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BOY OR GIRL?:
A STUDY ABOUT THE DEVELOPMENT OF GENDER ROLES
IN CHILDHOOD
by
Group 1:
Blando, Mark Kristian
Pineda, Jackeline Louise
Villanueva, Sharyn Vettina
This study were made to confirm Kohlberg's theory to determine whether children already
have a gender identity, gender stability, and gender constancy at certain ages. Another goal of the
towards children. Overall, the study was able to confirm the theory of Kohlberg, at the age of 3-5,
Children can already identify whether she is a boy or a girl. However, it was also noted during that
stage that they can only differentiate male and females through physical characteristics (girls have
longer hair compared to boys). At the age of 6 to 7, children can already identify the difference in
behavioral and personality pattern of males and females (boys go to work, while girls stay at
home). There were also different factors identified on how children develop their schema; factors
“Gender is the first, most obvious, significant attribute each of us shows the world. Even
infants understand much more about gender than we expect. It is not long before this
implicit understanding starts shaping their own behavior, actions, and emotional style. Boys and
girls begin growing into the gender roles that they see modeled all around them.” - (Eliot, 2011).
Gender roles are parts are how society anticipates a person to act based on either he is a
male or a female. It can also vary across different culture because gender roles are specific culture
thinks one ought to do with one’s life, including personality traits, mannerisms, duties, and cultural
expectations, given one’s gender (Bornstein, 1998). Different theories and studies also suggest that
at a very young age, children can already construct their understanding of gender roles and how a
particular gender should behave. Gender has been a way for us to construct our children’s reality.
In our society, girls are expected to do more of the household chores and to take care of
the kids. Whereas boys, they are expected to work and to provide for their family. In terms of
personality, boys are expected to show fewer emotions compared to girls. For children, toys for
girls highlight aesthetics, nurturance while toys for boys highlight intellect and physical prowess.
There are different traits and roles that society has set for both genders, there constitute or
Some theories claimed that when a child reached the age of 5, they begin to develop
different roles about gender and also learn to apply these stereotypes to themselves and others
(Martin and Ruble, 2004). Although some of these roles are widely accepted by society, gender
roles can also be discriminating and harmful. When we value gender roles too much, we limit
ourselves to explore our skills and knowledge. Especially to the children, we all know that at that
stage of life they a wide variety and diversity of interests. By sticking too much to our gender roles,
we are also limiting their exploration of their own unique identities. Their identity, after all, is a
Several studies also suggest that childhood experiences with gender roles play a vital role
in shaping an individual's self-concept and influence the way he/she The gender roles encountered
in childhood play a large part in shaping an individual's self-concept and has a great effect in an
individual’s interpersonal relationships in adulthood (Beal, 1994). Thus, the aim of this study is to
know and to explore the developmental perspective of gender roles for pre-schoolers and grade-
schoolers. The researchers would like to confirm Kohlberg's theory to determine whether children
already have a gender identity, gender stability, and gender constancy at certain ages. The
researchers would also like to raise awareness on how parents could promote a gender-neutral
There are different theories that explain how children develop their understanding of
gender roles. One of the major theories is Kohlberg’s Theory of Gender Development (1966). It
(Kavathatzopoulos, 2006). Piaget (1963) suggests that children do not possess the internal logic
that is needed to differentiate appearance and reality. Kohlberg applied many of Piaget’s ideas like
this to his theory of gender development. According to Kohlberg’s theory (1966), children’s
understanding of gender roles develops in stages. There are three stages in Kohlberg’s theory:
Labelling.” This stage occurs during the age of two to three. At this stage, children are able to
properly label or identify sexes - male and female. They greatly rely on physical characteristics or
external appearances to determine their own and other people’s gender. For instance, they would
typically identify people with long hair as girls and people with short hair are boys. Children at
this stage still do not understand that gender is stable through time and situation. When a boy plays
with a doll, he is seen as a girl at the time because girls play with dolls but once the boy changes
his toy and starts playing with toy cars, he is no longer seen as a girl but instead, he is seen as a
Thompson (1975) conducted a study that supports Kohlberg’s first stage of gender
development, Gender Labelling. He found that 2-year-olds and 3-year-olds are 76% and 90%
correct in identifying their own gender, respectably. This study shows children’s increased ability
to correctly label their own gender as they age and that children have a more sophisticated
understanding of gender as they grow older. This was incongruent with Kohlberg’s theory.
The next in gender development according to Kohlberg (1966) is called “Gender Stability.”
This stage happens during the age of four to five. Children at this stage recognize that their own
gender is stable across time. For example, a young girl understands that someday she will become
a woman, then become a mother. The concept of gender stability is already present for themselves.
