Air conditioning

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to navigationJump to search
This article is about cooling of air. For Heating, ventilation and air conditioning, see HVAC. For
air conditioning systems in vehicles, see Automobile air conditioning. For the Curved Air album,
see Air Conditioning (album).
"A/C" redirects here. For other uses, see AC.

Air conditioning units outside a building

Air conditioning (often referred to as AC, A/C, or air con)[1] is the process of removing heat and
moisture from the interior of an occupied space to improve the comfort of occupants. Air
conditioning can be used in both domestic and commercial environments. This process is most
commonly used to achieve a more comfortable interior environment, typically for humans and
other animals; however, air conditioning is also used to cool and dehumidify rooms filled with
heat-producing electronic devices, such as computer servers, power amplifiers, and to display
and store some delicate products, such as artwork.
Air conditioners often use a fan to distribute the conditioned air to an occupied space such as a
building or a car to improve thermal comfort and indoor air quality. Electric refrigerant-based AC
units range from small units that can cool a small bedroom, which can be carried by a single
adult, to massive units installed on the roof of office towers that can cool an entire building.
The cooling is typically achieved through a refrigeration cycle, but sometimes evaporation or free
cooling is used. Air conditioning systems can also be made based on desiccants (chemicals
which remove moisture from the air). Some AC systems reject or store heat in subterranean
pipes.[2]
In the most general sense, air conditioning can refer to any form of technology that modifies the
condition of air (heating, (de-) humidification, cooling, cleaning, ventilation, or air movement). In
common usage, though, "air conditioning" refers to systems which cool air. In construction, a
complete system of heating, ventilation, and air conditioning is referred to as HVAC.[3]

Contents

 1History
o 1.1Evaporative cooling
o 1.2Development of mechanical cooling
o 1.3Electrical air conditioning
o 1.4Refrigerant development
 2Operating principles
o 2.1Refrigeration cycle
o 2.2Evaporative cooling
o 2.3Free cooling
 3Humidity control
o 3.1Dehumidification and cooling
o 3.2Dehumidification program
o 3.3Dehumidifier
 4Energy transfer
o 4.1Seasonal energy efficiency ratio
 5Installation types
o 5.1Window unit and packaged terminal
o 5.2Split systems
 5.2.1Mini-split (ductless) system
 5.2.2Multi-split system
o 5.3Air-only central air conditioning
o 5.4Central plant cooling
o 5.5Portable units
 5.5.1Portable split system
 5.5.2Portable hose system
 5.5.3Portable evaporative system
 6Uses
o 6.1Comfort applications
 6.1.1Domestic usage
o 6.2Process applications
 7Health effects
 8Environmental impacts
o 8.1Power consumption and efficiency
o 8.2Lower-energy alternatives
o 8.3Automobile power consumption
o 8.4Refrigerants
 9See also
 10References
 11External links

History[edit]
Evaporative cooling[edit]
Since prehistoric times, snow and ice were used for cooling. The business of harvesting ice
during winter and storing for use in summer became popular towards the late 17th century.[4] This
practice was replaced by mechanical ice-making machines.
The basic concept behind air conditioning is said to have been applied in ancient Egypt, where
reeds were hung in windows and were moistened with trickling water. The evaporation of water
cooled the air blowing through the window. This process also made the air more humid, which
can be beneficial in a dry desert climate. Other techniques in medieval Persia involved the use
of cisterns and wind towers to cool buildings during the hot season.[5]
The 2nd-century Chinese mechanical engineer and inventor Ding Huan of the Han
Dynasty invented a rotary fan for air conditioning, with seven wheels 3 m (10 ft) in diameter and
manually powered by prisoners.[6] In 747, Emperor Xuanzong (r. 712–762) of the Tang
Dynasty (618–907) had the Cool Hall (Liang Dian 涼殿) built in the imperial palace, which
the Tang Yulin describes as having water-powered fan wheels for air conditioning as well as
rising jet streams of water from fountains. During the subsequent Song Dynasty (960–1279),
written sources mentioned the air conditioning rotary fan as even more widely used.[7]
In the 17th century, the Dutch inventor Cornelis Drebbel demonstrated "Turning Summer into
Winter" as an early form of modern air conditioning for James I of England by adding salt to
water.[8]
Development of mechanical cooling[edit]

