CHAPTER 2 MATTER AND MINERALS

2.1 MINERALS: BUILDING BLOCKS OF ROCK 5. Definite chemical composition that allows for
some variation.
 MINERALOGY – study of minerals ✓ The common mineral quartz has the
 MINERALS – building blocks of rock formula SiO2, which indicates that quartz
 FLINT AND CHERT – first minerals to be mined and consists of silicon (Si) and oxygen (O)
fashioned into weapons and cutting tools atoms, in a ratio of one-to-two.
 3700 B.C. – Egyptians began mining gold, silver, ✓ The compositions of some minerals vary
copper within specific, well-defined limits. This
 2200 B.C. – humans discovered how to combine occurs because certain elements can
copper with tin to make bronze (strong, hard alloy) substitute for others of similar size
 Later, a process was developed to extract iron from without changing the mineral’s internal
minerals such as hematite. structure.
 MIDDLE AGES – mining of variety of minerals became
common, and the impetus for the formal study of
minerals was in place
 DEFINING A MINERAL
 MINERAL – any naturally occurring inorganic solid
that possesses an orderly crystalline structure and
a definite chemical position that allows for some
variation
 Exhibits the following characteristics:
1. Naturally Occurring – form through natural
geologic process  WHAT IS A ROCK?
2. Generally Inorganic  Any solid mass of mineral, or mineral like, matter
✓ Inorganic crystalline solids, such as that occurs naturally as part of our planet.
ordinary table salt (halite), that are found
naturally in the ground are considered
minerals.
✓ Organic compounds, on the other hand,
are generally not considered as minerals.
Sugar, a crystalline solid like salt but that
comes from sugarcane or sugar beets, is a
common example of such an organic
compound.
✓ Many marine animals secrete inorganic
compounds, such as calcium carbonate  Aggregate – minerals are joined in such a way that
✓ (calcite), in the form of shells and coral their individual properties are retained
reefs. If these materials are buried and  Some rocks are composed of nonmineral matter.
become part of the rock record, geologists These include the volcanic rocks obsidian and
consider them minerals. pumice, which are noncrystalline glassy
3. Solid Substance substances, and coal, which consists of solid
✓ Only solid crystalline substances are organic debris.
considered minerals.
2.2 ATOMS: BUILDING BLOCKS OF MINERALS
✓ Ice (frozen water) fits this criterion and is
considered a mineral, whereas liquid  ATOMS - smallest particles that cannot be chemically
water and water vapor do not. split
✓ The exception is mercury, which is found  All matter, including minerals, is composed of minute
in its liquid form in nature. building blocks called atoms.
4. Order Crystalline Structure – atoms are  Since matter typically contains equal numbers of
arranged in an orderly, repetitive manner in positively charged protons and negatively charged
minerals. electrons, most substances are electrically neutral.
✓ Some naturally occurring solids, such as
 PROTONS
volcanic glass (obsidian), lack a repetitive
 very dense particles
atomic structure and are not considered
 identical mass with neutron
minerals.
 has an electrical charge of +1
 CHAPTER 2 MATTER AND MINERALS
 Charge is equal in magnitude with electron but
opposite in polarity.
 NEUTRONS
 very dense particles
 identical mass with proton
 has no electrical charge
 ELECTRON
 negligible mass, about 1/2000 of a proton
 has an electrical charge of -1
 More realistic depiction shows electrons as a
cloud of negative charges surrounding the
nucleus.
 move about the nucleus in a region called principal
shells, each with an associated energy
 Each shell can hold a specific number of electrons,
with the outermost shell generally containing
valence electrons that interact with other atoms
to form chemical bonds.
 ELEMENTS DEFINED BY THEIR NUMBER OF PROTONS
 ATOMIC NUMBER – determines the chemical
nature
 ELEMENT – a group of the same kind of atoms
 PERIODIC TABLE – arrangement where elements
are organized so that those with similar properties
line up in columns, referred to as groups.
 CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS – formed when elements
join with other atoms of other elements
 most minerals are chemical compounds
2.3 WHY ATOMS BOND
 atoms bond to one another under the conditions
(except for noble gases):
 temperature
 pressure
 atoms bond to form ionic compounds, molecules, or
metallic substances
 electrical forces hold atoms together and bond them
to each other
 these attractions lower the total energy of the bonded
atoms and makes them stable
 OCTET RULE AND CHEMICAL BONDS
 NOBLE GASES – have stable electron
arrangements, lack chemical reactivity (except
helium)
 OCTET RULE – Atoms tend to gain, lose, or share
electrons until they are surrounded by eight
valence electrons.
