization:
For providing direction feature in earth fault relay we can also use current as refrenec phasor
which is called current polarization. It is an alternative for voltage polarization. It does not require
an additional Potential Transformer (PT).
For balanced system,
Ia+Ib+Ic = 0, phasor sum is taken here.
During ground fault say at phase A, 3I0 flows from ground to neutral of a Wye connection of
Transformer. If we assume for simplicity that Ib = Ic = 0, then 3I0 and Ia are in phase. This indicates
that directional unit for ground relay should pick-up as Ia is in phase with 3I0. Thus we place
maximum torque line at zero degrees with respect to I0 phasor. The correspondingOperate and
Do Not Operate zones are marked in figure below.
If fault is behind the relay, then the Ia will fall in Do Not Operate region and hence relay will not
pickup as Zero sequence Current through the neutral of Wye connection and Relay will be in
phase opposition.
ZE represents the impedance of the ground return circuit including the fault arc, the grounding
circuit, and the intentional neutral impedance, if present. If we consider a solidly grounded system,
then ZE = 0 and if Z0 = Z1= Z2 then earth fault current will be given as shown below.
IF = VLN/ Z1
The Sensitive Earth Fault protection scheme works by measuring the residual current across the
three phases in a system. Measurement of three phase residual current is done either by using
Core Balance Current Transformer (CBCT) or three CTs connected in parallel. In the ideal
condition, the residual current will be zero as all the currents flow through the three phases. Here
Residual current means current flowing through neutral or zero sequence current.
As we know that
IN = 3I0= IR + IY +IB
The most important part in SEF or Sensitive Earth Fault Protection is to make proper setting of
the Relay. The protection setting should take into consideration that the three CTs do not have
identical characteristics and will perform differently for heavy phase-to-phase faults or for initial
asymmetrical motor starting currents. This can produce false residual currents. The setting should
also be above the line maximum unbalance current.
The above conditions must be satisfied to avoid nuisance tripping. In addition, the ground fault
protection must be sensitive to minimum ground fault current at the end of the line. Sensitive earth
Fault protection scheme is very sensitive to detection of earth fault in the sense that its setting
can be as low as 0.2%.
Transformer– The system grounding on the system fed by the transformer is determined
by the transformer secondary winding configuration.
Solid Grounding
Resistance Grounding
Reactance Grounding
Each of the grounding method serves a specific purpose and based on the suitability of
our need, we use any one of the grounding method.
The solidly grounded system is the most common system arrangement, and one of the
most used. The most commonly used configuration is the solidly grounded star, because
it support single-phase phase to neutral loads. In this type of grounding method, the
star point is directly connected to the ground.
The figure below, shows the relationship between the phase and line voltage for Solidly
Grounded System.
It can be seen from the above figure that the system voltage with respect to ground is
fixed by the phase-to-neutral winding voltage. It means that the line-to-ground insulation
level of equipment need only be as large as the phase-to-neutral voltage, which is 57.7%
(100/1.732 = 57.7 %) of the phase-to-phase voltage. It also means that the system is
less susceptible to phase-to-ground voltage transients. This is very important benefit
of Solidly Ground System.
The voltage and current on the other two phases are not affected. Thus a solidly grounded
system supports a large ground fault current. Statistically, 90-95% of all system short-
circuits are ground faults.
To summarize,
The solidly grounded system is the most popular, is required where single-phase phase-
to-neutral loads must be supplied, and has the most stable phase-to-ground voltage
characteristics. However, the large ground fault current is a disadvantage and can be
hindrance to system reliability.
The resistor is sized to be less than or equal to the magnitude of the system charging
capacitance to ground. If the resistor is thus sized, the high-resistance grounded system
is usually not susceptible to the large transient overvoltages that an ungrounded system
can experience.
If no ground fault current is present, the phasor diagram for the system is the same as for
a solidly grounded system. However, if a ground fault occurs on one phase the system
response is as shown in figure below. As can be seen from figure below, the ground fault
current is limited by the grounding resistor.
If the approximation is made that ZA (impedance of winding) and ZF (Fault impedance) are
very small compared to the ground resistor resistance value R, then the ground fault
current is approximately equal to the phase-to-neutral voltage of the faulted phase divided
by R. The faulted phase voltage to ground in that case would be zero and the
unfaulted phase voltages to ground would be 173% of their values without a ground
fault present.
The ground fault current is not large enough to force its removal by taking the system off-
line. Therefore, the high resistance grounded system has the same operational
advantage in this respect as the ungrounded system.
Reactance Grounding:
A Reactance Grounded system is one in which the neutral point is grounded through an
impedance which is highly inductive. Reactance Grounding lies between the effective
grounding and Resonant Grounding (will be discussed in next post). Reactance is
provided to keep the fault current within safe limit. This method of grounding is used where
the charging current is high like in capacitor bank, line reactors used for voltage control
of transmission line etc.
For the sake of understanding REF Protection, we take a Transformer of configuration DYn i.e.
HV side of Transformer is Delta connected while the LV side is Start connected and neutral is
grounded solidly.
As shown in figure above, there are a total of four Current Transformers (CTs), three CTs
connected in each phase i.e. R, Y and B and one CT connected in neutral. The secondary of
these four CTs are connected in parallel. The parallel connected CT secondary are then
connected to REF Relay Coil. Basically REF protection Relay element is an over current element.
Under balanced condition i.e. under normal operation the sum of currents through the secondary
of CTs will be zero and current in neutral CT will also be zero. But as soon as a fault takes place
in the secondary winding of Transformer, the current in R, Y and B phase will no longer be
balanced. Also under earth fault a current will flow through the neutral CT. Because of this
unbalance, the summation of current will not be zero but it will have some finite value and hence
the relay will pick up. It shall be noted that for a fault outside the Transformer i.e. for through fault
Restricted Earth Fault Protection will not operate as in this case of through fault, the vector sum
of currents in CT secondary will be zero. This is the reason; such kind of protection scheme is for
restricted zone and hence called Restricted Earth Fault Protection.
Now, it is normal to ask that Differential Protection is also a zone protection and it shall
operate for any internal fault in Transformer, then why do we need extra Restricted Earth
Fault Protection?
This is really a very smart question. See, what happens is, the setting of differential protection is
normally kept at 20%. So, differential relay shall pick if the differential current exceeds 0.2 A. Now
let us consider a case where earth fault occurs just near the neutral point as shown in figure
below.
Since the location of fault is very near to the neutral point, the voltage driving the fault current will
be very less and hence the reflection of such a low current in primary side of transformer will also
will be low. Thus in such case, Transformer differential protection may not operate as its setting
is quite high at 20%. Therefore for protection of Transformer from such a fault we need more
sensitive protection scheme which is implemented by using Restricted Earth Fault Protection. The
sensitivity of REF protection is superior as compared to Differential Protection. Normally the
setting of REF protection is kept as low as 5%. Basically the sensitivity of REF protection
increases as we are using CT in neutral of transformer and whenever an earth fault take place it
is damn sure that current will complete its path through the neutral and hence increasing the
sensitivity of REF protection.
While the purpose of Grounding is the protections of power system equipment and to
provide an effective return path from the machine to the power source. For example
grounding of neutral point of a star connected transformer.
Ground is a source for unwanted currents and also as a return path for main current
some times. While Earthing is done not for return path but only for protection of delicate
equipment.
Suppose we are going to energize the Transformer, obviously the Transformer will have an Inrush
current which is around 6 times of full load current. Refer “Transformer Inrush Current” for detail
on Transformer Inrush Current. Figure given below shows waveform of Inrush Current of
Transformer.
Therefore, the Differential protection will operate. Thus we won’t ever be able to energize the
Transformer or we need to bypass the Transformer Differential Protection when we are going to
energize. Is it a good practice to Bypass Transformer Protection? You will say NO.So what we
need to do for preventing the Differential Protection operation due to Inrush Current?
This requirement calls for Harmonic Restraining in Differential Protection of Transformer.
The inrush current of a Transformer, if analyzed, is rich in 2nd harmonic component. So we can
use this fact to prevent the operation of Differential Protection. Therefore a 2nd harmonic
Restraining is provided in Transformer Differential Protection. Normally the setting of 2ndHarmonic
Restraining is kept at 20% which means that if the 2nd harmonic component in the differential
current of Relay is more than 20% of differential current I dthen Differential Protection Relay will
not operate as it will think that it is because of Transformer Inrush Current but if the 2nd harmonic
component in the differential current of Relay is less than 20% of differential current Id then
Differential Protection Relay will operate.
Therefore to prevent the operation of Differential protection Relay due to overfluxing, 5thharmonic
Restraining is provided in such a manner that if the 5th harmonic component in the differential
current of Relay is more than 25% (say) of differential current Id then Differential Protection Relay
will not operate but if 5th harmonic component in the differential current of Relay is less than 25%
of differential current Id then Differential Protection Relay will operate.
A practical transformers and CTs pose some challenge to Differential Protection. They are as
follows:
The primary of transformer will carry no load current even when the secondary is open
circuited. This will lead to differential current on which the protection scheme should not
operate.
It is not possible to exactly match the CT ratio as per equation. This would also lead to
differential currents under healthy conditions.
If the transformer is used with an off nominal tap, then differential currents will arise as the
CT ratio calculated for a particular Tap (Nominal Tap) will be different for different Tap, even
under healthy conditions.
Thus we see that because of the above reasons a differential current will flow through the
Differential Protection Relay. So Differential Protection will operate which is not expected to
operate for the above said reasons. So what to do to prevent tripping because of
the differential current caused by the above mentioned reasons?
To prevent the Differential Protection scheme from picking up under such conditions,
aPercentage Differential Protectionscheme is used. It improves security at the cost of
sensitivity.
The current on the X-axis is the average current of primary and secondary winding referred to
primary. It indicates the restraining current called the Biasing Current, Ibwhile the corresponding
difference on Y-axis represents the differential current. The Differential Protection Relay will
pick up if magnitude of differential current is more than a fixed percentage of the
restraining current.
Let for differential Protection to operate, Id should be greater than the x% of Ib. Therefore,
Id/Ib> 0.0x
Thus Differential Protection will operate if the Slope is greater than some fixed value which is set
in the Differential Protection Relay. Carefully observe the operating zone in the Slope
characteristic of Differential Protection Relay. Consider the figure below.
Suppose, the current in the secondary of CT is 1A at normal operating condition. Therefore the
Biasing Current Ib = (1+1)/2 = 1A
Thus as discussed above, the restraining current is more than the differential current, Differential
Protection Relay will not operate.
Now assume a through fault, so the primary side CT current will be 2 A (say) and secondary side
CT gets saturated so current in secondary side CT = 0 A.
Thus we see that Differential protection will operate but it is not expected to operate as the fault
is through fault. Thus to prevent tripping on through fault we provide a slope so that Differential
current increases as the Biasing current increases and Differential protection will operate if the
slope exceeds a particular value (which can be set in the Relay).
I1+ I2 + I3 = 0
Let us consider a through fault i.e. fault outside the zone of protection. To be more
specific, let a fault take place after the CT of any feeder. If all the CT’s maintain the same
nominal ratio for all external faults the assumed scheme is perfectly valid since no current
can flow in the relay coil.
However, when the instantaneous overcurrent relay is set low enough to give useful
sensitivity to internal faults the Relay may in practice operate falsely on external faults
due to a reduction of the nominal ratio of the fault CT resulting from fault CT core
saturation. This reduction of the fault CT nominal ratio results in a “false” differential relay
current that may operate the instantaneous overcurrent relay. The wort condition will be
when a CT gets completely saturated. Thus we need to make Relay insensitive for
through fault. To do this we use Stabilizing Resistor.
Or,
Now, let us assume that the setting of High Impedance Differential Relay for internal fault
be Is. So to make Relay insensitive for through fault, the voltage developed shall not drive
a current Is through the Relay, hence we put a Stabilizing Resistor R stbin series with the
Relay Coil and the value of Stabilizing Resistor Rstbis given as
Rstb= Vs / Is
Or
Rstb= Vs = IF(RCT + 2RL) / Iswhen looping of CT is done at Panel or near Relay end.
Thus during through fault, for the worst condition of CT saturation, the current through the
Relay coil will not be enough to cross setting value of Is and thus will not operate.
Rated Normal, Short Circuit Making & Breaking, Short Time Current Rating &
The design of contacts and other current carrying parts in the interrupter of the circuit breaker are
generally based on the limits of temperature rise. For a given cross section of the conductor and
a certain value of current, the temperature rise depends upon the conductivity of the material.
Hence, high conductivity material is preferred for current carrying parts. The cross-section of the
conductors should be increased for materials with lower conductivity.
The use of magnetic materials in close circuits should be avoided to prevent heating due to
hysteresis loss and eddy currents. The rated current of a circuit-breaker is verified by conducting
temperature-rise tests.
It may so happen that circuit-breaker may close on an existing fault. In such cases the current
increase to the maximum value at the peak of first current loop. The circuit breaker should be able
to close without hesitation as contacts touch. The circuit breaker should be able to withstand the
high mechanical forces during such a closure. These capabilities are proved by carrying out
making current test. The rated short-circuit making current of a circuit-breaker is the peak value
of first current loop of short-circuit current (Ipk) which the circuit-breaker is capable of making at its
rated voltage.
In the above equation, the factor √2 converts the r.m.s. value to peak value. Factor 1.8 takes into
account the doubling effect of short-circuit-current with considerations to slight drop in current
during the first quarter cycle.
You may like to read, Why Making Current of Circuit Breaker is more than Breaking Current?
The short time current of a circuit-breaker is the r.m.s. value of current that the circuit breaker can
carry in a fully closed position during a specified time under prescribed conditions of use and
behavior. It is normally expressed in terms of kA for a period of one second. Adjacent poles
experience mechanical force during the test.
The rated duration of short circuit is generally 1 second and the circuit breaker should be able to
carry short-circuit current equal to its rated breaking-current for one second. During the short-time
current test, the contacts should not get damaged or welded.
The current carrying parts and insulation should not get deteriorated. Generally, the cross-section
of conductors based on normal current rating requirements is quite adequate for carrying the rated
short-circuit current for the duration of 1 second.
The operating sequence denotes the sequence of opening and closing operations which the
circuit-breaker can perform under specified conditions. The operating mechanism experiences
severe mechanical stresses during the auto reclosure duty. As per IEC, the circuit-breaker should
be able to perform the operating sequence as per one of the following two alternatives:
(i) O-t-CO-T-CO
C=closing opeartion
t=3 mintes for circuit-breaker not to be used for rapid auto reclosure
T=3 minutes.
(ii) CO-t’-CO
where t’-15 second for circuit-breaker not to be used for rapid auto reclosure.
HV Side?.
As we know that Transformer Open Circuit Test is conducted on LV side and that Short Circuit
Test on HV side. To understand the reason behind this, we will consider a Single Phase
Transformer of rating 3300 / 220 Volt, 33 kVA.
Thus the voltage at the LV side of this Transformer is 220 Volt. Therefore, for Open Circuit Test on
LV side the range of Voltmeter will be 220 V.
= 0.06×150 = 6 A
Here note that Excitation Current is taken as 4% of the Full Load Current as the range of excitation
current is 2-6%.
We see that the rating of instruments required for the testing are standard and easily available.
Furthermore, using standard instruments, more accurate results can be obtained.