However, they do not comprehend that other people’s gender is also stable across time and
Slaby and Frey study (1975) assessed whether children’s understanding of gender is stable
and fixed using a structured Gender Concept Interview. Fifty-five 2 to 5-year-olds were asked a
series of fourteen questions and counter-questions that tackled gender labeling. One of the
questions was “When you grow up, will you be a mommy or a daddy?” Children were classified
as low on gender constancy if they answered incorrectly on the gender questions. Likewise, they
were classified as high on gender constancy when they were able to answer correctly. Children’s
responses to the questions seemed to support Kohlberg’s sequence of gender identity development.
Younger children gave answers that do not correspond with their gender. Stan and Frey found that
children did not recognize that their genders are stable until they were 3 to 4 years old as predicted
by Kohlberg.
The final stage of Kohlberg’s theory (1966) is called is Gender Constancy. This stage
occurs between the age of six to seven. Children at this stage understand that their own gender and
others’ gender are stable across time and situation despite changes in physical characteristics or
external appearances. In this stage, children that see a male with long hair and does a “feminine
job” like being a nurse is still seen as a male. They now have a deeper and sophisticated
understanding of gender.
Kohlberg (1966) added that children at the Gender Constancy stage prefer playing with
same-sex friends and doing gender stereotyped activities. An example could be boys wanting to
hang out with male playmates and play basketball instead of playing house because that is what
they think boys do. They also look for role models of the same gender to identify with and imitate
them. An example could be a girl copying her mother by putting makeup on her face because she
sees her mother as a woman, and she identifies herself with her mother. Therefore, she copies and
imitates her mom. Children at this stage are also curious to search for evidence that confirms their
idea of what their own gender is supposed to do. Hence, at this stage children are biased in
processing memory and information relevant to their own sex (Martin & Ruble, 2004).
Slaby and Frey (1975) also explored on children’s gender constancy by making their fifty-
five 2- to 5-year-old participants come back a few weeks after their gender labeling experiment.
They presented children with a split screen film of males and females performing parallel activities
on different sides of the screen. The length of time that the children’s looked on each side of the
screen was measured. They found that younger children spent around the same amount of time
watching both males and females while older children in the gender constancy stage spent more
time watching the model with the same sex as them. This supports Kohlberg’s theory (1996) that
children develop a more complex and sophisticated concept of gender as they age. Furthermore,
this also supports that children who have reached gender constancy actively seeks for role models
In summary, Kohlberg (1966) stated that children progresses through a sequence of stages:
a. Gender Identity: ability to correctly identify one’s own gender; b. Gender Stability: ability to
recognize that one’s own gender is stable but still heavily rely on external and physical
characteristics to determine others’ gender; c. Gender Consistency: ability to understand that one’s
own and other people’s gender is stable despite external and physical characteristics.
The primary purpose of this study was to reevaluate Kohlberg's theory by determining the
relationship of children’s age and their concept of gender. Children’s concept of gender was
assessed by looking for the presence of gender identity, gender stability, and gender constancy. It
was predicted that children’s answers to questions about gender gender identity, gender stability,
and gender constancy would show a sequential characteristic as predicted by Kohlberg (1966).
The secondary purpose of this study is to raise awareness on how parents could promote a gender-
Research design
The researchers of this study used a quantitative research design. The researchers will use
two sets of interview questions; the first set of questions are open-ended questions, while the
second set of questions are answerable by a “boy” or a “girl” or “both”. The researchers assigned
Participants
The participants of this study were 3 Filipino children ages that range from 3-7 in relation
to the theory of Kohlberg. A 3.75-year-old boy, 5.5-year-old boy, and 7-year-old girl were tested
to determine their level of gender development. Due to time constraints, the researchers used
convenient sampling in selecting participants. Informed consents were given to the parents of the
Materials
The researchers used a set of survey questions that were designed to measure the gender
identity, gender stability, and gender constancy of the participants. A video camera was used to
record the whole interview session with the children, written permission was signed by the
guardians or the parents allowing the videotaping of the whole interview. The researchers also
asked for a verbal consent from the children to record their interviews.