Three-quarters scale model of Gorrie's ice machine at John Gorrie State Museum, Florida

Modern air conditioning emerged from advances in chemistry during the 19th century, and the
first large-scale electrical air conditioning was invented and used in 1902 by USinventor Willis
Carrier.
In 1758, Benjamin Franklin and John Hadley, a chemistry professor at Cambridge University,
conducted an experiment to explore the principle of evaporation as a means to rapidly cool an
object. Franklin and Hadley confirmed that evaporation of highly volatile liquids (such as alcohol
and ether) could be used to drive down the temperature of an object past the freezing point of
water. They conducted their experiment with the bulb of a mercury thermometer as their object
and with a bellows used to speed up the evaporation. They lowered the temperature of the
thermometer bulb down to −14 °C (7 °F) while the ambient temperature was 18 °C (64 °F).
Franklin noted that, soon after they passed the freezing point of water 0 °C (32 °F), a thin film of
ice formed on the surface of the thermometer's bulb and that the ice mass was about 6 mm
(1⁄4 in) thick when they stopped the experiment upon reaching −14 °C (7 °F). Franklin concluded:
"From this experiment one may see the possibility of freezing a man to death on a warm
summer's day."[9]
In 1820, English scientist and inventor Michael Faraday discovered that compressing and
liquefying ammonia could chill air when the liquefied ammonia was allowed to evaporate. In
1842, Florida physician John Gorrie used compressor technology to create ice, which he used to
cool air for his patients in his hospital in Apalachicola, Florida. He hoped to eventually use his
ice-making machine to regulate the temperature of buildings. He even envisioned centralized air
conditioning that could cool entire cities. Though his prototype leaked and performed irregularly,
Gorrie was granted a patent in 1851 for his ice-making machine. Though his process improved
the artificial production of ice, his hopes for its success vanished soon afterwards when his chief
financial backer died and Gorrie did not get the money he needed to develop the machine.
According to his biographer, Vivian M. Sherlock, he blamed the "Ice King", Frederic Tudor, for his
failure, suspecting that Tudor had launched a smear campaign against his invention. Dr. Gorrie
died impoverished in 1855, and the dream of commonplace air conditioning went away for 50
years.[citation needed]
James Harrison's first mechanical ice-making machine began operation in 1851 on the banks of
the Barwon River at Rocky Point in Geelong, Australia. His first commercial ice-making machine
followed in 1853, and his patent for an ether vapor compression refrigeration system was granted
in 1855. This novel system used a compressor to force the refrigeration gas to pass through a
condenser, where it cooled down and liquefied. The liquefied gas then circulated through the
refrigeration coils and vaporized again, cooling down the surrounding system. The machine
produced 3,000 kilograms (6,600 lb) of ice per day.[citation needed]
Though Harrison had commercial success establishing a second ice company back in Sydney in
1860, he later entered the debate over how to compete against the American advantage of ice-
refrigerated beef sales to the United Kingdom. He wrote: "Fresh meat frozen and packed as if for
a voyage, so that the refrigerating process may be continued for any required period", and in
1873 prepared the sailing ship Norfolk for an experimental beef shipment to the United Kingdom.
His choice of a cold room system instead of installing a refrigeration system upon the ship itself
proved disastrous when the ice was consumed faster than expected.[citation needed]
Electrical air conditioning[edit]