If the Open Circuit Test is conducted on HV side then a source of 3300 Volt may not be readily
available. At the same time the instrument ranges required will be 3300 V, 0.4 A [4% of(33×1000)
/ 3300 = 4% of 10 = 0.4 A] and 3300 V & 0.4A which are not within the range of ordinary
instruments and hence result obtained may not be accurate. Also, it is not safe to work on HV
side from safety point of view.
Now, coming to Short CircuitTest. For a Short Circuit Test conducted on HV side the range of
voltmeter required will be,
Range of Voltmeter = 5% of Rated Voltage
= 0.05×3300
= 165 V
Note that voltage required to circulate rated current is around 2-12% of the rated voltage, that is
why we have considered 5% for selection of range of voltmeter.
= 33×1000 / 3300
= 10 A
Thus we observe that the range of instruments required to perform the test fall within the range
of standard instruments which are easily available and accurate.
At the same time, if we conduct the Short Circuit Test on LV side the
= 11 V
= 33×1000 / 220
= 150 A
Instruments of such range and Auto Transformer capable of handling 150 A may not be readily
available and at the same time result may not be much accurate.
It is for these reasons, Open Circuit Test is conducted on LV side and Short Circuit Test on HV
side.
Short Circuit Test of Transformer is performed on HV side and the supply voltage is so adjusted
that rated current flows through the shorted secondary. As rated current is flowing through the
shorted secondary that means that rated current will also flow in the primary because of
Transformer action.
The supply voltage required for the flow of rated current in the shorted secondary is around 2-
12% of rated voltage. Thus the supply voltage i.e. primary voltage is very less which in turn means
that core losses during short circuit test will be negligible (as core loss is directly proportional to
the square of primary voltage.).
Thus short circuit test gives us information of Ohmic loss of Transformer and the power measured
by the Wattmeter is Ohmic loss. An equivalent circuit of the Short Circuit Test referred to
secondary side is shown in figure below. Mind that shunt branch in the equivalent circuit is not
shown as the core loss taking place during Short Circuit Test is negligible.
Let us assume that,
Vsc, Iscand Psc be the Voltage, Current and Power measured by the Voltmeter, Ammeter and
Wattmeter respectively.
= Vsc / Isc
ReH = R1+R2
= Psc / Isc2
XeH = (X1+X2)
But in case leakage impedance parameters for both primary and secondary side is required then
usually, R1 = R2 = ReH / 2 and X1 = X2 = XeH / 2 referred to same side is taken.
Related Posts:
1. Why Transformer Open Circuit Test Conducted on LV side and Short Circuit on HV Side?
2. Open Circuit Test of Transformer
3. Transformer Load Test or Back to Back Test or Sumpner’s Test
4. Rated Normal, Short Circuit Making & Breaking, Short Time Current Rating & Operating
Duty Cycle of Circuit Breaker.
The circuit diagram for Open Circuit Test is shown below. As clear from the figure below,
Voltmeter, Ammeter and Wattmeter are connected in LV side of the Transformer and HV
side is left open. Rated LV voltage is applied to the LV side of the Transformer and the
reading of Voltmeter, Ammeter & Wattmeter is noted for further analysis.
As the Transformer Secondary i.e. HV side is kept open therefore Transformer will only
take excitation current to set up magnetic flux in the core. Therefore Ammeter A will read
Excitation Current Ie which is around 2-6% of the full load current. As Ie is very less
therefore, Primary leakage impedance drop is negligible and we can say that applied
voltage V1 to LV side is equal to the voltage induced in the Primary winding i.e. E1.
Therefore, the equivalent circuit when referred to Primary side reduces to as shown in
figure below.
In input power as metered by Wattmeter consists of two components, one is Core Loss
and another Ohmic Loss. The exciting current being 2 to 6% of the full load current, the
ohmic loss in the primary (Ie2r1) varies from 0.04 to 0.36% of full load Primary ohmic loss.
In view of this, the ohmic loss in Primary is negligible when compared to the normal core
loss which is being directly proportional to square of applied Voltage. Therefore wattmeter
reading can directly be taken as the core loss in the Transformer. Thus we see that Open
Circuit Test gives us Core Loss of Transformer. The phasor diagram for Open Circuit Test
of Transformer is shown below.
Let,
V1 = Applied Rated Voltage on Primary
Ie = Excitation Current
Pc = Core Loss
Ic = IeCosƟ
Im =IeSinƟ
But Pc = V1Ic
So, Ic = Pc/ V1
Therefore,
= V1/ IeCosƟ
= V12/ V1IeCosƟ
= V12/ Pc
Now,
Magnetizing Reactance Xm = V1 / Im
= V1 / IeSinƟ
Here Rc and Xmare values referred to LV side. Sometimes a voltmeter is placed in the
open HV side of the Transformer to measure the Secondary voltage to get turn ratio.
With Secondary open, the wattmeter W 1 records the total core loss occurring in both the
Transformers. Now, secondary of both the Transformers are connected in series with their polarity
in phase opposition so that the voltage across the terminals ab is zero as indicated by the
voltmeter V2. Here it shall be noted that, the basis for selection of range of voltmeter V 2 shall be
the double of rated secondary voltage of the Transformers. In case, the reading of voltmeter V2 is
not zero, this means that the series connection of secondary of Transformer are not in phase
opposition and therefore we need to change the connection by just connecting the
terminals ad together and check that voltage across bc is zero as indicated by voltmeter V2.
Now, if we short the secondary of Transformers, no current will flow as Vab = 0 and therefore the
reading of wattmeter W 1 will not change. Now we will inject voltage in the secondary circuit by
means of voltage regulator, fed from the source connected to the primary or from a separate
source. The injected voltage is regulated till rated current flow in the secondary circuit.
By Transformer Action, rated current now will start flowing in primary circuit too. Note here that,
the full load or rated current in primary completes its path as shown by the dotted line in figure
above. As this full load current in the primary is not flowing through the current coil of the
wattmeter, therefore the reading of wattmeter W 1will remain unaltered.
The reading of voltmeter V2will now show the voltage drop due to leakage impedance of both the
Transformers. As full load current is flowing in the secondary circuit, the wattmeter W 2 will read
the total full load ohmic loss of Transformers.
Let us suppose that,
Therefore, from the above two reading efficiency of each Transformer can be determined.
From the above discussion, it is quite clear that, even though Transformer is not connected to any
load in Sumpner’s Test, rated current is flowing in the primary as well as in the secondary of
Transformers and hence full load ohmic and core loss is taking place. If temperature rise of the
two Transformers is to be measured, then two Transformers are kept under rated loss condition
for several hours till maximum stable temperature is reached.
The Relay detects the abnormal condition by continuously monitoring electrical quantities
which are different for healthy and faulty condition. The electrical quantities which may
change during fault condition are voltage, current, frequency and phase angle. If one or
more of the above electrical quantities change, that signals the presence, type and
location of the fault to the Relay. After detecting the fault condition, Relay pick-up, its
contact will change from NO to NC or vice versa. So we can wire up a particular kind of
Relay contact to Breaker tripping circuit. So whenever, the Relay picks up, the tripping of
Breaker will take place.
Relay coil when picked up will change its contact status. Let us say Relay Normally Open
(NO) contact is wired to the Breaker Trip Coil Circuit. Therefore when the Relay coil is in
de-energized state, the circuit of Trip Coil of CB is not complete and hence no tripping of
the CB. During fault condition as the current through the Relay coil exceeds the pick-up
value, the Relay coil will get actuated which in turn will force its contact to change over
i.e. NO contact will change to Normally Close (NC) thereby closing the Trip Coil circuit of
the Breaker.
Relays may be fitted with a variety of contact systems for providing electrical outputs for
tripping and remote indication purposes. The most common types of relay Output
contacts are as follows:
a) Self-reset Type. The contacts remain in the operated condition only while the
controlling quantity is applied, returning to their original condition when it is removed
b) Hand or Electrical Reset. These contacts remain in the operated condition after the
controlling quantity is removed. They can be reset either by hand or by an auxiliary
electromagnetic element.
The majority of protection relay elements have self-reset contact systems, which, if so
desired, can be modified to provide hand reset output contacts by the use of auxiliary
elements. Hand or electrically reset relays are used when it is necessary to maintain a
signal or lockout condition. Contacts are generally shown on engineering diagrams in the
position corresponding to the un-operated or de-energized condition, regardless of the
continuous service condition of the equipment. For example, an under-voltage relay,
which is continually energized in normal circumstances, would still be shown in the de-
energized condition.
A ‘make’ contact is one that closes when the relay picks up, whereas a ‘break’ contact is
one that is closed when the relay is de-energized and opens when the relay picks up.
Examples of these conventions and variations are shown in figure below.
.
How does Trip Circuit Supervision Work?.
Trip Circuit Supervision Circuit senses any fault either in the trip coil of breaker or trip circuit. On
sensing a fault, Trip Circuit Supervision Relay changes its contact status to window
annunciation on the panel. Here fault in the circuit means any break or open circuit. In this post
we will be discussing the working principle of trip circuit supervision.
Basically, a breaker is equipped with two trip coils. Both the trip coil energizes if relay
issues a tripping command. On energization of trip coil, breaker mechanism opens the
circuit breaker. Therefore, it is very important to monitor the trip coil healthiness otherwise
during the requirement the breaker may not open to clear the fault.
Figure below, shows the simplified diagram of trip circuit supervision.
Trip Circuit Supervision Relay is provided to monitor the healthiness of trip coil. As there
are two trip coils therefore, there will be two Trip Circuit Supervision Relays and hence
two different circuits. This Relay has three coils namely RLA, RLB and main coil (TCS) of
the Relay as shown in the figure above. Now, breaker may either be open or close,
therefore we need to monitor the healthiness in both the state of the breaker. Thus, trip
circuit supervision is divided as pre-close and post close supervision.
As shown in the figure, contacts A and B are breaker auxiliary contacts. Mind that theses
contacts are connected to the breaker mechanism and therefore their status depends on
the breaker position. If the breaker is open, contact A will be OPEN and contact B will be
CLOSE. Similarly if breaker is close, contact B will be OPEN and contact A will be CLOSE.
Now we will consider pre-close and post close supervision separately.
Pre-close Trip Circuit Supervision:
Pre-close means that breaker is open. Thus the status of contact A will be OPEN and that
of B will be CLOSE. If you observe the circuit carefully, you will notice that, in this case
current will be flowing through both the coils RLA and RLB. As coils RLA and RLB are
energized, their contact will be close.
Now carefully observe the circuit of TCS Relay. Since RLA and RLB are close, DC supply
will be extended and hence TCS relay will be energized. Therefore, its output contact 1-
2 will be open and hence no window will appear. This means that trip circuit is healthy.
Assume there is any open circuit, in such case as no current could flow through the coils
RLA and RLB, hence relay TCS will not be energized. Because of this its output contact 1-
2 will be close for window annunciation . This means to the operator that either DC supply
has failed or there is some problem in the trip circuit.
Post Close Trip Circuit Supervision:
Post close means that breaker is close. Thus the status of contact A will be CLOSE and
that of B will be OPEN. If you observe the circuit carefully, you will notice that, in this case
current will be flowing through both the coils RLA.
Now carefully observe the circuit of TCS Relay. Since output contact of RLA is close, DC
supply will be extended to TCS relay and hence TCS relay will be energized. Therefore,
itsoutput contact 1-2 will be open and hence no window will appear. This means that trip
circuit is healthy. Assume there is any open circuit, in such case as no current could flow
through the coils RLA, hence relay TCS will not be energized. Because of this its output
contact 1-2 will be close to annunciate window. This means to the operator that either DC
supply has failed or there is some problem in the trip circuit.
It shall be noticed that, as the resistance of relay coil is very less therefore a
high resistanceshall be connected in series so that less current flows through the circuit
to operate the trip coil of the breaker. It shall also be noticed that, in case of protection
trip, separately positive DC voltage is extended to the trip coil of circuit breaker so that
full current flows through the trip coil to operate the breaker as clear from the figure.
a) The substation rating is defined as per the power handling capacity, location and
purpose of substation.
b) Thumb rule for the economical voltage rating has been categorized for different power
range to be received as below:
Load up to 150 MVA – voltage rating of 132 kV.
Load up to 80 MVA – voltage rating of 66 kV.
Load up to 5 MVA – Voltage rating of 33 kV.
Thus, when a substation is of rating 66/11 kV, means substation has been designed to
receive 80 MVA on 66 kV and it will distribute the received power on 11 kV.
Again, substation of rating 33/11kV means, the substation has been designed to receive
5 MVA of power at 33 kV and it will distribute the same on 11 kV.
Advantages & disadvantages of Harmonics in Power System.
Harmonic voltages and currents in a Power System are a result of non-linear electric
loads.
In a normal AC Power System, the current varies sinusoidally at a specific frequency,
usually 50 or 60 Hertz. When a linear electrical load is connected to the system, it draws
a sinusoidal current at the same frequency as the voltage, though usually not in phase
with the voltage.
Current harmonics are caused by non-linear loads. When a non-linear load, such as a
rectifier / inverter, is connected to the system, it draws a current that is not necessarily
sinusoidal. The current waveform can become quite complex, depending on the type of
load and its interaction with other components of the system. Regardless of how complex
the current waveform becomes, as described through Fourier Series analysis, it is
possible to decompose it into a series of simple sinusoids, which start at the power system
fundamental frequency and occur at integer multiples of the fundamental frequency.
Effects of Harmonics:
One of the major effects of power system harmonics is to increase the current in the
system. This is particularly the case for the third harmonic, which causes a sharp increase
in the zero sequence current, and therefore increases the current in the neutral conductor.
Electric motors experience losses due to hysteresis and losses due to eddy currents set
up in the iron core of the motor. These are proportional to the frequency of the current.
Since the harmonics are at higher frequencies, they produce higher core losses in a motor
than the power frequency would. This results in increased heating of the motor core,
which (if excessive) can shorten the life of the motor.
The 5th harmonic causes a Counter Electromotive Force in large motors which acts in
the opposite direction of rotation. The Counter Electromotive Force is not large enough
to counteract the rotation; however it does play a small role in the resulting rotating speed
of the motor.
Therefore, first attempt is made to make the field waveform sinusoidal as far as possible
and them means of reducing or suppressing the harmonics is adopted. Field waveform
of an Alternator can be made sinusoidal by the following methods:
Small air gap at the pole centre and large air gap at the pole end in an Salient Pole
Synchronous machine tens to make the field flux sinusoidal.
Skew pole faces if possible.
In Turbo-Alternator or cylindrical pole synchronous machine, the air gap is uniform
and hence field winding is distributed in slots in such a manner to make the field
waveform sinusoidal. Figure below shows the Rotor of an Alternator.
Having adopted all the above mentioned methods, the filed waveform along the air gap
periphery is still not purely sinusoidal but it is flat topped. As a result, harmonic emf is
always generated in the Alternator. These harmonics can however be eliminated /
suppressed by the following methods:
The distribution of armature winding along the air gap periphery tends to make the
generated emf waveform sinusoidal.