Set A
8. What do you think will happen if a boy decides to wear a dress to school?
10. Do you think girls and boys should be treated differently? Why not?
Set B
5. Who is stronger?
Procedures
Before starting the interview, the researchers first explained the informed consent to the
parent or guardian. After signing the informed consent, the researchers asked first about the basic
information about the child (name, age, and grade level in school). The researchers started the
interview by asking the first 10 questions (Set A) to the child, the researchers recorded the
responses of the child participants. After the first 10 questions, the researchers brought out the
placards with a picture of a boy or a girl, the researchers asked the child to raise the placard to
development: Gender Identity (Set A: Item 1); Gender Stability (Set A: Item 2); and Gender
Consistency (Set A: Items 3-5). The researchers scored the responses of the participants, in the
first part (Set A), they gave 1 point in gender identity to the child that correctly knows his/her
gender. They also gave 1 point in gender stability to the child answered “no” to the question “are
you ever going to be a boy or a girl (the opposite gender)?” In gender constancy, the researchers
gave 1 point to the child who can differentiate what a boy and a girl are more than just the physical
appearance. In the second set of questions (Set B), the researchers asked about gender roles,
whenever the child gives a stereotypical answer, he/she will be given a score of 1, and whenever
IV. Findings
Table 1.0 shows that at the age of 2-3 years old, children can already identify which gender
they belong to. They can correctly label whether they are a boy or a girl. Furthermore, they are
also aware of gender irreversibility and gender stability. They are aware that their own gender is
fixed across time and situation but still heavily rely on physical characteristics to determine other
people’s gender. It was noted that there were no differences between ages 2-3 and 4-5, gender
identity and stability were present at both stages. Similar to the ages 6-7, gender identity and gender
stability were also already established. However, compared to the other groups, children at the age
of 6-7 are aware also aware of gender constancy. Their understanding of gender is more
sophisticated and complex thus, goes beyond physical characteristics. As shown in table 2.0, ages
2 to 5 focuses more on the physical differences of girls and boys, whereas, ages 6 to 7 understand
that there are also differences in behavior and personality of boys and girls.
The presence of the concept of gender-appropriate in children were tested on the 2nd set
of questions (Set B). Seeking for a gender-appropriate role model to imitate and get information
on gender-appropriate tasks are behaviors under the gender development stage Gender Constancy.
The results in table 3.0 shows that age group 2-3 showed least total score, followed by age group
Overall, the results of the study show that Gender Stability, the 2nd stage of gender
development, is acquired by both children at the age of 2-3 and 4-5. The child that belongs to the
6 to 7-year-old bracket was the only one that acquired Gender Stability, the third stage of gender
development. Children in the 6-7 age bracket also shows that they have a more sophisticated and
complex understanding of gender by giving gender descriptions that are beyond physical
V. Discussion
Kohlberg’s three stages of gender development (1966) were assessed on the basis of
children’s answers to questions pertaining to gender identity, gender stability, and gender
consistency. These three stages showed the characteristics of gender developmental stages in that
they were sequentially ordered, and age related. Gender Identity and Gender Stability were the
first ones to develop since younger children that were in the ages 2-3 and 4-5 already possessed
the characteristics of these stages. They were also the stages that had the greatest number of correct
answers thus, they are the easier for children to understand. Of the three stages, Gender
Consistency was found to develop latest. Only the child that was in the 6-7 age group possessed
the characteristics of this stage. It was also the stage that had the greatest number of incorrect
According to Kohlberg (1966), as children age, they develop a more sophisticated and
complex understanding of gender. Therefore, it is expected that children at the age group of 6-7
would have less gender stereotypical answers as compared to answers of children at the age group
of 2-3. However, based on our findings in the second part (Set B) of our experiment, the age group
of 2-3 had the least number of gender stereotypical answers, followed by the age group of 6-7,
then the age group of 4-5. This is quite contradicting to Kohlberg’s assumption that children
develop a more complex understanding of gender. However, Kohlberg also stated that children
actively seek for gender-appropriate role model to imitate. This suggests that the answers of our
participant could have been influenced by what they see in their environment. Their answers could
Consistent with the theory of Kohlberg about gender roles development, it was highly
noted in this study that as the child grows, he/she becomes more aware of the gender roles that the
society dictates. During the younger childhood, children only noticed differences in physical
appearances like the boys having the shorter than girls, or the girls wear dresses while boys wear
pants. As they grow old, their schema about gender also expands, at the age of 4, they could already
create patterns on how a girl or a boy should behave in our society (Rafferty, 2013). Like the
knowledge of boys should work and provide for their family, while girls should just stay at home
and take of the family. Hence, children ages 5 and above are more likely to conform to the gender
The depth and quality of children’s understanding and conceptualization of gender roles
still heavily rely on the society’s influence on them. Social learning theorist, Albert Bandura,
agrees with this assumption. All behavior, including gender, is learned from observing others
(Bandura, 1977). Children would pay attention to their role model, encode their gender specific
behavior that confirms their belief of what their genders are supposed to behave, and imitate what
they observed. This means that nurture shapes one’s gender development. The media and parents
Media has played a big impact in shaping children’s perception of gender roles, especially
television and videos on youtube. Their videos often contain on how a male or female should be
like or should behave. Usually the lead male character on cartoon shows were portrayed to be
independent, assertive, and like to play sports. Whereas, female lead characters are often associated
with emotionality, being warm, affectionate, sensitive, mature, and caring (Thompson and
Zerbinos, 1995). According also to Durkin and Nugent (1998), it was found out that 4 to 5 year
old children’s interests, occupations, and other activities are strongly influenced by television
shows. It was noted that females would be more likely to reject doing male activities. pre-schoolers
and grade schoolers will in fact see cliché sex-role models of the female and manly within the
media that's equipped towards them, but they will moreover see social skills being asserted for
both genders.