Willis Carrier

In 1902, the first modern electrical air conditioning unit was invented by Willis Carrier in Buffalo,
New York.[citation needed] After graduating from Cornell University, Carrier found a job at the Buffalo
Forge Company. There, he began experimenting with air conditioning as a way to solve an
application problem for the Sackett-Wilhelms Lithographing and Publishing Company
in Brooklyn, New York. The first air conditioner, designed and built in Buffalo by Carrier, began
working on 17 July 1902.[citation needed]
Designed to improve manufacturing process control in a printing plant, Carrier's invention
controlled not only temperature but also humidity. Carrier used his knowledge of the heating of
objects with steam and reversed the process. Instead of sending air through hot coils, he sent it
through cold coils (filled with cold water). The air was cooled, and thereby the amount of moisture
in the air could be controlled, which in turn made the humidity in the room controllable. The
controlled temperature and humidity helped maintain consistent paper dimensions and ink
alignment. Later, Carrier's technology was applied to increase productivity in the workplace,
and The Carrier Air Conditioning Company of America was formed to meet rising demand. Over
time, air conditioning came to be used to improve comfort in homes and automobiles as well.
Residential sales expanded dramatically in the 1950s.[citation needed]
In 1906, Stuart W. Cramer of Charlotte was exploring ways to add moisture to the air in his textile
mill. Cramer coined the term "air conditioning", using it in a patent claim he filed that year as an
analogue to "water conditioning", then a well-known process for making textiles easier to
process. He combined moisture with ventilation to "condition" and change the air in the factories,
controlling the humidity so necessary in textile plants. Willis Carrier adopted the term and
incorporated it into the name of his company.[10]
Shortly thereafter, the first private home to have air conditioning was built in Minneapolis in 1914,
owned by Charles Gates.[11] Realizing that air conditioning would one day be a standard feature
of private homes, particularly in regions with warmer climate, David St. Pierre DuBose (1898-
1994) designed a network of ductwork and vents for his home Meadowmont, all disguised behind
intricate and attractive Georgian-style open moldings.[when?] This building is believed to be one of
the first private homes in the United States equipped for central air conditioning.[12]
In 1945, Robert Sherman of Lynn, Massachusetts invented a portable, in-window air conditioner
that cooled, heated, humidified, dehumidified, and filtered the air.[13]
Refrigerant development[edit]
Main article: Refrigerant
A modern R-134a hermetic refrigeration compressor

The first air conditioners and refrigerators employed toxic or flammable gases, such
as ammonia, methyl chloride, or propane, that could result in fatal accidents when they
leaked. Thomas Midgley, Jr. created the first non-flammable, non-toxic chlorofluorocarbon
gas, Freon, in 1928. The name is a trademark name owned by DuPontfor
any chlorofluorocarbon (CFC), hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC), or hydrofluorocarbon (HFC)
refrigerant. The refrigerant names include a number indicating the molecular composition (e.g.,
R-11, R-12, R-22, R-134A). The blend most used in direct-expansion home and building comfort
cooling is an HCFC known as chlorodifluoromethane (R-22).
Dichlorodifluoromethane (R-12) was the most common blend used in automobiles in the U.S.
until 1994, when most designs changed to R-134A due to the ozone-depleting potential of R-12.
R-11 and R-12 are no longer manufactured in the U.S. for this type of application, but is still
imported and can be purchased and used by certified HVAC technicians. For systems requiring
only an occasional "shot" of R-12 and otherwise in good working order and performing far better
than virtually all "R-134a" systems whether "converted" or "factory", even $50-$100 per pound of
R-12 is considered "cheap" by many individuals.
Modern refrigerants have been developed to be more environmentally safe than many of the
early chlorofluorocarbon-based refrigerants used in the early- and mid-twentieth century. These
include HCFCs (R-22, as used in most U.S. homes before 2011) and HFCs (R-134a, used in
most cars) have replaced most CFC use. HCFCs, in turn, are supposed to have been in the
process of being phased out under the Montreal Protocol and replaced by HFCs such as R-
410A, which lack chlorine.[14] HFCs, however, contribute to climate change problems. Moreover,
policy and political influence by corporate executives resisted change.[15][16] Corporations insisted
that no alternatives to HFCs existed. The environmental organization Greenpeaceprovided
funding to a former East German refrigerator company to research an alternative ozone- and
climate-safe refrigerant in 1992. The company developed a hydrocarbon mix
of isopentane and isobutane, but as a condition of the contract with Greenpeace could not patent
the technology, which led to its widespread adoption by other firms.[17][18][19] Their activist marketing
first in Germany led to companies like Whirlpool, Bosch, and later LG and others to incorporate
the technology throughout Europe, then Asia, although the corporate executives resisted in Latin
America, so that it arrived in Argentina produced by a domestic firm in 2003, and then finally with
giant Bosch's production in Brazil by 2004.[20][21]
In 1995, Germany made CFC refrigerators illegal.[22] DuPont and other companies blocked the
refrigerant in the U.S. with the U.S. EPA, disparaging the approach as "that German
technology".[21][23]Nevertheless, in 2004, Greenpeace worked with multinational corporations
like Coca-Cola and Unilever, and later Pepsico and others, to create a corporate coalition called
Refrigerants Naturally!.[22][24] Then, four years later, Ben & Jerry's of Unilever and General Electric
began to take steps to support production and use in the U.S.[25] In 2011 the EPA decided in favor
of the ozone- and climate-safe refrigerant for U.S. manufacture.[17][26][27]