With chorded coil, harmonics can be eliminated. If the ξ be the chording angle for
fundamental flux wave, then for nth space harmonics the chording angle becomes nξ
electrical. Therefore, pitch factor for nth harmonics,
Kp= Cos(nξ/2)
If we want to eliminate 5th harmonics then, ξ = 36° as
Kp = Cos(180/2)
=0
Therefore, generated emf E = KpKdπfNphØ
f =Frequency
Ø =Flux
A chording angle of 30° is most useful in an Alternator as it gives the following pitch
factors,
0.966 for fundamental, 0.707 for 3 rd harmonic, 0.259 for 5th and 7th harmonics and 0.7.7
for 9th harmonics.
Mind that triplen harmonics is eliminated from the generated line emf by Star
connection, though 5thand 7th harmonics of reduced magnitude are present in the
line emf.
As shown in the figure, one full pitched coil a and a’ are placed. The fundamental
component of field flux wave induce maximum emf in coil sides a and a’ as these are
cutting the maximum filed flux Øm1. If the rms value of emf in each coil be E1 then the
resultant emf of fundamental frequency across the coil ends A and B = 2E1.
Now, the second harmonics component of field flux wave also induces emf in coil sides
a and a’. The induced emf because of second harmonics in coil sides a and a’ are
maximum as because these are cutting the maximum field flux Øm2. But here it shall be
noted that in both the coil sides the emf induced will oppose each other as both coil sides
are cutting maximum positive filed flux wave of second harmonic component. Therefore
the net / resultant emf because of second harmonic component across the coil sides A
and B = 0
This shows that second / even though even / second harmonic is present in the field flux
wave, second harmonic cannot be there in the output voltage of an Alternator.
It shall however be noted that field flux waveform of an Alternator is symmetrical and
hence it do not have any even harmonics and hence there will not be any even harmonics
in the generated voltage of an Alternator.
Harmonics in Transformer can be suppressed by having lower flux density in core but it
has one disadvantage that, this method of reducing flux density in core will lead to higher
cross sectional area of the core and more number of turn for maintain voltage ratio.
Because V = 1.414πfNØ
Type of Connection:
Triplen harmonics are those which are having frequency multiple of 3. Triplen harmonic
current and voltage in the line are suppressed by using Star or Delta connection of the
winding in the Transformer.
Primary or Secondary Winding in Delta:
As we know that harmonic voltages have more nuisance effect than harmonic current.
Thus every effort is made to suppress the third harmonic voltages in the Transformer.
When any of the Primary or Secondary Winding is connected in Delta, triplen harmonic
voltages are suppressed considerably. In view of this, one of the Transformers winding
either Primary or Secondary must be connected in Delta to suppress triplen harmonics.
It shall be noted that tertiary winding has no any effect on the fundamental frequency
component voltages because the phasor sum of three EMFs mutually displaced by an
angle of 120° is zero in the closed Delta connected tertiary winding.
The third harmonic voltages in the two winding Star-Star Transformer can also be
suppressed by using Star-Delta Earthing Transformer as shown in figure below.
The closed Delta provides a path for the third harmonic currents and hence the EMF and
flux remains sinusoidal.
For Star-Star Transformer, the third harmonic voltages can also be suppressed by using
4 wire supply or earthing Transformer Neutral point if Alternator / Generator neutral is
grounded. The neutral wire in this case provide a path for the flow of third harmonic
current and hence the flux & EMF remain sinusoidal.
A transformer is designed to operate at or below a maximum magnetic flux density in the transformer
core. Above this design limit the eddy currents in the core and nearby conductive components cause
overheating which within a very short time may cause severe damage. The magnetic flux in the core
is proportional to the voltage applied to the winding divided by the impedance of the winding. The flux
in the core increases with either increasing voltage or decreasing frequency. During start-up or
shutdown of generator-connected transformers, or following a load rejection, the transformer may
experience an excessive ratio of Volts to Hertz (V/f), that is, become overexcited. When a transformer
core is overexcited, the core is operating in a non-linear magnetic region, and creates harmonic
components in the exciting current. A significant amount of current at the 5th harmonic is
characteristic of overexcitation.
Assuming Number of turns constant, Flux is directly proportional to V/f. Here V is supply voltage and
f is frequency of supply.
In case of any Transformer, signal for supply voltage V is taken from PT. Let us assume that
Transformer Primary is connected with 220 kV. Thus normal voltage of primary of Transformer will be
220 kV at a frequency of 50 Hz. Also assume that the PT ratio is 220 kV/110 V.
Therefore,
V/f ratio = 110/50 = 2.2
Thus at a V/f ratio of 2.2 the Transformer will operate satisfactorily. So the question arises which V/f
ratio may cause the overfluxing. For answering this we need to have a look at the Hysteresis curve of
the core material and from the curve we can judge at which flux level Transformer can be subject for
a particular time safely.
Normally the setting of overfluxing is kept 110% of nominal value or 1.1 pu. This means at a flux level
of 1.1×2.2 = 2.42 the Transformer will operate safely but above 2.42 the Transformer core will be
subjected to overflux.
Does this mean that at a V/f ratio of 2.5 Transformer shall be tripped instantaneously? No it
doesn’t mean so. Because Transformer core may tolerate such an overflux for some short time
duration and hence instantaneous tripping is not required. Therefore, wise decision is to give
anINVERSEcharacteristics to the tripping which mean more the ratio of V/f less will be time of tripping.
Now we consider two cases:
Case1: Transformer Primary voltage rises to 247 kV while frequency is 50.1 Hz
As primary of Transformer rises to 247 kV at a frequency f = 50.1 Hz
The PT secondary Voltage = 247×110/220 = 123.5 V
Hence, V / f = 123.5/50.1 = 2.465
Thus the Relay will pick-up and as the characteristics is inverse, the relay will trip after some time
because we have kept the setting 2.42. If the Primary Voltage is maintaining at 247 kV , then we can
do nothing and the Relay will definitely trip.
Case2: Transformer is provide with Tap Changer
Suppose the Transformer is provided with Tap Changer. As the Transformer is provided with Tap
Changer in the primary side, we can increase the Tap position from the nominal value which will result
in increase in the value of N1 (Primary number of turns) and hence,
But this is not going to help us as we have taken the voltage signal from the PT which is connected to
the Primary side i.e. and primary side voltage is maintained at 247 kV, hence V/f will be same.
Thus we observe that, even though we have Tap Changer, in the present scenario we can do nothing
to prevent tripping of Transformer on overfluxing though the Transformer is not actually in overflux
condition (as we have increased the number of turns in the primary side.)
Therefore, to take advantage of Tap Changer, we can make a provision of taking voltage signal from
the secondary side PT of Transformer Relay. In such case, if the primary turn of Transformer is
increased then its reflection on secondary side PT will be observed proportionally and tripping on
Overflux protection can be prevented.
In case of no load operation of Transformer, we can give voltage signal to the Relay from the Primary
side PT.
In this way the purpose will be served without compromising the overflux protection. Thus we see, how
important is tap changer in preventing tripping of Transformer from Overfluxing.
As we know that
V1 / V2= N1 / N2
Where V1 = Primary Voltage
V2 = Secondary Voltage
Thus,
Now, whether will we change Primary Number of Turns N1 or Secondary Number of Turns
N2depends whether we have provided Tap on Primary side or Secondary side. The choice
of providing tap on Primary side or Secondary side is based on maintaining voltage per
turn constant as far as possible. The flux in the core of Transformer depends on voltage
applied in the primary,
V1 = 1.414πfN1Ø
Thus the flux in the core shall be maintained constant. If the Primary voltage per turn i.e.
Flux decrease, which means poor utilization of core while in case the Primary voltage per
turn increases that means overflux which may cause heating and saturation of the core.
Let us take an example of Generating Transformer. As the primary of the Generating
Transformer is connected with the Generator output terminals therefore variation in the
Primary voltage will be very less. Therefore, the flux in the core of Transformer will be
constant and hence the wise decision will be to put the Taps on the secondary side.
Other factors which shall also be taken care while deciding upon the side Taps should be
provided are:
Transformer Taps are provided on HV side as in this case Tag changing Gera will
handle low current and chance of sparking will be less.
If we see the construction of Transformer, we will observe that LV winding are placed
just after the core to limit the insulation requirement to be provided and HV winding
are placed on the LV winding. Thus it is quite difficult to provide the Taps on the LV
winding of the Transformer.
Now after deciding the side where Tap is to be provided in Transformer, next question
is that whether Tap shall be provided in the center of the winding or at the end of
the winding?
A general sense says that Tap shall be provided in the middle of the winding because in
this case the forces on the winding will be less.
Since the current flowing in the Primary and Secondary coils are in opposite direction,
these currents interact with the leakage flux in between the two windings and produce a
radial force repelling each other as shown in the figure below.
Now, suppose the winding is tapped at one end. When some of the winding is cut out by
tap changer, axial force in addition to radial force is also developed as shown in figure
below.
Under short circuit condition, the axial force tending to compress the winding against the
core is very large which may damage the winding insulation. In order to eliminate this,
physical position of the Tapped winding should be in the middle of the Transformer
winding so that no axial force arises after some of the turns are cut out.
.
Thus we can say that weight of conductor in a winding is directly proportional to its
Ampere Turns i.e. MMF.
Now, we will focus our attention on the weight of conductor required for Auto Transformer
and a Two Winding Transformer.
As discussed in earlier post Basic principle of Auto Transformer, the current carried by
winding AC i.e. IAC= I1 and that of winding BC i.e. IBC = (I2-I1). Also the number of turns for
winding AC is (N1-N2) and that for winding BC is N2.
Therefore,
∝ (N1-N2)xI1+ N2x(I2-I1)
∝ N1I1+N2I2-2N2I1
But N2 / N1= I1 / I2
Therefore,
∝ N1I1+N2I2-2N2I1
∝ 2N1I1 – 2N2I1
If we want to compare the weight of conductor required for Auto Transformer and Two
Winding Transformer, then both the Transformers must have same voltage ratio (V 2 / V1),
current ratio (I2 / I1), input VA i.e. V1I1and output VA i.e. V2I2.
Assuming all the above parameters to be same for Two Winding and Auto Transformer,
Weight of conductor in Two Winding Transformer W CTWT,
So,
∝ 2N1I1 ……………………………………….(2)
= 1 – N2/N1
= (1 – k)
As for step down Auto Transformer k<1, hence the weight of conductor required for Auto
Transformer is less than that required for Two Winding Transformer.
= 1 – (1 – k)
=k
Hence there is net saving of conductor in case of Auto Transformer. Let us assume that
k =0.1, thus the saving in conductor for Auto Transformer will be only 10% but if k = 0.9
then saving in conductor will be 90% which is quite lucrative. Thus we can conclude that
Auto Transformer is more economical when the voltage ratio k is more near to unity.
Another important aspect is core. As the conductor required for Auto Transformer is less
than that required for Two Winding Transformer that means for Auto Transformer lower
window dimension will be required. Thus by using Auto Transformer, there is net saving
in Core material as well as conductor material, the saving will be more and more as we
tend toward voltage ratio unity.
Owing to reduction in conductor and core material, the Ohmic loss in conductor and core
loss is reduced considerably. Therefore an Auto Transformer has higher efficiency than
Two Winding Transformer of same output.
Reduction in conductor material means lower value of winding resistance. Since a part of
winding is common to both the Primary and Secondary circuit in Auto Transformer,
leakage reactance will be less. Because of lower value of leakage reactance, a superior
voltage regulation is achieved with Auto Transformer.
At the instant of starting, a three phase Induction Motor behaves like a Transformer with
its secondary winding shorted. Therefore, Induction Motor during starting takes a high
current from the supply mains. To limit this high starting current of Induction Motor,
different starting methods are used. In this post we will have a look at the Auto-
Transformer Starting Method of Induction Motor.
Here Isc is the current through the stator during direct switching of motor.
Thus we observe that starting current of Motor has reduced and is x times that of current
during DOL (Direct Online) starting.
Again,
Ist.V1= xV1(xIsc)
Therefore,
Per phase starting current from the Supply Mains Ist = x2Isc
Thus per phase starting current from Supply Mains has now became x2 times that of DOL
current. Mind that it has reduced as x is less than 1 so x2 will be much less than 1. Thus
the main advantage of using Auto-Transformer is that it reduces the starting current from
the Supply Mains by x2 times.
Note that starting current is the motor winding is x times while the starting current from
the supply mains has became x2 time of DOL starting current.
Thus starting torque with Auto Transformer is less than the starting torque with DOL
starting by a factor of x2.
In a squirrel cage induction motor, the starter is used only to decrease the input voltage
to the motor so as to decrease the starting current.
It is T.P.D.T switch used to first start the motor with the winding connected in star and
then switch for delta connection in running position. TPDT stands for Triple Pole,
Double Throw.
The line current or the input current to the motor is I st (starting current) = (1.732*Vs)/Zs
which is the current when it has to be started by DOL starter.
Now, if the stator winding is connected as star, the phase or line current drawn from
supply at start (standstill) = (Vs/Zs)/(1.732)
The voltage per phase in each stator winding is now Vs/1.732. So the starting current is
reduced by 33.3%. Because of the reduction in starting current, starting torque reduces.
Therefore we can conclude that by using Star Delta starter, the starting current is reduced
to approximately two-thirds. Since starting current is reduced, the voltage drops during
the starting of motor in systems are reduced.
As clear from the figure, there will not be any earth fault current in the case where there
is no neutral grounding of the source because of absence of return path. But as we can
see, if the source is having neutral grounding then earth fault current will have a return
path and earth fault current will flow from the point of fault to the source.
After reading the above paragraph, I am sure that a question will strike your smart
brain, why do we do neutral grounding as there won’t be any earth fault current in
absence of neutral grounding?
Yes, it is correct that there will not be any earth fault current in absence of neutral
grounding but neutral grounding has many advantages, they are as follows:
Voltage of the phases is limited to phase to Ground Voltage
The high voltage due to arching ground or transient line to ground fault are
eliminated.
Sensitive protective Relays for earth fault protection can be used.
Over voltage due to lightening are discharged to ground otherwise there would have
been a positive reflection at the isolated neutral of the system.
Hope your doubt is clear now. This is the reason Neutral grounding is done in a system.
Grounding a motor star point will create an earth path for earth fault current to flow through
that motor’s star point. If there are 10 motors in a process plant and their star points are
all grounded then obviously there are 10 additional paths for earth fault currents to flow
through.
If all the motors’ star points are grounded in this way the earth fault current detections by
the protection relays will be complicated and it is most likely that Relay will trip at the
incorrect locations because earth fault currents are flowing in many directions toward
multiple grounded neutral points.
Therefore the electrical consumers i.e. the load, including the capacitor banks, even if
they are star connected are not to be grounded.
Motor is a balanced 3-phase load. However when the system supply voltage is
unbalanced caused by unbalanced loads somewhere else or due to network conductors
problem, the motor operating under unbalance voltage will result in unbalance current in
the 3 windings. The same is true for the generator windings under that condition. The
design engineer may then decide that individual machines should be fixed with negative
phase sequence current protection.
Even if there is a neutral voltage shift in the induction motor, we should not ground the
motor’s neutral point. If we ground the induction Motor, it may create nuisance trip on
earth fault protection relays.
Following are the main reasons due to which low voltage Motors stator are connected in
Delta:
In Delta connection, the insulation requirement will not be problem as voltage level is
less in LT Motors.
Starting current will not be problem as starting power in all will be less. So no
problem of voltage dips.