 CHEMICAL BOND – transfer or sharing of electrons
that allows each atom to attain a full valence shell
of electrons
 IONIC BONDS: ELECTRONS TRANSFERRED
 attraction of oppositely charged ions to one
another, producing an electrically neutral ionic
compound
 valence electrons are transferred between
elements to form ions (positively and negatively
charged atom)
 atom that loses electron: POSITIVE ION
 atom that gains electron: NEGATIVE ION
 when elements combine to form compounds,
their properties change significantly
 brittle and fracture when stress is applied
 COVALENT BONDS: ELECTRON SHARING
 chemical bond formed by sharing of a pair of
electrons between atoms
 force that holds these atoms together arises from
the attraction of oppositely charged particles—
positively charged protons in the nuclei and
negatively charged electrons that surround these
nuclei
 brittle and fracture when stress is applied
 METALLIC BONDS: ELECTRONS FREE TO MOVE
 attraction between the “sea” of negatively
charged electrons and positive ions and gives
metals their unique properties
 METALS
✓ Good Conductors – valence electrons are free
to move from one atom to another
✓ Malleable – hammered into thin sheets
✓ Ductile – can be drawn into thin wires
2.4 PROPERTIES OF A MINERAL
 OPTICAL PROPERTIES
 LUSTER – appearance or quality of light reflected
from the surface of a mineral
✓ Metallic Luster – appearance of metal
✓ Submetallic Luster
✓ Nonmetallic Luster – vitreous or glassy, dull or
earthy luster, pearly luster, silky luster, greasy
luster
 ABILITY TO TRANSMIT LIGHT
✓ OPAQUE – no light transmitted
 CHAPTER 2 MATTER AND MINERALS
✓ TRANSLUCENT – light is transmitted but image
isn’t
✓ TRANSPARENT – light and image are visible
 COLOR
✓ most conspicuous characteristic of any mineral
✓ use of color as a means of identification is
often ambiguous or even misleading
 STREAK – color of mineral in powdered form
✓ obtained by rubbing the mineral across a
streak plate (piece of unglazed porcelain)
✓ usually consistent in color in similar minerals
✓ can also help distinguish between minerals
with metallic luster and nonmetallic luster
1. Metallic Luster – dense, dark streak
2. Nonmetallic Luster – lightly colored streak
✓ Quartz – harder than porcelain streak plate,
therefore no streak can be observed
 CRYSTAL SHAPE OR HABIT
 common or characteristic shape of individual
crystals or aggregates of crystals
 TERMS:
✓ equant (equidimensional)
✓ bladed
✓ fibrous
✓ tabular
✓ prismatic
✓ platy
✓ blocky
✓ banded
✓ granular
✓ botryoidal
 MINERAL STRENGTH
 how easily minerals break or deform under stress
is determined by the type and strength of the
chemical bonds that hold the crystals together
 HARDNESS – measure of the resistance of a
mineral to abrasion or scratching
✓ Mohs scale
 CLEAVAGE – (kleiben = carve) tendency of the
mineral to break along planes of weak bonding
✓ smooth, flat surface that is produced when
the mineral is broken
✓ When minerals break evenly in more than one
direction, cleavage is described by the number
of cleavage directions and the angle(s) at
which they meet
 FRACTURE –
✓ minerals that have chemical bonds that are
equally, or nearly equally, strong in all
directions produce this property
✓ Irregular Fracture - produce uneven surfaces
✓ Conchoidal Fracture – smooth, curved surfaces
resembling broken glass
✓ Splintery Fracture – splinters
✓ Fibrous Fracture – fibers
 TENACITY - mineral’s resistance to breaking,
bending, cutting, or other forms of deformation
✓ Brittle – nonmetallic minerals (quartz or halite)
✓ Malleable – native metals (copper or gold)
✓ Sectile – cut into thin shavings (gypsum or
talc)
✓ Elastic – bend, snap back to their original
shape (micas)
 DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY
 D = mass per unit volume
 SG = describe the density of minerals
✓ no. representing the ratio of a mineral’s
weight to the weight of an equal volume of
water
 OTHER PROPERTIES
 Halite – salty
 Talc – soapy
 Graphite – greasy
 Sulfur Bearing Minerals – rotten eggs
 Magnetite – magnetic
 Calcite – double refraction
2.5 MINERAL GROUPS
 ROCK-FORMING MINERALS – abundant, make up most
of the rocks or Earth’s crust
 ECONOMIC MINERALS – less abundant, used
extensively in manufacture of products
 CHAPTER 2 MATTER AND MINERALS

 only 8 ELEMENTS make up the vast majority of rock • found in many igneous, sedimentary,
forming minerals and represent mora than 98% of and metamorphic rocks
continental crust • have 2 directions of cleavage that
 SILICATE MINERALS meet at 90-degree angles
 contains oxygen and silicon atoms • hardness: 6
 fundamental building block: SILICON-OXYGEN
TETRAHEDRON (tetra=4, hedra=a base)

 joined into chains, sheets, or three-dimensional •POTASSIUM FELDSPAR - contains

networks by sharing oxygen atoms
 FELDSPARS – most plentiful group, 50% of Earth’s
Crust
 QUARTZ – second most abundant, only mineral
made completely of silicon and oxygen
 A relationship exists between this internal
structure of a mineral and the cleavage it exhibits,
that’s why each mineral group has a particular
silicate structure.
 silicon–oxygen bonds are strong, silicate minerals
tend to cleave between the silicon–oxygen
structures rather than across them
 MICA - have a sheet structure and thus tend to
cleave into flat plates
 QUARTZ - equally strong silicon–oxygen bonds in
all directions, has no cleavage but fractures
instead
 How do silicate minerals form?