Operating principles[edit]
 This section needs additional citations for verification. Please
help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources.
Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
Find sources: "Air
conditioning" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (December
2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

Refrigeration cycle[edit]
Main article: Heat pump and refrigeration cycle

A simple stylized diagram of the refrigeration cycle: 1) condensing coil, 2) expansion valve, 3) evaporator
coil, 4) compressor

Capillary expansion valve connection to evaporator inlet. Notice frost formation.

Cooling in traditional AC systems is accomplished using the vapor-compression cycle, which

uses the forced circulation and phase change of a refrigerant between gas and liquid to transfer
heat.
The vapor-compression cycle can occur within a unitary, or packaged piece of equipment; or
within a chiller that is connected to terminal cooling equipment (such as a variable refrigerant
flow terminal or fan coil unit) on its evaporator side and heat rejection equipment on its
condenser side.
Evaporative cooling[edit]
Main article: Evaporative cooler
An evaporative cooler

In very dry climates, evaporative coolers, sometimes referred to as swamp coolers or desert
coolers, are popular for improving coolness during hot weather. An evaporative cooler is a device
that draws outside air through a wet pad, such as a large sponge soaked with water.
The sensible heat of the incoming air, as measured by a dry bulb thermometer, is reduced. The
temperature of the incoming air is reduced, but it is also more humid, so the total heat (sensible
heat plus latent heat) is unchanged. Some of the sensible heat of the entering air is converted to
latent heat by the evaporation of water in the wet cooler pads. If the entering air is dry enough,
the results can be quite substantial.
Evaporative coolers tend to feel as if they are not working during times of high humidity, when
there is not much dry air with which the coolers can work to make the air as cool as possible for
dwelling occupants. Unlike other types of air conditioners, evaporative coolers rely on the outside
air to be channeled through cooler pads that cool the air before it reaches the inside of a house
through its air duct system; this cooled outside air must be allowed to push the warmer air within
the house out through an exhaust opening such as an open door or window.[28] These coolers
cost less and are mechanically simple to understand and maintain.
Free cooling[edit]
Main article: Free cooling
Air conditioning can also be provided by a process called free cooling which uses pumps to
circulate a coolant such as air, water, or a water-glycol mixture from a cold source, which in turn
acts as a heat sink for the energy that is removed from the cooled space. Common storage
media are cool outside air, deep aquifers, or a natural underground rock mass accessed via a
cluster of small-diameter boreholes. Some systems with small storage capacity are hybrid
systems, using free cooling early in the cooling season, and later employing a heat pump to chill
the circulation coming from the storage. The heat pump is added because the temperature of the
storage gradually increases during the cooling season, thereby declining its effectiveness.
Free cooling systems can have very high efficiencies, and are sometimes combined
with seasonal thermal energy storage (STES) so the cold of winter can be used for summer air
conditioning. Free cooling and hybrid systems are mature technology.[29]