Starting torque should be large, as motors are of small capacity and hence Stator
should be connected in Delta to have more current and hence more starting torque.
Motor.
A Squirrel Cage Induction Motor (SCIM) only has a cage rotor winding, whereas a
synchronous machine has both a cage (damper) and a wound DC field winding as shown
in figure below.
In smaller synchronous motors the damper winding is used to start the motor just like a
normal SCIM and when close to synchronous speed the DC field is applied and the rotor
locks into and runs at synchronous speed.
Capacitor.
We have already discussed about staring methods of Single Phase Induction Motor. If you miss
that please read here,
The schematic diagram of Capacitor Split Phase Motor is shown in figure below.
Like in resistor split phase motor, there are two windings, Main and Auxiliary winding but the basic
difference between the two method is that in Capacitor Split Phase Motors a capacitor of suitable
value is connected in series with the auxiliary winding. Capacitor is connected in series with the
auxiliary winding to obtain the desired time phase displacement between the auxiliary winding
current Ia and main winding current Im. A centrifugal Switch is also provided the cut out auxiliary
winding when the speed of Single Phase Induction Motor reaches 70 to 80% of synchronous
speed.
As can be seen from the phasor diagram of Capacitor Split Phase Motor, there is an angle of β
between the auxiliary winding current Ia and main winding current Im.
Mind that the angle between the auxiliary winding current Ia and main winding current Im is 180°
if there is main winding alone and because of this Single Phase Induction Motor cannot start by
itself.
Also, the torque produced in any machine is directly proportional to IaImSinβ, therefore in this
method of starting, there will be a net starting torque and the motor will start. The value of
Capacitor used shall be selected based on the load starting torque requirement. If the starting
torque requirement of load is more, then angle β shall be made more by selecting higher value of
Capacitor. A maximum starting torque can be obtained by this method of starting if angle β = 90°.
But to have β = 90°, the size and cost of Capacitor will increase. Therefore a compromise is made
in between the load starting torque requirement and size & cost of Capacitor.
It shall be noted that, auxiliary winding and Capacitor are in circuit for a short time only, and
therefore these can be designed for a minimum cost. The torque speed curve for Capacitor Split
Phase Motor is depicted in figure below.
It is clear from the figure that starting torque in this method is high. Capacitor Split Phase Motors
have a typical power rating of 100 to 800 Watts. The value of starting Capacitor varies from 20 to
30 microF for 100 Watt Motors and 60 to 100 microF for 750 watt Motors. AC electrolytic
capacitors are mostly used in this method of starting but Motors shall not be frequently started
else electrolytic capacitors may get overheated and damage.
Why 3-Phase Induction Motors are Self-Starting but 3-Phase Synchronous Motors
Not?.
Let us consider a 3-phase induction motor first and see how it rotates. A 3- phase supply
given to the armature of Induction Motor produces a rotating magnetic field. This rotating
magnetic field rotates at synchronous speed Ns = (120xf)/P
This rotating magnetic field links to the rotor coils and induces voltage which in turn
produces current in the rotor. The current carrying rotor being placed in a magnetic field
experiences a torque and hence begins to rotate in the direction of rotating magnetic field.
Thus we see that Induction Motor is self-starting. It does not require nay external mean
to rotate.
Now we consider a 3-phase synchronous motor. A 3-phase supply is given to the
armature of Synchronous Motor, produces a rotating magnetic field. However, in this
case, the rotor has its own field produced by a DC current flowing through the
rotor winding. This rotor field tends to align itself along with the rotating magnetic field
produced by the stator i.e. armature winding. North pole of rotor tries to lock with the
South pole of stator and South pole of Rotor tries to align along the North of Stator.
The North Pole of rotor tries to chase the South Pole of stator. But the stator magnetic
field is rapidly rotating at synchronous speed, and before the North Pole of rotor could
lock with South Pole of stator, the stator field has shifted position so that its North (stator)
comes in the vicinity of North Pole of rotor and they repel as shown in figure below.
Because the rotor has certain inertia and the speed of the rotating magnetic field is too
fast for it to catch up, it ends up vibrating. So Synchronous Motor fails to start.
We can give a reduced frequency supply to the stator, this will reduce the speed of
rotation of the stator magnetic field and the rotor will easily catch up, once the rotor
catches up we may increase the frequency.
We can manually rotate the rotor till it catches speed near to synchronous speed and
eventually locks the rotor field with the stator field.
We can use Amortsieur Windings. The concept is to start the motor as an induction
motor. Initially no DC field excitation is given and the motor operates as an induction
motor. Once it attains some speed near to synchronous speed, DC excitation is given
and the rotor field aligns itself with the stator field, and rotor attains synchronous
speed.
Methods of Starting Single Phase Induction Motors.
As discussed in earlier post Revolving Field Theory of Single Phase Induction Motors, a single
phase induction motor with main stator winding alone has no inherent starting torque as the main
stator winding and only produces stationary pulsating air gap flux wave. For the development of
starting torque, rotating field at the starting must be produced. There are various methods of
starting single phase induction motor, can be classified as below,
4) Reluctance starting
Generally a single phase induction motor is known by the method employed for its starting.
Basically the selection of a particular type and choice of starting single phase induction motor
method depends upon the following factors:
3) The starting and running line current limitation as imposed by the supply authorities
In this post we will only discuss the Split Phase Starting method.
Single Phase Induction Motor employing split phase starting method is known as Split Phase
Motor. All the split phase motors have two winding, main winding and auxiliary winding. Both
theses windings are connected in parallel but their magnetic axis are displaced by an angle 90°.
Split phase starting method is further categorized into following:
Resistor split phase motors. A schematic diagram of the two stator winding in quadrature is
shown if figure below. Subscript m and a stands for main and auxiliary winding of stator. CS
is Centrifugal Switch.
You may like to read, Purpose of Centrifugal Switch in Induction Motor.
As we know that, if the two winding currents are shifted in time phase, a rotating filed is created
which is necessary for the production of starting torque. In order to achieve this main winding M
is designed to have low resistance but higher reactance whereas the auxiliary winding is designed
to have higher resistance (thin wire) but lower reactance. The use of thin wire for auxiliary winding
is acceptable as auxiliary winding only remain in circuit during starting but the use of thick wire for
main winding is necessary as main winding has to remain in circuit permanently. As the reactance
is directly proportional to the square of number of turns, auxiliary winding has less number of turns
as compared with main winding.
In addition to the above mentioned points, leakage reactance of main winding is increases by
placing it at the bottom of slot whereas auxiliary winding is placed at the top of slot to have low
leakage reactance.
As seen in above discussion, main winding has more reactive impedance as compared to the
auxiliary winding, therefore main winding current Im lags behind the auxiliary winding current Ia
as shown in the phasor diagram below.
Thus from the phasor we see that the angle between the two field produced by main and auxiliary
winding is β. As we know that torque produced is directly proportional to torque angle which is β
here, therefore a n net starting torque will be developed. The auxiliary winding is disconnected
automatically by means of Centrifugal Switch CS at about 70-80% of synchronous speed. If
the Centrifugal Switch fails to operate, auxiliary winding will remain in the circuit and noisy
performance of single phase induction motor will result. Since auxiliary winding is short time rated,
it must get overheated and consequently burn out.
Typical application of Resistor split phase induction motor is for fans, blowers,
centrifugal pumps and refrigerator.
Shunt faults include power conductor or conductors to ground or short circuit between the
conductors.
Series type of fault is basically unbalance in system. Suppose we have used Fuse / Breaker to
protect the circuit. If one or two phases open while the third phase remain in circuit, such kind of
fault is called Series Fault. Notice that Series Fault may also occur in case of one or two Broken
Conductor. Here broken conductor is like breaking of jumper on the tower of transmission line
which is not touching the grounded tower body.
Shunt faults are characterized by increase in current and decrease in voltage and frequency
whereas Series faults are characterized by increase in voltage and frequency and decrease in
current in the faulted phase.
1) Line-to-Ground Fault
2) Line-to-Line Fault
Of the above faults, first three faults are unsymmetrical fault as the symmetry is disturbed in one
/ two of the phases. The method of Symmetrical Components shall be applied for the analysis of
such unbalance and fault.
Three phase fault is balanced fault which can also be analyzed using concept of symmetrical
components.
These faults also disturb the symmetry and therefore these faults are unbalanced faults and
hence shall be analyzed using concept of symmetrical components.
The potential of neutral when it is grounded through some impedance or is isolated will not be at
ground potential under unbalance condition as in unsymmetrical fault rather it will have some finite
value with respect to ground.
The potential of neutral is given as Vn = -InZn where Zn is neutral grounding impedance and In
is neutral current. Notice the negative sign before the expression of neutral voltage Vn, it indicates
the flow of current from ground to the neutral point and therefore the potential of neutral point will
be less than the ground potential.
Ia + Ib+ Ic = 3Ia0
Therefore,
Vn = -3Ia0Zn
Notice that only zero sequence current flows through the neutral and therefore voltage drop
across neutral will be only due to zero sequence currents.
HRC Fuse consists of heat resisting ceramic body having metal end caps on which silver
current carrying element is welded in a special manner as shown in figure below.
As clear from the figure above, the fuse element have a portion of Tin Alloy, known as a
Eutectic Material. This alloy is used to give the fuse specific operating characteristics.
Also, constrictions in the fuse element are provided which play a very vital role in the
operation of Fuse. The space between the body surrounding the Fuse element is filled
filling powder such as with Silica Send, Chalk, plaster of peris etc.
Under normal operating conditions the current flowing through the Fuse element does not
provide enough energy to melt the element. The heat produced is absorbed by the
surrounding filling powder. If a large current flows the energy produced melts and
vaporizes the fuse element before the fault current reaches the peak. The chemical
reaction between the fuse element vapour and filling powder results into high resistance
material which helps in extinguishing the arc.
Under high current short circuit conditions the smaller area constricted parts of the fuse
element will melt rapidly and vaporize and will break before the Eutectic Material. That is
why constrictions are provided in the HRC Fuse element.
A Fuse operates when its element melts due to heat produced by I2RF, where RFis Fuse
resistance. This heat produced increases if the current flowing through the Fuse element
increases. Therefore, we can conclude that a Fuse element will melt faster for large fault
current while it will take some time for lower value of fault current. This time-current
relationship of Fuse is known as Characteristics of Fuse and is very useful for proper
selection of Fuse for a particular circuit and for coordination purpose. A typical Fuse
characteristic is shown in figure below.
How to Interpret the Fuse Characteristics?
In the above figure, curve for three Fuses of rating 60 A, 100 A and 200 A are give. We
select Fuse of rating 60 A for the sake of understanding. See, if the current flowing through
the Fuse element is around 350 A then the Fuse element will melt in .02 sec i.e. 20 ms
while if the current is around 225 A then it will take 50 ms to melt. Thus we see that the
Fuse characteristic is Inverse Time. Higher the current, lower will be the time to melt.
A fuse is the small piece of wire connected between the two terminals of insulated
mounted base. Fuse is always connected in the series of the circuit of low voltage
equipment. It is the simplest and cheapest form of protection from overload and short
circuit. The Fuse is expected to carry the normal current without heating and during
overload / short circuit; Fuse gets overheated up to its melting point rapidly and thus
breaking the circuit.
The materials used for the Fuse are Tin, Lead, Silver, Zinc, Copper etc. For small value
of current an alloy of Lead and Tin, in the ration of 37 & 63% are used. But for current
more than 15A, this alloy is not used as the diameter of the wire will be large and after
fusing the metal release will be excessive.
It is the value of current flowing through the Fuse wire at which the Fuse wire will melt.
Fuse Rating:
Fuse rating is given in Ampere. It is basically that value of current at which the Fuse is
expected to operate safely without melting. This value of current will definitely will be less
than the Minimum Fusing Current.
Fusing Factor:
Fusing Factor is defined as the ratio of minimum fusing current to the fuse rating.
Prospective Current:
Prospective Current of Fuse is the value of current which will flow through it just before
the melting of the fuse wire under Short Circuit condition.
This is the time taken by a fuse wire to be broken by melting. It is counted from the instant;
the over current starts to flow through fuse, to the instant when fuse wire is just broken
by melting.
Arcing Time:
After breaking of fuse wire there will be an arcing between both melted tips of the wire
which will be extinguished at the current zero. The time from the instant of arc initiated to
the instant of arc being extinguished is known as Arcing Time of fuse.
Total Operating Time:
Total Operating Time of Fuse is the sum of Pre-arcing and arcing time.
Types of Fuses:
AC Fuse
DC Fuse
This classification of Fuse arises because of arcing. In DC it is quite time taking to
extinguish the arc. Therefore DC Fuses are made with longer wire so as to avoid arc.
Hence DC Fuses are bigger in size. But in AC fuse as the current reduces to zero in every
haft cycle (10 ms assuming 50 Hz frequency), arc is extinguished.
Cartridge fuses are used to protect electrical appliances such as motors air-conditions,
refrigerator, pumps etc, where high voltage rating and currents required. They are
available up to 600 A and 600 V AC and widely used in industries, commercial as well as
home distribution panels.
Other Types of Fuses are SMD Fuses, Axial Fuses, Thermal Fuses, HRC (High Rupturing
Capacity) fuse and High Voltage fuses.
After the Endurance Test, the contacts, linkages and all the other parts should be in good
condition and should not show any permanent deformation or distortion. The dimensions
should be within original limits. During repeated operations of the circuit-breaker, the
weaker parts in the assembly may fail. The circuit-breaker is then considered to have
failed in the mechanical test. The tests are then to be repeated after improvement in the
design and manufacture. Successful performance in Mechanical Endurance Test proves
the adequacy of design and also good quality of materials and manufacture.
Though 1000 close-open cycles are specified in the standards, the manufacturer may
conduct 10,000 or more operations to ascertain the reliability and for getting design data.
They can’t move it with different speed or different direction. Similar is going to happen
with power source.
Synchronization of two Power Sources means both the sources have the same
Phase Sequence
Voltage Magnitude
Frequency
Phase Angle
There is a setting provided in the Synchronization Check Relay (25 SYN). There are two
terms which are frequently used in Synchronization, Running Line and Incoming Line.
The bus which is already charged and to which we are connecting a source is called
Running Line as shown in figure below.
In above figure if we close the CB-1 then we are synchronizing S1 to the Bus, therefore
S1 is Incoming Line and Bus is Running Line.
When power sources are not synchronized, there are instances where there is a voltage
difference at the same very node where the three sources are connected.
Thus, we are going to connect the R phase of Source S1 to Y phase of Source S2.
Therefore from phase angle 0 to 90 degree, source S2 is stronger in magnitude and hence
current will flow from source S2 to S12 but after 90 to 135 degree, source S1 is stronger
in magnitude of voltage and hence current will flow from S1 to S2. In this manner a
continuous circulation current will flow from one source to another whose magnitude
depends on the system impedance.
This circulating current if high enough will burn the equipment connected. Therefore it is
must that we should Synchronize the two sources.
Working Principle of Petersen Coil.
To better understand the working principle and need of Petersen Coil, let us have a look at
the arcing ground phenomenon. We know that arcing ground phenomenon is observed in
ungrounded 3 phase system. During arcing ground the voltage of healthy phase rises from
phase voltage to line voltage i.e. it becomes √3Vph. Also, arcing in such phenomena is due to
heavy capacitive charging current which is 3IC where IC = Vph / XC. Thus if there were any way to
reduce this charging current then arcing ground phenomena could have been eliminated. Isn’t
it?.
