Chapter One

Sections 1.1 and 1.2

Heat Transfer and Thermal Energy

• What is heat transfer?

Heat transfer is thermal energy in transit due to a temperature

difference.

• What is thermal energy?

Thermal energy is associated with the translation, rotation,
vibration and electronic states of the atoms and molecules
that comprise matter. It represents the cumulative effect of
microscopic activities and is directly linked to the temperature
of matter.
Heat Transfer and Thermal Energy (cont.)

DO NOT confuse or interchange the meanings of Thermal Energy, Temperature

and Heat Transfer
Quantity Meaning Symbol Units
Thermal Energy+ Energy associated with microscopic
U or u J or J/kg
behavior of matter

Temperature A means of indirectly assessing the

amount of thermal energy stored in matter
T K or °C

Heat Transfer Thermal energy transport due to

temperature gradients

Heat Amount of thermal energy transferred Q J

over a time interval  t  0

Heat Rate Thermal energy transfer per unit time q W

Heat Flux Thermal energy transfer per unit time q W/m2
and surface area

+
U  Thermal energy of system
u  Thermal energy per unit mass of system
Modes of Heat Transfer

Modes of Heat Transfer

Conduction: Heat transfer in a solid or a stationary fluid (gas or liquid) due to

the random motion of its constituent atoms, molecules and /or
electrons.

Convection: Heat transfer due to the combined influence of bulk and

random motion for fluid flow over a surface.

Radiation: Energy that is emitted by matter due to changes in the electron

configurations of its atoms or molecules and is transported as
electromagnetic waves (or photons).

• Conduction and convection require the presence of temperature variations in a material

medium.
• Although radiation originates from matter, its transport does not require a material
medium and occurs most efficiently in a vacuum.
Heat Transfer Rates: Conduction

Heat Transfer Rates

Conduction:
General (vector) form of Fourier’s Law:

q  kT

Heat flux Thermal conductivity Temperature gradient

W/m 2
W/m  K °C/m or K/m
Application to one-dimensional, steady conduction across a
plane wall of constant thermal conductivity:
Heat flux, rate of heat transfer
per unit area:
dT T T
qx  k  k 2 1
dx L
T T
qx  k 1 2 (1.2)
L

Heat rate (W): qx  qx  A

Exercises
 Go through Example 1.1
 Problem 1.1
Heat Transfer Rates: Convection

Heat Transfer Rates

Convection
Two mechanisms. 1) Random molecular motion (Diffusion) 2) Bulk motion of fluid.
Relation of convection to flow over a surface and development
of velocity and thermal boundary layers:

Newton’s law of cooling: Heat flux

q  h Ts  T  (1.3a)

h : Convection heat transfer coefficient (W/m2  K)

Ts : surface temperature
T : fluid temperature
 Heat Transfer Rates
Relation of convection to flow over a surface and development.
(a) Forced convection - flow is caused by external means such as fan, pump,
wind.
(b) Natural convection – flow induced by buoyancy forces, which are due to
density differences caused by temperature variations in the fluid.
(c) Boiling – fluid motion induced by vapor bubbles generated at the botton of
a pan of boiling water.
(d) Condensation – Water vapor formed
on the outer surface of a cold pipe.
Problem 1.17
Heat Transfer Rates: Radiation

Heat Transfer Rates

Radiation Heat transfer at a gas/surface interface involves radiation
emission from the surface and may also involve the
absorption of radiation incident from the surroundings
(irradiation, G ), as well as convection  if Ts  T  .
Energy outflow due to emission (Stefan-Boltzman law):
E   Eb   Ts4 (1.5)
E : Emissive power  W/m  2

 : Surface emissivity  0    1
Eb : Emissive power of a blackbody (the perfect emitter)
 : Stefan-Boltzmann constant 5.67 10-8 W/m2  K 4 

Energy absorption due to irradiation:

Gabs   G (1.6)

Gabs :Absorbed incident radiation(W/m2 )

 : Surface absorptivity  0    1
G : Irradiation  W/m2 
Heat Transfer Rates: Radiation (cont.)