1. crystallize from molten rock as it cools (earth’s
surface with low temperature and pressure) or
(great depths with high temperature and
pressure)
✓ environment during crystallization and the
chemical composition of the molten rock
mainly determine which minerals are
produced
2. weathered products (ex. clay)
3. extreme pressure associated with mountain
building
 COMMON LIGHT SILICATE MINERALS
✓ light in color
✓ specific gravity = 2.7
✓ contain varying amounts of aluminum,
potassium, calcium, and sodium
1. FELDSPAR – most abundant mineral group
potassium ions in its crystalline
structure
• PLAGIOCLASE FELDSPAR - contains
calcium and/or sodium ions
2. QUARTZ - major constituent of many
igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic
rocks
• wide variety of colors
• hardness: 7
• exhibits conchoidal fracture
3. MUSCOVITE – abundant member of the
mica family
• has excellent cleavage in one direction
• hardness: 2.5 to 3
4. CLAY MINERALS - typically form as
products of chemical weathering of
igneous rocks
• make up much of the surface material
we call soil
• half of the volume of sedimentary
rocks is composed of clay minerals
• KAOLINITE - common clay mineral
formed from the weathering of
feldspar
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 COMMON DARK SILICATE MINERALS
✓ contain iron and magnesium in their
crystalline structures
✓ iron gives the dark silicates their color and
contributes to their high specific gravity
✓ specific gravity = 3.2 to 3.6
1. OLIVINE - important group of dark silicate
minerals that are major constituents of
dark-colored igneous rocks
• Abundant in Earth’s upper mantle
• black to olive green in color
• glassy luster
• small crystals, granular appearance
2. PYROXENES - important components of
dark-colored igneous rocks
• AUGITE – most common member,
black, opaque mineral with two
directions of cleavage that meet at
nearly 90-degree angles
3. AMPHIBOLE GROUP
• HORNEBLENDE – dark green to black;
Except for its cleavage angles, which
are about 60 degrees and 120
degrees, hornblende is very similar in
appearance to augite
• Found in igneous rocks, hornblende
makes up the dark portion of
otherwise light-colored rocks.
4. BIOTITE - dark, iron-rich member of the
mica family
• possesses a sheet structure that gives
it excellent cleavage in one direction
• shiny appearance helps distinguish it
from other dark silicate minerals
• common constituent of most light-
colored igneous rocks, including
granite
5. GARNET - mineral is most often brown to
deep red, and in transparent form, it is
used as a gemstone
• glassy luster
• conchoidal fracture
 IMPORTANT NONSILICATE MINERALS
 typically divided into groups, based on the
negatively charged ion or complex ion that the
members have in common
 oxides contain the negative oxygen ions (O–2),
which are bonded to one or more kinds of positive
ions
 make up only about 8 percent of Earth’s crust,
some minerals, such as gypsum, calcite, and halite,
occur as constituents in sedimentary rocks in
significant amounts
 most common non silicate minerals belong to
CARBONATES, SULFATES, and HALIDES
 Calcite and dolomite are usually found together as
the primary constituents in the sedimentary rocks
limestone and dolostone.
 CALCITE is the dominant mineral, the rock is called
LIMESTONE
 DOLOSTONE results from a predominance of
DOLOMITE
 nonsilicate minerals frequently found in
sedimentary rocks are halite and gypsum
 Examples of important sulfide minerals include
galena (lead), sphalerite (zinc), and chalcopyrite
(copper). In addition, native elements—including
gold, silver, and carbon (diamonds)— plus a host
of other nonsilicate minerals—fluorite (flux in
making steel), corundum (gemstone, abrasive),
and uraninite (a uranium source)—are important
economically.
2.6 NATURAL RESOURCES
 Mineral and energy resources from Earth’s crust are
the raw materials from which we make all the
products we use.
 RENEWABLE RESOURCES - can be replenished over
relatively short time spans
 NONRENEWABLE RESOURCES - processes that create
them are so slow that significant deposits take millions
of years to accumulate
 MINERAL RESOURCES - occurrences of useful minerals
that are formed in such quantities that eventual
extraction is reasonably certain
 ORE DEPOSIT - naturally occurring concentration of
one or more metallic minerals that can be extracted
economically
 ORE - applied to some nonmetallic minerals such as
fluorite and sulfur
CHAPTER 2 MATTER AND MINERALS