Well, you will say that we can connect a resistor in ground of system to minimize
the capacitive charging current. Then why do we connect inductor in ground?
Why Inductor is used to eliminate Arcing Ground?
To answer this question, let us consider a single line to ground fault and its phasor
diagram for an ungrounded system as shown below.
From the phasor diagram it is can be easily observed that, the voltage of neutral point
shifts from ground potential to phase voltage V ph but in opposite direction. This is the
reason the direction of VC is reverse in figure above and shown by V’C. The fault current
IC (IC = IA+IB) is perpendicular to the V’C. Thus if we want to eliminate the fault current then
we must connect an element which will take current in a direction opposite to I C. Carefully
observe that IC is leading V’C by 90°.
Now as we are connecting an element in between the neutral point N and ground,
therefore the voltage drop across that element will be V’C. Thus that element must take
current equal to IC and shall lag from V’C by 90°. As inductor takes lagging current,
therefore an inductor is connected in between neutral and ground to eliminate arcing
ground.
What is Petersen Coil?
Petersen Coil is nothing but an inductor used to connect ground of three phase system
to the earth. In other words, the neutral of three phase system is grounded through
Peterson Coil. Basically, such grounding is adopted to minimize the capacitive charging
current during fault in the lines. This also eliminates the arcing ground. The inductor
connected in figure above is Petersen Coil. This type of grounding is also known as
Resonant Grounding.
How does Petersen Coil Work?
As discussed earlier in this post, Petersen Coil must take current equal to the fault current
ICso that it neutralizes the fault current. This is the reason, it is also known as fault
neutralizer.
Let us consider the figure shown above.
The current through the Petersen Coil IL = Vph / ωL
But the fault current IC = 3Vph / XC (how? Please read Arcing Ground)
Therefore to neutralize the fault current,
IL = I C
Hence,
Vph / ωL = 3Vph / XC
⇒1/ωL = 3ωC
⇒L = 1/3ω2C
Thus to neutralize the capacitive charging current, the value of inductance of Petersen
coil shall be 1/3ω2C.
Advantages of Resonant Grounding
The use of Petersen coil reduces the line interruption due to transient line to ground fault. This
is otherwise not possible with other kind of grounding.
The tendency of developing three phase fault from single phase fault is reduces with the use
of resonant grounding.
Working Principle of Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker ELCB and Residual Current
Device RCD.
An Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB) is a safety device used to directly detect the leakage
current to the Earth from an installation and cut the power supply. Basically ELCB is used where
the earth impedance is high. Because of high earth impedance, the voltage difference between
the Metallic part of the Installation and Earth will be quite high and dangerous from human
safety point of view.
It may strike in your smart mind that “What is the difference between Earth Fault current and
Earth Leakage Current?” This is very important to know as we are going to discuss about safety
device used to sense earth leakage current.
Well, according to IEC 60947-2, Earth fault current is the current flowing to earth due to
insulation fault and Earth leakage current is the current flowing from the live parts of the
installation to earth in the absence of an insulation fault.
In case of degradation of electrical insulation, the live conductor may get in touch with the metallic
part of the equipment and because of high earth impedance; the potential difference between the
body of equipment to the Earth will be high enough to result in shock to the working personnel.
Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB) detects the leakage current to the earth and trips the
associated breaker to isolate the supply.
There are two types of Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB). One is Voltage Earth Leakage
Circuit Breaker, also called Voltage ELCB and another is Current Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker,
also known as Current ELCB.
Working Principle of Voltage ELCB:
Voltage ELCB is a voltage operated device. It has a coil and if the voltage across the coil exceeds
a predetermined value such as 50 V, the current through the coil will be sufficient enough to trip
the circuit.
Voltage ELCB is connected in between the metallic part of equipment and the Earth. If we take
an example of insulation failure, then the voltage across the coil of Voltage ELCB will drive enough
current to cut the power supply till the manually reset.
The working of Current ELCB is quite interesting but easy. Current operated ELCB is also known
as Residual Current Device, RCD. A Residual Current Device (RCD) has a toroidal iron core over
which phase and neutral windings are wound. A search coil is also wound on the same iron core
which in turn is connected to the trip coil. Figure below shows the constructional detail of RCD or
Current ELCB.
Under normal operating condition, the current through the phase winding and neutral winding are
same but both the windings are wound in such a manner to oppose the mmfs of each other,
therefore net mmf in the toroidal iron core will be zero. Let us consider a condition where earth
leakage current exists in the load side. In this case the current through the phase and neutral will
no longer be equal rather phase current will be more than the neutral current. Thus mmf produced
by phase winding will be more than the mmf produced by neutral winding because of which a net
mmf will exist in the toroidal iron core.
This net mmf in the core will link with the Search Coil and as the mmf is changing in nature (current
is AC), an emf will be induced across the terminals of the Search Coil. This emf will in turn drive
a current through the Trip Coil which will pull (because of current flow through the Trip Coil, it will
behave as an electromagnet and hence will pull the lever to open contact) the supply contacts to
isolate the power supply. Notice that Current ELCB works on Residual Current that is the reason
it is also called Residual Current Device.
A RCD / Current ELCB is also provided with test button to check the healthiness of the safety
device. If you carefully observe the figure, you will notice that, when we press the Test Button,
Load and phase winding are bypassed due to which only mmf because of neutral winding will
exist in the core (as there is no opposing mmf as was the case with both the windings in service)
which will cause RCD to trip to isolate the supply.
Let us first discuss residual voltage in case of single line to ground fault. Let us consider
a solidly grounded system as shown in figure below.
Let us assume that a ground fault takes place in A phase (In many industries and
numerical relays, normally the phases are said as A, B and C instead of R, Y and B,
though they represent the same thing i.e. A phase means R phase, B means Y phase
and C means B phase). Ea, Eb and Ec are the Generator terminal voltage per phase.
Bold letters here represent vector form.
Because of ground fault in A phase, the voltage at the point of fault will become zero but
the voltage of other two healthy phases will remain normal as the neutral is solidly
grounded therefore the neutral potential will be maintained to earth potential.
Va = 0
Vb = V ∠-120°
Vc = V ∠120°
Here V is per phase voltage under normal condition.
Thus the residual voltage of system = Va+Vb+Vc
= 0 + V ∠-120° + V ∠120°
= V ∠-60°
Thus we observe that, there exists a residual voltage in case of single line to ground fault.
This residual voltage is measured by Residual Voltage Transformer.
The primary of Residual Voltage Transformer is connected to three phase system and its
secondary is connected in Broken Delta as shown in figure below.
The output of the secondary windings connected in broken delta is zero when balanced
sinusoidal voltages are applied (as Va+Vb +Vc = 0), but under conditions of unbalance a
residual voltage equal to three times the zero sequence voltage (V0) of the system will be
developed.
To measure this component i.e. 3V0, it is necessary for a zero sequence flux to be set up
in the Residual Voltage Transformer (RVT), and for this to be possible there must be a
return path for the resultant summated flux. Therefore, RVT core must have one or more
unwound limbs linking the yokes in addition to the limbs carrying phase windings. Usually
the core is made symmetrically, with five limbs, the two outermost ones being unwound.
This two outermost unwound limbs provide return path for zero sequence flux.
In case where three single phase transformer units are used to measure residual voltage,
no extra limbs are requires as each single phase transformer has a core with closed
magnetic path.
It is very important to earth the primary winding neutral of Residual Voltage Transformer
to provide return path for zero sequence current else zero sequence current cannot flow
and hence the flux will contain 3rd harmonic component that is reflected in primary and
secondary voltages of Residual Voltage Transformer. This voltage appearing at the
secondary terminals of RVT is not the residual voltage of the system in any way.
Secondary of CBCT is connected to Earth Fault Relay. During normal operating condition
as the vector sum of three phase current i.e. (Īa + Īb + Īc =0) is zero therefore no residual
current in the primary will be present. Here residual current means zero sequence current.
Therefore there will not be any flux developed in the CBCT core and hence no current in
the secondary circuit of CBCT.
Working Principle of CBCT:
Let Īa, Īb and Īc be the three line currents and Φa, Φb and Φc be corresponding
components of magnetic flux in the core. Assuming that the CT is operating in the linear
region (Read B-H Curve to get idea of linearity), magnetic flux because of individual
phase current will be directly proportional to the phase current and hence we can write
as below,
Φa = kIa
Φb = kIb
Φc = kIc
where k is constant of proportionality. Mind here that same constant of proportionality is
used as all the three phase current are producing magnetic flux in the same core i.e.
magnetic material.
Thus the resultant magnetic flux in the CBCT core,
Φr = k(Īa + Īb + Īc) …………………..(1)
But we know from theory of symmetrical components,
Īa + Īb + Īc = 3Ī0 = Īn
Where, Io is zero sequence current and In is neutral current. Hence we can write as
Φr = kĪn …………………………(2)
Now let us consider two cases:
Case1: During normal condition
Īa + Īb + Īc = 0
Hence from equation (1),
Net resultant flux in the CBCT Core, Φr = 0 which means no secondary current and
therefore the Earth Fault Relay won’t operate.
Case2: During earth fault, three phase current passing through the center of Core
Balance Current Transformer will not be balanced rather a zero sequence current will
flow. For example for single line ground fault,
If = 3Ia0 = In
Thus from equation (2),
Net magnetic flux in the CBCT core, Φr will have some finite value which in turn will induce
current in the secondary circuit due to which earth fault relay will operate. Because of this
reason, a Core Balance Current Transformer or CBCT is also called Zero Sequence
Current Transformer.
Advantage of Core Balance Current Transformer:
The advantage of using CBCT for earth fault protectionis that only one CT core is used
instead of three core as in conventional system where the secondary winding of three
cores are connected residually. Thus the magnetizing current required for the production
of a particular secondary current is reduced by one third which is a great advantage as
the sensitivity of protection is increased.
Also, the number of secondary turn does not need to be related to the cable rated current
because no secondary current flows under normal operating condition as the currents are
balanced. This allows the number of secondary turns to be chosen to optimize the
effective primary pick-up current.
Core Balance Current Transformer is normally mounted over a cable at a point close to
the cable gland of the Switchgear. In case cables are already laid in a Switchgear,
physically split core, which is also known as Slip-over type CT, are used.
We know that CT core is made of CRGO (Cold Rolled Grain Oriented Silicon Steel). When the
primary of CT is energized a working mmf is produced in the core. To produce a working mmf,
excitation current Ie is taken. This mmf produces a flux inside the core of CT which links with the
secondary winding and as per the Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction, an emf is
generated across the terminals of CT secondary by Transformer action. The emf induced in the
CT secondary terminal is given as
E = 4.44fNØ
Where f is frequency of supply, N is number of secondary turns and Ø is flux in the core of CT.
But Ø is directly proportional to mmf and mmf in turn is directly proportional to current. Thus if we
increase the current, flux Ø generated in the core will increase till the core saturates. Thus there
must be a point where from the flux do not increase in the same proportion as the increase in
current. This point is called Knee Point. After discussing this much, we can at least say that Knee
Point is something related with Saturation of CT core. If there is something called saturation, then
we must draw saturation curve of the CT core to have more insight.
You may like to read
Why CT Secondary Shall Never be Kept Open?
Difference between Current Transformer & Potential Transformer
For drawing CT saturation curve, we apply voltage in the CT secondary (keeping
primary open) in step of 10% of rated voltage till 120% and read the secondary current
using Clamp Meter. All the readings are noted in table and a curve is drawn between
applied voltage V and excitation current Ie. The curve drawn will look like as shown in
figure below.
Carefully observe the saturation curve shown above. It is quite clear that beyond point K, we need
to increase current to a larger extent to have some increase in voltage. This because the curve
beyond point K becomes non-linear. The voltage at point K i.e. Vk is called Knee Point Voltage.
This is the reason, in definition it is said that Knee Point Voltage of a Current Transformer is
defined as the voltage at which 10 % increase in voltage of CT secondary results in 50 %
increase in secondary current. This means that an increase in 50% current will lead to just an
increase in 10% voltage. Therefore slope at Knee Point Voltage will be,
= 0.1/0.5
= 0.2
Knee Point Voltage of Current Transformer is of importance in Protection Class CT i.e. where CT
is used for protection purpose. Protection Class CT is normally specified as PS (Protection
Special). PS is defined by knee point voltage of current transformer Vk and excitation current Ie
at Vk/2. The Burden of CT when used for protection purpose is quite high when compared with
Metering Class CT, which means that voltage drop across theburden will be high. But voltage
drop across the burden is equal to the voltage across the CT secondary and if the voltage across
the CT secondary is high then it may drive the CT to saturate in normal condition. Therefore Knee
Point voltage of Protection Class CT must be more than the voltage drop across the burden to
maintain CT core in its linear zone.
Also,
and H = NI
Therefore, there exist hysteresis relationship between Flux and Magnetizing Current. The
Transformer is preferably operated in saturation region which in turn means that for
considerable increment in current causes a slight increase in flux, which gives flux wave
sinusoidal shape, while magnetizing current is peaky. This explains why it is rich in 3rd
harmonic component even though the supply is sinusoidal.
If we observe the waveform of excitation current of Transformer, we see that the wave
form of current is symmetrical which means absence of even harmonics. Remember that
waveform will not be symmetrical if there is any even harmonic component.
The peaks of the magnetizing current and flux will occur simultaneously, while their zeros
will not, due to hysteresis.
Thus I hope it is clear that how harmonic component comes in the excitation current of
Transformer.
Sympathetic inrush current. Energizing a transformer on the power system can cause
sympathetic inrush currents to flow in an already energized parallel transformer. Energizing the
second transformer causes a voltage drop across the resistance of the source line feeding the
transformers. This voltage drop may cause a saturation of the already energized transformer in
the negative direction. This saturation causes magnetizing inrush current to supply the flux. The
magnitude of the magnetizing inrush current is generally not as severe as the other cases.
When a power transformer is energized while keeping its secondary circuit open, it acts as an
inductance. In normal condition of a Power Transformer, the flux produced in the core is in
quadrature with applied voltage i.e. Flux lags behind the applied voltage by 90° as shown in the
figure below.
This means, Flux wave will reach its maximum value after 1/4 cycle or π/2 angle reaching
maximum value of voltage wave. Hence as per the waves shown in the figure, at the instant when,
the voltage is zero; the corresponding steady state value of flux should be negative maximum.
But practically it is not possible to have flux at the instant of switching on the supply of
Transformer. This is because, there will be no flux linked to the core prior to switching on the
supply. The steady state value of flux will only reach after some finite time which in turn depends
upon how fast the circuit can take energy. So the flux in the core also will start from its zero value
at the time of switching on the transformer.
As we know that,
Now suppose, Transformer is switched on when Voltage is zero. Therefore Flux will also start
from zero. Therefore, total Flux at the end of first half cycle of voltage wave will be,
Where Øm = Maximum flux in the core in steady state or normal operating condition.
Therefore, the flux in the core of Transformer will be double the maximum value of flux in steady
state condition. This phenomenon is also shown in figure below.
It is clear from the above graph that maximum flux in the core of Transformer will be 2Ø mwhen
the applied voltage is at its zero.
Now what will happen because of this higher value of flux in the core of Transformer?