Heat Transfer Rates

Irradiation: Special case of surface exposed to large
surroundings of uniform temperature, Tsur

G  Gsur   Tsur4

If    , the net radiation heat flux from the

surface due to exchange with the surroundings is:
   Eb Ts    G   Ts4  Tsur4 
qrad (1.7)
Heat Transfer Rates: Radiation (cont.)

Heat Transfer Rates

Alternatively,

  hr Ts  Tsur 
qrad (1.8)

hr : Radiation heat transfer coefficient  W/m 2  K 

hr   Ts  Tsur  Ts2  Tsur2  (1.9)

 : Surface emissivity  0    1
 : Stefan-Boltzmann constant 5.67 10-8 W/m2  K 4 

For combined convection and radiation,

q  qconv   h Ts  T   hr Ts  Tsur 

  qrad (1.10)
Go through Ex1.2
Problem 1.28
30
120
30
Chapter One
Section 1.3
Alternative Formulations

CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
(FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS)
• An important tool in heat transfer analysis, often
providing the basis for determining the temperature
of a system.

• Alternative Formulations
Time Basis:
At an instant
or
Over a time interval

Type of System:
Control volume
Control surface
CV at an Instant and over a Time Interval

APPLICATION TO A CONTROL VOLUME

• At an Instant of Time:
Note representation of system by a
control surface (dashed line) at the boundaries.

Surface Phenomena
E in E out :
, rate of thermal and/or mechanical energy transfer across the control
surface due to heat transfer, fluid flow and/or work interactions.
Volumetric Phenomena
Eg : rate of thermal energy generation due to conversion from another energy form
(e.g., electrical, nuclear, or chemical); energy conversion process occurs within the system.

E st : rate of change of energy storage in the system.

Conservation of Energy
dEst (1.12c)
E in  E out  E g  dt
E
st

Each term has units of J/s or W.

• Over a Time Interval

Ein  Eout  Eg  Est (1.12b)

Each term has units of J.

Closed System

• Special Cases (Linkages to Thermodynamics)

(i) Transient Process for a Closed System of Mass (M) Assuming Heat Transfer
to the System (Inflow) and Work Done by the System (Outflow).

Over a time interval

Q  W  Esttot (1.12a)

For negligible changes in potential or kinetic energy

Q  W  U t
Internal thermal energy

At an instant
 dU t
q W 
dt
Surface Energy Balance

THE SURFACE ENERGY BALANCE

A special case for which no volume or mass is encompassed by the control surface.
Conservation of Energy (Instant in Time):
Ein  Eout  0 (1.13)

• Applies for steady-state and transient conditions.

• With no mass and volume, energy storage and generation are not pertinent to the energy
balance, even if they occur in the medium bounded by the surface.

Consider surface of wall with heat transfer by conduction, convection and radiation.

  qconv
qcond   qrad
  0

k
T1  T2
L
 
 h T2  T    2 T24  Tsur
4
0
Methodology

METHODOLOGY OF FIRST LAW ANALYSIS

• On a schematic of the system, represent the control surface by
dashed line(s).

• Choose the appropriate time basis. (time interval or instant)

• Identify relevant energy transport, generation and/or storage terms

by labeled arrows on the schematic.

• Write the governing form of the Conservation of Energy requirement.

• Substitute appropriate expressions for terms of the energy equation.

• Solve for the unknown quantity.

Go through Ex 1.3-1.4
Problem 1.64
Conclusion
 Heat Transfer – Conduction,
Convection, Radiation
 Heat Flux, Heat Rate and their units
 Fourier’s Law (conduction)
 Newton’s Law of Cooling (convection)
 Stefan-Boltzman’s Law (radiation)
 Conservation of energy over time
interval/instant of time
 Est and Eg from surface energy balance