Humidity control[edit]
Since humans perspire to provide natural cooling by the evaporation of perspiration from the
skin, reducing relative humidity can promote occupant comfort. An air conditioner designed for an
occupied space typically will create a 30% to 60% relative humidity in the occupied space to
balance comfort, microbial growth, and other indoor air quality factors.[30]
Dehumidification and cooling[edit]
Air conditioning equipment will reduce the absolute humidity of the air processed by the system if
the surface of the evaporator coil is significantly cooler than the dewpoint of the surrounding air.
Moisture from the air will condense on the coil and must be disposed of or recycled.
Dehumidification program[edit]
Most modern air-conditioning systems feature a dehumidification cycle during which the
compressor runs while the fan is slowed as much as possible[citation needed] to reduce the evaporator
temperature and therefore condense more water. When the temperature falls below a threshold,
both the fan and compressor are shut off to mitigate further temperature drops;[clarification needed] this
prevents moisture on the evaporator from being blown back into the room.[citation needed] When the
temperature rises again,[clarification needed] the compressor restarts and the fan returns to low speed.
Occasionally, to thaw any ice produced, the fan runs with the compressor shut down; this
function is less effective when ambient temperatures are low.[citation needed]
Inverter air conditioners use the inside coil temperature sensor to keep the evaporator as cold as
possible. When the evaporator is too cold,[clarification needed] the compressor is slowed or stopped with
the indoor fan running.[citation needed]
Dehumidifier[edit]
Main article: Dehumidifier

Typical portable dehumidifier

A specialized air conditioner that is used only for dehumidifying is called a dehumidifier. It also
uses a refrigeration cycle, but differs from a standard air conditioner in that both the evaporator
and the condenser are placed in the same air path. A standard air conditioner transfers heat
energy out of the room because its condenser coil releases heat outside. However, since all
components of the dehumidifier are in the same room, no heat energy is removed. Instead, the
electric power consumed by the dehumidifier remains in the room as heat, so the room is
actually heated, just as by an electric heater that draws the same amount of power.
In addition, if water is condensed in the room, the amount of heat previously needed to evaporate
that water also is re-released in the room (the latent heat of vaporization). The dehumidification
process is the inverse of adding water to the room with an evaporative cooler, and instead
releases heat. Therefore, an in-room dehumidifier always will warm the room and reduce the
relative humidity indirectly, as well as reducing the humidity directly by condensing and removing
water.
Inside the unit, the air passes over the evaporator coil first, and is cooled and dehumidified. The
now dehumidified, cold air then passes over the condenser coil where it is warmed up again.
Then the air is released back into the room. The unit produces warm, dehumidified air and can
usually be placed freely in the environment (room) that is to be conditioned.
Dehumidifiers are commonly used in cold, damp climates to prevent mold growth indoors,
especially in basements. They are also used to protect sensitive equipment from the adverse
effects of excessive humidity in tropical countries.

Energy transfer[edit]
In a thermodynamically closed system, any power dissipated into the system that is being
maintained at a set temperature (which is a standard mode of operation for modern air
conditioners) requires that the rate of energy removal by the air conditioner increase. This
increase has the effect that, for each unit of energy input into the system (say to power a light
bulb in the closed system), the air conditioner removes that energy.[31] To do so, the air
conditioner must increase its power consumption by the inverse of its "efficiency" (coefficient of
performance) times the amount of power dissipated into the system. As an example, assume that
inside the closed system a 100 W heating element is activated, and the air conditioner has a
coefficient of performance of 200%. The air conditioner's power consumption will increase by
50 W to compensate for this, thus making the 100 W heating element cost a total of 150 W of
power.
It is typical for air conditioners to operate at "efficiencies" of significantly greater than
100%.[32] However, it may be noted that the input electrical energy is of higher thermodynamic
quality (lower entropy) than the output thermal energy (heat energy).
Air conditioner equipment power in the U.S. is often described in terms of "tons of refrigeration",
with each approximately equal to the cooling power of one short ton (2000 pounds or 907
kilograms) of ice melting in a 24-hour period. The value is defined as 12,000 BTU per hour, or
3517 watts.[33] Residential central air systems are usually from 1 to 5 tons (3.5 to 18 kW) in
capacity.
Seasonal energy efficiency ratio[edit]
Main article: Seasonal energy efficiency ratio
For residential homes, some countries set minimum requirements for energy efficiency. In the
United States, the efficiency of air conditioners is often (but not always) rated by the seasonal
energy efficiency ratio (SEER). The higher the SEER rating, the more energy efficient is the air
conditioner. The SEER rating is the BTU of cooling output during its normal annual usage divided
by the total electric energy input in watt hours (W·h) during the same period.[34]