Transformer core is saturated just above the maximum steady state value of flux Øm. But when
we switch on power supply to the Transformer’s primary, the maximum value of flux will jump to
double of its steady state maximum value Øm. As, after steady state maximum value of flux Øm,
the Transformer core becomes saturated, the current required to produced rest (2Øm-Øm = Øm)
of flux will be very high. So transformer primary will draw a very high current from the source
which is called Magnetizing Inrush Current in Transformer or Inrush Current in Transformer.
The nature of Transformer Inrush Current is shown in figure below.
Normally the setting of 2nd Harmonics blocking is set to 20% which means if
2ndHarmonic component is more than 20% of fundamental frequency value of current then Relay
will understand that it is because of Magnetizing Inrush Current and hence won’t issue trip
command but if it is less than 20% fundamental frequency value of current then Relay will treat it
due to fault and will issue trip command to the primary side Circuit Breaker.
Point on Wave Switch is used to minimize the Magnetizing Inrush Current of Transformer. If you
want to know more about Point on Wave Switch, please write in comment box. I will post
on Point on Wave Switch.
As the winding is itself a distributed RLC circuit it will behave like RLC filter and gives
different output voltages at different frequencies. That means if we go on increasing the
frequency of the input signal without changing its voltage level we will get different output
voltages at different frequencies depending upon the RLC nature of the winding. If we
plot these output voltages against the corresponding frequencies we will get a particular
pattern for a particular winding as shown in figure below.
But after transportation, heavy short circuit faults, transient switching impulses and
lightening impulses etc, if we do same Sweep Frequency Response Analysis test and
superimpose the present signature with the earlier pattern and observe some deviation
between the two graphs / signature. Thus we can conclude that there is mechanical
displacement / deformation in the Winding / Core.
Thus using SFRA test, we can say whether Transformer windings / core is OK or not.
This method is simple yet reliable.
Buchholz relay `can prevent the development of conditions leading to a fault in the
transformer, such as the falling of the oil level due to leaks, or the penetration of air as a
result of defects in the oil circulating system.
The adoption of other forms of protection does not therefore exclude the use of the gas-
actuated Buchholz relay, as this device is the only means of detecting incipient
faults, which if unnoticed, can cause heavy failures.
Buchholz Relay is installed in between the Main Tank of Transformer and the Conservator
as shown if figure below.
The operation of the Buchholz relay is based upon the fact that every kind of fault in an
oil-filled transformer causes a decomposition of the insulating oil due to overheating in
the fault zone or to the action of an intense electric field, and a generation of bubble of
gas. These reach the relay which is normally filled with oil, through the pipe connecting
the transformer to the conservator where the Buchholz relay is mounted.
Whenever a minor fault occurs inside the transformer, heat is produced by the fault
currents. The produced heat causes decomposition of transformer oil and gas bubbles
are produced. These gas bubbles flow in upward direction and get collected in the
Buchholz relay. The collected gas displaces the oil in Buchholz relay and the
displacement is equivalent to the volume of gas collected. The displacement of oil causes
the upper float to close the upper mercury switch which is connected to an alarm circuit.
Hence, when minor fault occurs, the connected alarm gets activated. The collected
amount of gas indicates the severity of the fault occurred. During minor faults the
production of gas is not enough to move the lower float. Hence, during minor faults, the
lower float is unaffected.
During major faults, like phase to earth short circuit, the heat generated is high and a
large amount of gas is produced. This large amount of gas will similarly flow upwards, but
its motion is high enough to tilt the lower float in the Buccholz relay. In this case, the lower
float will cause the lower mercury switch which will trip the transformer from the supply
i.e. transformer is isolated from the supply.
Class-A, Class-B and Class-C Tripping Classification of Generator.
Generator, Generator Transformer and Unit Transformer protections have been classified into
Class-A, Class-B and Class-C. Class-A tripping is further classified into Class-A1 and Class-
A2. Class-A, Class-B and Class-C Tripping Classification of Generator is based on the need of
isolation of Generator on the basis of type of fault. In this post we will discuss each type of
tripping classes and their significance.
Class-A1 Trip: The protections for the faults in the Generator which need immediate
isolation are grouped under this Class-A1. There are a list of faults which are kept
under this class. They are as follows:
a) Generator Differential Protection
b) 100% Stator Earth Fault Protection
c) Generator Over Voltage Protection
d) Dead Machine Protection
e) 95% Stator Earth Fault Protection
f) Starting Over Current Protection
In case of actuation of Class-A1 protection, Generator Circuit Breaker and Filed Circuit
Breaker are opened along with turbine tripping.
Class-A2 Trip: The protections for the faults in Generator Transformer (GT), Isolated
Phase Bus Duct (IPBD), and Unit Transformer (UT) which need immediate isolation are
grouped under this Class-A2. Normally following protections are kept under Class-A2:
a) Over fluxing Protection of Generator
b) Back up Impedance Protection of Generator
c) Differential Protection of GT
d) Buchcholz Relay of GT
e) PRD of GT
f) Trip from OTI & WTI of GT
g) Fire protection of GT
h) Differential Protection of UT
i) Buchcholz Relay & PRD of Main Tank of UT
j) Trip from OTI & WTI of UT
k) Fire protection of UT
These protection when operated initiate tripping of Generator Circuit Breaker, Field Circuit
Breaker, Generator Transformer Circuit Breakers & Unit Transformer LV Circuit Breakers
and turbine.
Class-B Trip: The protections for the faults in the Generator which do not need
immediate isolation are grouped under this Class-B. The turbine is tripped first and
Generator is allowed to run utilizing trapped steam in turbine. Let us suppose that there
is some fault in the process side i.e. in steam cycle, under that condition also turbine will
be tripped first while Generator will continue to run utilizing trapped steam till reverse
power relay operates. Generator Circuit Breaker is tripped on initiation of reverse power.
Normally, Loss of Excitation and Rotor Earth Fault of Generator are kept under this class.
These protection when operated initiate tripping of Generator Circuit Breaker, Field Circuit
Breaker and turbine.
Class-C Trip: The protections for the faults / abnormal condition in the Grid which call for
disconnection of the Generator from the Grid are grouped under this Class-C. In this case,
Generator is isolated from the Grid by opening the suitable breaker i.e. Generator
Transformer HV side Breaker. Mind that in this case only Generator is isolated from the
Grid. Thus Generator continues to feed Station loads (also known as house load). Such
scheme where generator is operated on house load at reduced power is known as
Generator Islanding. Normally following protections of Generator are kept under this
class:
a) Unbalance or Negative Sequence Protection
b) Back up Impedance Protection
c) Under Frequency
d) Over Frequency
e) Pole Slipping Protection.
Power transformer is used for the transmission purpose at heavy load, high voltage
greater than 33 KV and 100% efficiency. It also having a big in size as compare to
distribution transformer, it used in generating station and Transmission substation at high
insulation level.
The distribution transformer is used for the distribution of electrical energy at low voltage
as less than 33 kV in industrial purpose and 440 – 220 V in domestic purpose. It work at
low efficiency at 50-70%, small size, easy in installation, having low magnetic losses & it
is not always fully loaded.
On the basis of Iron Losses and Copper Losses,
Power Transformers are used in Transmission network so they do not directly connect to
the consumers, so load fluctuations are very less. These are loaded fully during 24 hours
a day, so copper losses and Iron losses takes place throughout day.
The average loads are nearer to full loaded or full load and these are designed in such a
way that maximum efficiency occur at full load condition.
As these are time dependent therefore All Day Efficiency is defined in order to calculate
the efficiency.
Power Transformers are used for transmission as a step up devices so that the I2rloss
can be minimized for a given power flow. These transformers are designed to utilize the
core to maximum and will operate very much near to the knee point of B-H curve. This
brings down the mass of the core enormously.
Naturally these transformers have the matched iron losses and copper losses at peak
load i.e. the maximum efficiency point where both the losses match.
Distribution transformers obviously cannot be designed like this. Hence the All-Day-
Efficiency comes into picture while designing it. It depends on the typical load cycle for
which it has to supply. Definitely Core design will be done to take care of peak load and
as well as all-day-efficiency. It is a bargain between these two points.
Power transformer generally operated at full load. Hence, it is designed such that copper
losses are minimal. However, a distribution transformer is always online and operated at
loads less than full load for most of time. Hence, it is designed such that core losses are
minimal.
In Power Transformer the flux density is higher than the distribution transformer.
On the basis of Maximum Efficiency,
The main difference between Power and Distribution Transformer is that Distribution
Transformer is designed for maximum efficiency at 60% to 70% load as normally doesn’t
operate at full load all the time. Its load depends on distribution demand. Whereas power
transformer is designed for maximum efficiency at 100% load as it always runs at 100%
load being near to generating station.
Distribution Transformer is used at the distribution level where voltages tend to be lower
.The secondary voltage is almost always the voltage delivered to the end consumer.
Because of voltage drop limitations, it is usually not possible to deliver that secondary
voltage over great distances.
As a result, most distribution systems tend to involve many clusters of loads fed from
distribution transformers, and this in turn means that the thermal rating of distribution
transformers doesn’t have to be very high to support the loads that they have to serve.
All Day Efficiency = (Output in KWhr) / (Input in KWhr) in 24 hrs which is always less
than power efficiency.
Dry Type Transformers find use in locations where the use oil Filled Transformers
increases the fire hazard such as shopping malls, Hospitals, residential complexes etc.
In dry type transformers air is used as the cooling medium instead of oil.
The insulation used in dry type transformers are designed to withstand higher
temperatures. Dry type transformers are more expensive than conventional transformers.
Vacuum Pressure Impregnation, Epoxy Resin cast are some of the methods of Insulation
adopted in Dry Type Transformer construction.
Comparison between Dry Type and Oil Filled Transformer:
Dry Type Transformers use air as the cooling medium. Oil Type Transformers are
considered a potential fire and safety hazard for indoor application.
Dry Type Transformers can be located closer to the load unlike Oil Transformers
which require special location and civil construction for safety reasons. Locating the
Transformers near the loads may lead to savings in cable costs and reduced
electrical losses.
Oil Type transformers may require periodic sampling of the oil and more exhaustive
maintenance procedures.
Though Dry Type Transformers are advantageous, they are limited by size and
voltage rating. Higher MVA ratings and voltage ratings may require the use of oil
Transformers.
For outdoor applications, Oil Filled Transformers are cheaper than dry types.
In this post we will discuss about Core Loss. Core Loss is again classified into two types:
Hysteresis Loss
Eddy Current Loss
First we will have a look at how the core of a Transformer looks like. But the Core Loss
take place in any electrical machine which face changing magnetic flux.
Hysteresis Loss:
When the magnetic field strength or the current is increased the flux increase, after a
point when we further increase current the flux gets saturated. When we reduce the
current from saturation to zero side the flux density starts to decrease. But when the
current value reaches zero the flux density should also be zero but it is not zero. For zero
current there is still some flux present in the material, this is known as Residual Magnetic
Flux or Remnant Magnetic Flux. Hence the amount of power is never recovered back.
The power which gets trapped in the core of the material is lost in the form of heat.
Now we will consider the mathematical part of Hysteresis Loss. The Hysteris Loss in core
is given as
Ph= KhfBmx
Where Kh = Constant which depends on the volume and quality of core material.
f = Frequency of Supply
Thus we see that Core Loss depend on Voltage as well as Frequency of Supply.
Eddy Current Loss takes place when a coil is wrapped around a core and alternating ac
supply is applied to it. As the supply to the coil is alternating, the flux produced in the coil
is also alternating.
By faradays law of electromagnetic induction, the change in flux through the core causes
emf induction inside the core. Due to induction of emf eddy current starts to flow in the
core. Due to this eddy current there will be an associated Ohmic loss which is called Eddy
Current Loss.
Eddy current losses can be reduced by lamination in the core. Thin sheet steels must be
used which are insulated from each other. Due to insulated sheets the amount of current
which flows get reduced and hence the eddy current losses also reduces.
Now we will take a look at the mathematical part of Eddy Current Loss. Eddy Current
Loss is given as
Pe= Kef2Bm2
Where Ke = constant whose value depends on the volume and resistivity of the
core material.
f = Frequency of Supply
It shall be noted that, from the equation of Eddy Current Loss it seems that Eddy Current
Loss depends on the frequency of supply but it is not so rather it only depends on the
Supply Voltage. How?
As Pe = Kef2Bm2
a) Unit Scheme: Unit type schemes protect a specific area of the system i.e. a transformer,
transmission line, generator or bus bar. The unit protection schemes are based
on Kirchhoff’s Current Law – the sum of the currents entering an area of the system must
be zero. Any deviation from this must indicate an abnormal current path. In these
schemes, the effects of any disturbance or operating condition outside the area of interest
are totally ignored and the protection must be designed to be stable above the maximum
possible fault current that could flow through the protected area.
b) Non-unit scheme: The non-unit schemes, while also intended to protect specific
areas, have no fixed boundaries. As well as protecting their own designated areas, the
protective zones can overlap into other areas. While this can be very beneficial for backup
purposes, there can be a tendency for too great an area to be isolated if a fault is detected
by different non unit schemes.
The most simple of these schemes measures current and incorporates an inverse time
characteristic into the protection operation to allow protection nearer to the fault to operate
first.
The non unit type protection system includes following schemes:
Time graded over-current protection
Current graded over-current protection
Distance or Impedance Protection
Over Current Protection: It finds its application from the fact that in the event of fault the
current will increase to a value several times greater than maximum load current. A relay
that operates or picks up when its current exceeds a predetermined value (setting value)
is called Over-current Relay. Over-current protection protects electrical power systems
against excessive currents which are caused by short circuits, ground faults, etc. Over-
current relays can be used to protect practically any power system elements, i.e.
transmission lines, transformers, generators, or motors. For feeder protection, there
would be more than one over-current relay to protect different sections of the feeder.
These over-current relays need to coordinate with each other such that the relay nearest
fault operates first.
Use time, current and a combination of both time and current are three ways to
discriminate adjacent over-current relays. Over-current Relay gives protection against:
Phase faults
Earth faults
Winding faults
Short-circuit currents are generally several times (5 to 20) full load current. Hence fast
fault clearance is always desirable on short circuits.
Primary requirement of Over-current protection is that the protection should not operate
for starting currents, permissible over-current, and current surges. To achieve this, the
time delay is provided.
Over-current Relay Ratings:
In order for an over-current protective device to operate properly, over-current protective
device ratings must be properly selected. These ratings include voltage, ampere and
interrupting rating.
Current limiting can be considered as another over-current protective device rating,
although not all over-current protective devices are required to have this characteristic
Voltage Rating: The voltage rating of the over-current protective device must be at least
equal to or greater than the circuit voltage. The over-current protective device rating can
be higher than the system voltage but never lower.
Ampere Rating: The ampere rating of a over-current protecting device normally should
not exceed the current carrying capacity of the conductors As a general rule, the ampere
rating of a over-current protecting device is selected at 125% of the continuous load
current.
Depending on the time of operation of relays, they are categorized as follows:
a) Instantaneous Over-current Relay
b) Inverse time over current Relay
c) Inverse definite minimum time (IDMT) over-current Relay
d) Very Inverse Relay
e) Extremely Inverse Relay
a) Instantaneous Over-current Relay:
Instantaneous Over-current Relay is one in which no intentional time delay is provided for
the operation. The time of operation of such Relay is approximately 100 ms.
Instantaneous Over-current relay is employed where the impedance between the source
and the Relay is small as compared with the impedance of the section to be provided.
Here,
K = Time of actuation
α, β = Constant which depends on the type of Relay
I = Fault Current
I0 = Pick-up current
Value of α and β for different types of Relay:
Sr. No. Type of Relay α β
Inverse time over current Relay
1) 0.02 0.14
/ IDMT
2) Very Inverse Relay 1.00 13.5
3) Extremely Inverse Relay 2.00 80.00
Example: Suppose the pick-up current for an IDMT relay is set at 0.8 A and the fault
current is 80 A then the time of actuation can be calculated as
K = 0.14/[ (80/0.8)0.02– 1].
a) Unit schemes
b) Non-unit schemes
a) Unit Protection Scheme: Unit type schemes protect a specific area of the system i.e. a
transformer, transmission line, generator or bus bar. The unit protection schemes are based on
Kirchhoff’s Current Law – the sum of the currents entering an area of the system must be zero.
Any deviation from this must indicate an abnormal current path. In these schemes, the effects of
any disturbance or operating condition outside the area of interest are totally ignored and the
protection must be designed to be stable above the maximum possible fault current that could
flow through the protected area.
In other words, it is possible to design protection systems that respond only to fault conditions
occurring within a clearly defined zone. This type of protection system is known as unit protection.
Certain types of unit protection are known by specific names, e.g.Restricted Earth
Fault and Differential Protection. Unit protection can be applied throughout a power system and,
since it does not involve time grading, is relatively fast in operation. The speed of response is
substantially independent of fault severity.
Unit protection usually involves comparison of quantities at the boundaries of the protected zone
as defined by the locations of the current transformers. This comparison may be achieved by
direct hard-wired connections or may be achieved via a communications link. However certain
protection systems derive their restricted property from the configuration of the power system and
may be classed as unit protection, e.g. Earth Fault Protection applied to the high voltage delta
winding of a power transformer. Whichever method is used, it must be kept in mind that selectivity
is not merely a matter of relay design. It also depends on the correct coordination of current
transformers and relays with a suitable choice of relaysettings, taking into account the possible
range of such variables as fault currents, maximum load current, system impedances and other
related factors, where appropriate.
b) Non-unit Protection Scheme: The non-unit schemes, while also intended to protect specific
areas, have no fixed boundaries. As well as protecting their own designated areas, the protective
zones can overlap into other areas. While this can be very beneficial for backup purposes, there
can be a tendency for too great an area to be isolated if a fault is detected by different non unit
schemes.
The most simple of these schemes measures current and incorporates an inverse time
characteristic into the protection operation to allow protection nearer to the fault to operate first.
Lets us begin with an example. Let us assume that we have an Alstom Relay P442 and we want
to implement a protection feature called Local Breaker Back-up (LBB) Protection in the Relay. So
we need to finalize our logic for the operation of LBB. The generalized logic for LBB protection is
Under the above logic the LBB Relay shall initiate its timer and shall give the tripping command
to isolate the fault after a fixed time delay say 200 ms. Assuming the above logic for LBB, we will
design a logic using Programmable Scheme Logic, PSL in the Numerical Relay. But before
designing the PSL, we need to give the input to the Relay, in our case there are two inputs, one
will be the contact of Lock-out Relay and another Current Transformer (CT) input. So our first step
will be to assign the inputs to the Relay and label a name to each input. In the second step, we
need to configure the output of Relay and label a name to the Relay Output contact. Let,
Lock-out Relay contact Input is labeled as INPUT1. Mind that only digital inputs can be labeled.
So we can not assign a name to CT input.
Likewise let the Relay output contact to trip Breakers to isolate fault be RL1.
Thus as per our logic when INPUT1 is high and over current still exists then RL1 shall get high
after 200 ms to isolate the fault.
Carefully observe the figure above. We have used digital inputs and Over-current DDB I>1
(1stStage Over-Current) in an AND gate to start the timer and if the input status do not change for
200 ms then RL1 will change its status from low to high but in the time window of 200 ms, if the
input status changes then the timer will reset and RL1 will remain low.
Therefore, making a Programmable Scheme Logic, PSL in a Numerical Relay is just a logic
building while having knowledge of function of each DDB to be used. This is just a brief of PSL to
have some idea of PSL used in Numerical Relay. Hope you enjoyed this post.
Pick-up Current, Plug Setting Multiplier (PSM) and Time Setting Multiplier (TSM).
Plug Setting Multiplier (PSM) and Time Setting Multiplier (TSM) are used only for
Electromechanical Relays. These terms or parameters are not so used in Numerical Relays but
they are conceptually used and incorporated in Numerical Relays too but the way of their
implementation is quite different than that of Electromechanical Relays. In this post we will focus
on the concept and implementation of Plug Setting Multiplier and Time Setting Multiplier for
Electromechanical Relays.
As we know that an Electromechanical Relay has a coil which when energized, operates the
Relay to have contact changeover. But there shall be some minimum current which when flows
through the Relay coil, produces enough magnetic force to pull the lever to make contact change
over. Isn’t it? Yes, if you ever get a chance to see electromechanical relay, you will observe that
there is a flapper kind of thing which is attached with the lever. The lever in turn is attached with
contacts. Thus when a specified current flows through the relay coil, then only it will produce
enough magnetic pull to attract the flapper and lever to operate the Relay. A simple picture of
relay demonstrating its construction and operation is shown in figure below.
This minimum current in the Relay coil at which Relay starts to operate is called Pick-up Current.
If the current through the Relay coil is less than the pick-up value then Relay won’t operate. On
contrary, if the current through the Relay coil is more than the Pick-up current, Relay will operate.
In industries, we normally perform Relay Pick-up and Drop-off Test to check the healthiness of
relays.
Hope your concept of Pick-up current of Relay is clear now. Now we will move on to Current
Setting of electromechanical relays.
Current Setting of Electromechanical Relays: Current Setting of relay is nothing but adjusting
its pick-up value. Suppose we are using a CT of ratio 1000/1 A and the pick-up current needs to
be set at 1.2 A. Then we will simply put the plug provided on relay coil to 120% or 1.2. Thus we
can say that
The plug or tapping is provided on the Relay Coil so that changing the position of Plug changes
the number of turns of the relay coil as shown in figure below.
As shown in figure above, the plug is kept at 5. This means that pick-up current of relay will be 5
times of rated CT Secondary current. Likewise, if we put the plug at 8.75 then pick-up current of
relay will be 8.75 times of the rated CT Secondary current.
Plug Setting Multiplier (PSM):
Plug Setting Multiplier (PSM) is defined as the ratio of fault current to the pick-up current of the
relay. Thus,
Suppose we are using CT of 100/5 A, a fault current of, say 250 A is flowing through the network
protected by the relay. Assume that Current Setting or the position of plug is at 5 then
It shall be noted here that we shall not bother about PSM for instantaneous relay rather we shall
consider PSM for relays having characteristics of Inverse Time, Very Inverse Time etc.
For Detail on Relay Characteristics read Over Current Relay and Its Characteristics
Time Setting Multiplier (TSM): Again it is worthwhile to mention that we shall not bother about
TSM for instantaneous relay rather we shall consider TSM for relays having characteristics
of Inverse Time, Very InverseTime etc.
A Relay is generally provided with control to adjust the time of operation of the Relay. This
adjustment is known as Time Setting Multiplier or TSM. Normally a Time Setting Dial is provided
which is calibrated from 0 to 1 s in step of 0.05 s. For practical exposure, let us consider a relay
as shown in figure below. Please Zoom the image to clearly view every part of the Relay for better
understanding.
As can be seen from the figure, there is a Time Setting Dial which is rotated to set the time of
operation of the relay. Lets say we want to set the time on Time Setting Dial to 0.5 s, then we
need to rotate the dial till 0.5 s on the dial matches with the fixed mark provided. So our TSM is
0.5 here in the case.
Well, assume that plug is set at 5 and TSM at 0.5 s. For finding the actual time of operation of
relay we need to refer the Graph between the Operating Time and PSM which is generally
provided on the Relay cover itself but in our figure it is not given. So we consider a graph between
Operating Time and PSM as shown below.
For our case, PSM = 10 (Please see the calculation and case considered above in our discussion
of PSM) and TSM = 0.5 s.
Therefore,
= 3 x0.5 s =1.5 s
Thus we can say that actual time of operation of Relay is equal to the time obtained from the PSM
& Operating Time Graph multiplied by TSM.
Zone-1 is meant for protection of the primary line. Typically, it is set to cover 80% of the line
length. Zone-1 provides fastest protection because there is no intentional time delay associated
with it. Operating time of Zone-1 can be of the order of 1 cycle.
Zone 1 does not cover the entire length of the primary line because it is difficult to distinguish
between faults which are close to bus B like fault at F1, F2, F3 and F4. In other words, if a fault is
close to bus, one cannot ascertain if it is on the primary line, bus or on back up line. This is
because of the following reasons:
CTs and PTs have limited accuracy. During fault, a CT may partially or complete saturate.
The resulting errors in measurement of impedance seen by relay, makes it difficult to
determine fault location at the boundary of lines very accurately.
There are infeed and outfeed effects associated with working of distance relays.
A distance relay scheme uses only local voltage and current measurements for a bus and
transmission line. Hence, it cannot model infeed or outfeed properly. Because of infeed and
outfeed effect the, the Relay may sense fault in 100% length of line even though the location
of fault is actually not in 100% of line. Therefore a margin of 20% is given for the accuracy of
measurement and infeed / outfeed effect.
Next, Question which will definitely strike you that why do we keep the setting of Zone-2
150%? Why not more than 150%?
Zone-2 setting in Distance Relay is kept at 150 % to avoid Overlap Problem. See the picture
below.
As clear from the picture above, if the reach of Zone-2 of a relay R1 is extended too much, then
it can overlap with the Zone-2 of the relay R3. Under such a situation, there exists following
conflict. If the fault is on line BC (and in Z2 of R3), relay R3 should get the first opportunity to clear
the fault. Unfortunately, now both R1 and R3 compete to clear the fault. This means that Z2 of
the relay R1 has to be further slowed down. As Zone-2 protection already have a time delay, due
to overlapping we need to further introduce some time delay which will degrade the performance
of Relay for Zone-2.
Hence, a conscious effort is made to avoid overlaps of Z2 of relay R1 and R3. Setting Zone-2 of
R1 to maximum of 150% of primary line impedance or primary line impedance plus 50% of
smallest line impedance usually works out good compromise without getting into Z2 overlap
problem.
Ideally, the zones of protection should overlap, so that no part of the power system is left
unprotected. This is shown in figure below. As can be seen from the figure below, each Breaker
is included in two different zones of protection to increase the reliability of protection scheme.
For practical physical and economic reasons, this ideal zoning in protection is not always possible
to achieve because accommodation for current transformers being in some cases available only
on one side of the circuit breakers, as shown in figure below.
This leaves a section between the Current Transformers and Circuit Breaker CB-A that is not
completely protected against faults. As shown in figure above, a fault at F would cause the busbar
protection to operate and open the circuit breaker but the fault may continue to be fed through the
feeder. The feeder protection, if of the unit type, would not operate, since the fault is outside its
zone. This problem is dealt with by intertripping or some form of zone extension, to ensure that
the remote end of the feeder is tripped also.
The section of Power System which is not covered under any zone of protection is called Dead
Zone or Blind Zone and special kind of protection shall be provided to take care of fault in Dead
Zone. Normally overcurrent element is used for the protection of Dead Zone with some suitable
logic interlock. The logic interlock depends on the configuration of power system and the condition
in which Dead Zone is created. Let us take an example to have more insight. Carefully observe
the figure below.
Transformer is fed by the Bus when the Breaker CB-A is close. Now suppose we want to take
Transformer under maintenance, so for isolating the Transformer we will open CB-A and DS. After
opening DS, it may be required to close the CB-A to feed some other connected feeder. As the
Breaker is closed, a portion up to DS is charged. Now suppose a fault take place in between DS
and CT-3. Assuming that CT-1, CT-2 and CT-3 are meant for protection of Zone in between the
CTs using Differential protection, so a fault outside this zone will not be protected and hence zone
in between CT-3 and DS is unprotected and called Dead Zone.
Read:
Difference between Isolator and Breaker.
Over Current Relay and Its Characteristics
What will be the logic for implementing protection of this Dead Zone?
One may say, if the DS is open and CT-3 senses an overcurrent then Relay shall issue a tripping
command to CB-A. That is all, Dead Zone is no more Dead rather it is protected. Notice that in
this case Dead Zone or Blind Zone is created in a particular condition where the DS is open and
CB-A is close.
Figure below shows the connection diagram for performing the Open Circuit Test of Alternator.
As clear from the figure above, an Ammeter is connected in series with the field circuit to measure
the field current and a Voltmeter is connected across the armature terminals to note down the
voltage generated. Figure (b) shows the plot between If and Ef. It can be seen from the graph that
the relationship between the field current Ifand no load generated voltage Ef is linear up to certain
value of field current but as the the field current increases the relationship no longer remains
linear. The linear part of the relationship is because, at small value of filed current the whole mmf
is required by the air gap to create magnetic flux but as the value of mmf exceeds some certain
value, the iron parts get saturated and hence the relationship between the flux (No load generated
emf is proportional to flux) and field current no longer remain linear.
Next assume that if there were no saturation (assuming no iron part is present rather only air gap
is present), the relationship between the field current and no load voltage would have been a
straight line and that is why the straight line ob in the figure is called Air Gap Line.
Thus we observe that because of saturation in iron parts of machine, the no load generated
voltage Efdoes not increase in the same proportion as the increase in field current.
For performing Short Circuit Test on an Alternator, the machine is driven at rated synchronous
speed and the armature terminals are short circuited through an Ammeter as shown in figure
below.
Now the field current If is gradually increased from zero until the armature short circuit current
reaches its maximum safe value i.e. 125 to 150% of its rated current value. Readings of field
current If and short circuit current are noted and plotted.
If you see the above plot of Short Circuit Test, you notice that the short circuit characteristics of a
synchronous machine is a straight line.
Why Short Circuit Characteristics of Synchronous Machine is Straight Line?
For short circuit test, as the armature terminals are shorted, therefore terminal voltage Vt = 0.
Therefore the air gap emf Er shall only be enough to provide the leakage impedance drop in the
armature i.e.
As we know that, for a Synchronous machine the value of Xal is of the order of 0.1 to 0.2 per unit
and Ra (Armature Resistance) is negligible thus we can write as
Ra = 0
Therefore, Er = 0.15 pu
Thus we observe that during short circuit test, the air gap generated emf Er is only 0.15
pu which mean that air gap flux must also be 0.15 pu. As the resultant air gap flux is
only 0.15 of its rated value under normal voltage condition, such a low value of air gap
flux does not saturate the iron parts of synchronous machine and hence the short circuit
characteristics is a straight line. It shall also be noted here that, in case of short circuit
test the armature mmf is almost entirely demagnetizing in nature which results in very
low value of air gap flux.
Transformer Testings.
For the purpose of quality assurance and ensuring that the finished transformer conforms
to customer requirements and is ready for service a barrage of tests are performed on
the transformer. These can be broadly classified into the following 3 types:
1) Routine Tests:
These are standard tests performed necessarily on all transformers. They are further
divided into two subcategories:
a) Winding Resistance
b) No load loss and No load Current
c) Load Loss and Impedance
d) Turns ratio on all taps and all phases
2) Type Test:
This test is done on one unit of a particular design. It verifies the response of the design
to the expected boundary conditions of the design. Hence it is not necessary to perform
it on all units manufactured. Generally the testing and certification for the validation of a
design to the conformity of these tests is considered for a period of five years. There are
two tests that come under this paradigm:
a) Short-Circuit Test
b) Unbalanced Current Test
c) Magnetic Balance Test
d) Measurement of Zero Sequence Impedance
e) Measurement of noise level
As seen from the above list there are a total of 15 tests to be performed on a
transformer.These tests are to be performed in the same sequence as it has been
written above.
The routine tests need to be performed on all transformers that are manufactured,
whereas type and special tests have to be performed under the conditions that have been
mentioned.
It is necessary to perform the above tests in the same order because; each test can cause
slight changes in the mechanical and electrical characteristics of the transformer. For
example it can cause some of the insulated material to come under excessive levels of
dielectric stress which may not be a regular occurrence under normal working conditions.
They can cause modifications to the geometry of the core coil assembly thereby affecting
the building factor. Also, if the tests are performed in a haphazard fashion without taking
into account the parametric variations induced due to the previous tests, then probably
the test results are not indicating the correct or operational values.
It is recommended to perform tests on Transformer as per the relevant BIS and IEEE
standards.
The purpose of WTI is to indicate the winding temperature of HV and LV winding of the
Transformer and operates the alarm, trip and cooler control contacts (For detail on Cooler Unit
visit Transformer Cooling Classes).
As can be seen from the above figure, Black needle shows the current winding temperature while
the Red needle shows the highest winding temperature reached for a particular day. This Red
needle needs to be reset manually.
Also, for setting winding temperature for Alarm and Trip, two knobs are provided. The Green knob
shows the setting of winding temperature for Alarm and Red knob shows the Trip temperature
setting as shown in figure.
The Winding Temperature Indicator, WTI is provided with a maximum temperature indicator. The
heating resistance is fed by a current transformer associated to the loaded winding of the
transformer. The increase in the temperature of the resistance is proportionate to that of the
winding. The sensor bulb of the instrument is located in the hottest oil of the transformer, therefore,
the winding temperature indicates a temperature of hottest oil plus the winding temperature rise
above hot oil Level the hotspot temperature.
Winding Temperature of Transformer may rise due to increased loading of Transformer or due to
some internal fault. Normally the Winding Temperature Indicator, WTI gives alarm at 85 °C and
Trip signal at 95 °C in India.
SOTF Protection gets enabled whenever all the three poles of a Circuit Breaker is open for more
than a settable time say 110s (This time can be changed and configured as per the design.)
When all the three poles of Circuit Breaker is open for more than a particular time say 110 s, as
soon as we give a closing command to the Circuit Breaker, the SOTF protection is enabled for
500 ms and then gets reset.
Case2: When an external closing command is present.
Here external closing means closing the Circuit Breaker either manually or remotely. The SOTF
protection logic is activated immediately. As soon as all the poles are closed SOTF protection is
enable for 500 ms and then is reset.
During this SOTF time frame of 500 ms, individual distance protection can be enabled or disabled.
When a particular distance zone say Zone-2 is enabled, Zone-2 will actuate immediately without
waiting for Zone-2 time delay if there exists any fault in this zone.
How SOTF Relay Senses a Fault?
Basically there are two elements in relay providing SOTF feature. They are Voltage Level Detector
and Current Level Detector. The purpose of Voltage Level Detector is to ensure Dead Pole
situation and Current Level Detector ensures that a fault occurred i.e. Current Level Detector is
used for detection of fault. Therefore SOTF Relay element must have two settings, one for Voltage
Level Detector and another for Current Level Detector. Typical setting for both the elements are
as follows:
Iph > 5% IN
Here VNand IN are Nominal Voltage and Nominal Current respectively. Thus if the phase voltages
are normal and if phase current increases from the setting then SOFT protection will sense it a
fault and will issue three phase trip command provided all other conditions as mentioned in case1
and case2 for SOTF are met.
In the figure above, R1 is an over current relay which is used for the protection of Transmission
Line. If there is a fault at F1,
Equivalent source impedance Zs = 10×10/20 = 5 Ω
Therefore the setting of over current Relay should be more than 14113.5 A.
Here fault is not on the Transmission Line but it is assumed to be inside Switchyard and only one
source is feeding the power to the network. Proceeding in the similar manner,
Fault Current IF2= 220×103/1.732*10 = 12702A
Therefore for the protection of Transmission Line, the setting of Relay shall be kept less than
12702 A. But for earlier case we saw that setting of Relay R1 shall be more than 14113.5 A thus
overall the setting shall be > 14113.5 but <12702 A which is impractical. Therefore over current
Relay is not suitable here and it depends on the source impedance.
Distance protection is therefore used for the protection of Transmission Line. It is simple to apply
and fast in isolating the faulty section from the healthy network. Distance Protection provides
primary as well as back-up protection to the protected line. I will show this back-up protection
function latter in this post.
Since the impedance of a transmission line is proportional to its length, for distance measurement
it is justified to use a relay capable of measuring the impedance of a line up to a predetermined
point. This predetermined point is called Reach of the Relay.
Such a relay is described as a distance relay and is designed to operate only for faults occurring
between the relay location and the selected reach point, thus giving discrimination for faults that
may occur in different line sections. The basic principle of distance protection involves the division
of the voltage at the relaying point by the measured current. The apparent impedance so
calculated is compared with the reach point impedance which is settable in the Relay. If the
measured impedance is less than the reach point impedance, it is assumed that a fault exists on
the line between the relay and the reach point and issues trip command to the concerned Breaker
Trip Coil either through Master Trip Relay or directly (in case of single pole tripping of breaker,
assuming single pole Auto Reclosure is allowed).
If measured value of impedance V/I is less than setting z then Relay assumes a fault as clear
from the above diagram.
So the required setting for Zone-1 = 48.8×0.28 = 13.66 ohm. Which means if the distance
Relay senses Impedance less than 13.66 Ohm then it will pick-up for Zone-1.
In the same manner, Setting for Zone-2 = (150% of 61) × CT/PT ratio
Which means if the distance Relay senses Impedance less than 25.62 Ohm then it will pick-
up for Zone-2.
Setting for Zone-3 = 120% of (Impedance of Line AB+ Impedance of Longest Line
from substation B)
= 1.2×122×0.28 = 41 Ohm
Which means if the distance Relay senses Impedance less than 41 Ohm then it will pick-
up for Zone-3.
So we now know how to calculate the setting for different Zones of Distance Protection.
Now suppose our substation is A and we are providing distance protection so Relay is located at
A. For fault in Zone-1, obviously we need to isolate the fault without any time delay. Now say our
breaker at A opened but as we are connected to the substation B so their breaker at B shall also
trip so as to isolate the fault completely otherwise fault will be feed from substation B side even
though our breaker at A opened. Thus if fault in Zone-1 occurs then Distance Relay shall trip
Breaker at A and send a signal to Remote Substation B by receiving which Remote substation B
shall trip their breaker at B. This signal is called Carrier Signal which is sent through Power Line
Carrier Communication (PLCC) Line. This is the purpose of PLCC. I will post on PLCC latter so
be there.
Thus for Zone-1, time delay = 0. Got it? (If no then write in comment box I will be happy to clear
your doubt)
Next, suppose there is a fault in Zone-2 then our breaker at A shall not trip rather Remote
Substation breaker at C shall trip (If fault is in section CD in figure above) as it will be in their
Zone-1. So we need to introduce some time delay in our Distance Relay to operate for Zone-2
fault. This time delay is usually kept around 350 ms. If within 350 ms Remote substation breaker
at B trips then our Breaker at A won’t trip but if suppose because of any Reason Remote
Substation breaker at C fail to trip then our breaker at A will definitely trip.
See how Zone-2 is working as Back-up protection for line CD. Got it friend?
Now if there is a fault in the remaining 20% of line which is protected by Zone-1 at our substation
A then it will be sensed by our Relay at A in Zone-2 but for Remote substation B it will be Zone-1
so their breaker at B will instantaneously trip but our breaker at A also need to trip otherwise our
substation will continue to feed the fault by receiving carrier signal.
Now coming to Zone-3, if there is a fault in Zone-3 then our breaker at A is not supposed to trip
rather Remote substation breaker at C &D is supposed to trip. Therefore we introduce some time
delay for the operation of Zone-3 which is typically of the order of 1s. If because of any reason
breaker at C & D fail to trip within 1s then our Distance relay will operate to open our Breaker at
A.
There is one more Zone in modern Distance Relay which is called Reverse Zone or Zone-4. As
the name Reverse Zone implies it is back-up protection of the Substation where Distance Relay
is installed, in our case to the substation A. The setting for zone is normally 10% of the impedance
of protected line.
The reach point of a relay is the point along the line impedance locus that is intersected by the
boundary characteristic of the relay.
a) Primary protection
b) Back-up protection
The primary protection is the first line of defense and is responsible to protect all the power system
elements from all the types of faults. The backup protection comes into play only when the primary
protection fails.
In the event of failure or non-availability of the Primary Protection some other means of ensuring
that the fault is isolated must be provided. These secondary systems are referred to as Back-up
Protection. Back-up protection may be considered as either being local or remote. Local back-up
protection is achieved by protection which detects an un-cleared primary system fault at its own
location and which then trips its own circuit breakers, e.g. Time Graded Overcurrent Relays.
As shown in figure above, if a fault occurs then Relay C is supposed to trip instantaneously, but in
case of failure of operation of Relay C to isolate the fault, Relay B shall issue trip command after a
time delay of 350 ms. In the worst case when both theRelays B & C fails, Relay A shall operate after
1 sec. This is Time Grading where a time is provided for main Relay to operate.
Remote back-up protection is provided by protection that detects an un-cleared primary system
fault at a remote location and then issues a local trip command, e.g. the second or third zones of
a distance relay. In both cases the main and back-up protection systems detect a fault
simultaneously, operation of the back-up protection being delayed to ensure that the primary
protection clears the fault if possible. Normally being unit protection, operation of the primary
protection will be fast and will result in the minimum amount of the power system being
disconnected. Operation of the back-up protection will be, of necessity, slower and will result in a
greater proportion of the primary system being lost.
The extent and type of back-up protection applied will be related to the failure risks and relative
economic importance of the system. For distribution systems where fault clearance times are not
critical, time delayed remote back-up protection may be adequate. For EHV systems, where
system stability is at risk unless a fault is cleared quickly, multiple primary protection systems,
operating in parallel and possibly of different types (e.g. distance andunit protection), will be used
to ensure fast and reliable tripping. Back-up overcurrent protection may then optionally be applied
to ensure that two separate protection systems are available during maintenance of one of the
primary protection systems. Back-up protection systems should, ideally, be completely separate
from the primary systems. For example a circuit protected by a current differential relay may also
have time graded overcurrent and earth fault relays added to provide circuit breaker tripping in
the event of failure of the main primary unit protection. To maintain complete separation and thus
integrity, current transformers, voltage transformers, relays, circuit breaker trip coils and d.c.
supplies would be duplicated. This ideal is rarely attained in practice. The following compromises
are typical:
a) Separate current transformers(cores and secondary windings only) are provided. This involves
little extra cost or accommodation compared with the use of common current transformers that
would have to be larger because of the combined burden. This practice is becoming less common
when digital or numerical relays are used, because of the extremely low input burden of these
relay types.
b) Voltage transformers are not duplicated because of cost and space considerations. Each
protection relay supply is separately protected (fuse or MCB) and continuously supervised to
ensure security of the VT output. An alarm is given on failure of the supply and, where appropriate,
prevents an unwanted operation of the protection.
c) Trip supplies to the two protections should be separately protected (fuse or MCB). Duplication
of tripping batteries and of circuit breaker tripping coils may be provided. Trip circuits should be
continuously supervised.
d) It is desirable that the main and back-up protections (or duplicate main protections) should
operate on different principles, so that unusual events that may cause failure of the one will be
less likely to affect the other.
Numerical relaysmay incorporate suitable back-up protection functions (e.g. a distance relay may
also incorporate time-delayed overcurrent protection elements as well). A reduction in the
hardware required to provide back-up protection is obtained, but at the risk that a common relay
element failure (e.g. the power supply) will result in simultaneous loss of both main and back-up
protection.
Based on the time duration of fault existing in the Power System, faults can be classified into three
categories as
Transient Fault
Semi-Transient Fault
Permanent Fault.
Transient fault exists only for very short duration and these can the removed faster if the line is
disconnected from the system momentarily so that arc extinguishes. After the arc is deionized, line
can be reclosed to resume the service. Thus, in this way the interruption in the Power Supply is
reduced and loss of revenue is also saved.
It has been found that 80% of the fault in Power System are Transient in nature, 12% are Semi-
transient and remaining 8% are only permanenet fault. Semi-transient fault are those fault which take
some finite time to clear by itself. For example, suppose a bord spanning the two lines sit then it will
cause a fault which will clear by itself after the burning of cause of fault,after some time say 1sec. Thus
we will expect, Autorecloser to take place for 1 sec i.e. Breaker shall close after a time delay of 1
sec.Here note that the time after which fault clears by itself is called DEAD TIME. Therefore, in
our example DEAD TIME = 1 sec.
But for Permanent Fault, Autorecloser will not help as the cause of fault continuously exists so if we
incorporate the Autorecloser the Breaker will again trip after the Autorecloser. So how many attempts
will the Realy take to Autoreclose and after how much time it will take another consecutive
attempt to Autoreclose?
“Here we come to another concept, called RECLAIM TIME. RECLAIM TIME is the time after which
Relay will take another consecutive attempt to Autoreclose. This RECLAIM TIME is typically set at 25
sec. The number of attempt for Autorecloser is set in the Relay which is 4 for MiCOM P444 Distance
Protection Relay. This means that Relay will take four Autorecloser shots and at the end of fourth shot,
if still fault is existing, the Line will be taken out.” In figure below, a Numerical Relay is shown.
Thus we see that for permanent fault Autorecloser won’t help as we need to attend the fault and rectify
it.
Autorecloser can be Single pole or Three pole. Here Pole means Breaker of any of the three phase
i.e. either R, Y or B phase. Single Pole Autorecloser take place during Line to ground fault. It shall be
noted that Autorecloser facility is provided only in Line Breaker and that to by Distance Protection
Relay.
Zone-1 protection operated AND Carrier Channels are healthy AND Three Pole Tripping has
not taken place.
OR
This seems surprising that only a single pole of Breaker trips during Zone-1 fault. But it’s true. The
phase, say B phase, in which Line to ground fault has taken place will only trip and reclose after the
DEAD TIME. If within the RECLAIM TIME, another fault take place then Three Phase trip will occur.
During the DEAD TIME period, power is fed to the system via the two healthy phases.
In case of Three Pole Autorecloser, all the three phases are opened independently irrespective of type
of fault be it Single L-G or L-L or L-L-L fault and reclosed after the DEAD TIME. During the DEAD
TIME period, no power can be transmitted and therefore system is liable to operate unstably.