Parents were also seen as significant factor that influence a child’s perception of the gender
roles. According to some studies, the interaction between family, especially the parent-child
interaction is the strongest influence of gender role development. The beliefs and attitude of
parents about gender would pass on covertly and overtly to their child (Witt, 1997). The parent’s
behavior strongly influenced the gender-role attitudes of the young children. A child would often
reproduce his/her parents’ behavior, so in a home where a boy always sees his father doing heavy
jobs like fixing the car or the sink, or in a home where a girl sees her mother doing most of the
household chores. These scenarios would give the children the idea on what a boy or a girl should
VI. Conclusion
Implications
The results of our study heavily coincide with Kohlberg’s theory and accords with Dr.
Eliot’s study that highlight the biological underpinnings of children’s conceptualization of gender
roles. Children’s conceptualization of gender roles exists early on and it develops from a physical
and tangible definition to a more complex and abstracted delineation as they grow older. However,
the richness of their definition and conceptualization is heavily reliant on a lot of familial and
societal factors which are channeled through various forms: media, language, marketing and even
the educational system. Children who are innately designed to absorb as much information and
stimuli presented to them may be developing an erroneous conceptualization of gender roles; for
this reason, parenting is immensely crucial in the childhood gender and gender-role development.
whereby reality is produced, maintained, repaired, and transformed. It is important for parents to
use a more gender-inclusive and neutral language to children to avoid communicating erroneous
concurrently breed inequalities, sexism, misogyny, patriarchy which develops into prejudice, bullying.
The earlier parents expose these issues to children, the easier it will be to address prejudice before it is
Intrapersonal problems may also likely since gender roles also plant seeds of self-doubt to children
which grow within them and are soon manifested through identity problems and low-self-esteem. Gender-
roles are restrictive and limiting of children’s exploration of their own diverse interests and unique
identities; Their identity after all is a continuum which possibilities vast and limitless. Children face bigger
problems of having to abandon and deny a part of themselves to fit into the gender-role dichotomy.
This study does not only highlight individual juvenile implications beneficial for parents to raise
healthy and well-developed children. Beyond the individual, familial and peer implications, this study most
importantly highlights societal implications. The end of discriminatory behaviors, patriarchy, misogyny
and inequalities begins by ending erroneous notions of gender-roles which may be prevented through better
ways of communication and a more gender-inclusive and neutral language. A more gender-inclusive and
neutral home unrestricted by the gender-role dichotomy enables one not just to flourish as a good child but
Limitations
This study also has theoretical and methodological limitations. The researchers, due to
limited time constraints only gathered three participants which way too little and insignificant for
a quantitative analysis. The researchers also used a cross-sectional design to identify the
development of gender roles in childhood failing to take into account the different cultural family
background, and gender of the participants. To add, the researchers think that the children who
participated in this study may lack the vocabulary to express their understanding. They may have
complex ideas about gender but do not possess the ability to articulate these. Their answers may
Recommendations:
With the limitations mentioned above, the researchers would like to recommend to the
future researchers to use more questions to fully explore the stages of gender development in
children, gather more participants, a balance number male and female participants per stages to
the study. The researchers would also recommend to the future researchers to further look or
consider other theorists like Bem’s Gender Schema Theory and not limit to Kohlberg Theory of
Gender Roles Development. Now, that we know how children acquire the concept of gender roles
cognitively. Future researchers could also explore the environmental influences to a child’s gender
development. The study could also be better if it would be able to explore Bandura’s Social
Beal, C. (1994). Boys and girls: The development of gender roles. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Bornstein K (1998). My Gender Workbook: How to Become a Real Man, a Real Woman, the
Real You, or Something Else Entirely. New York: Routledge.
Eliot, L. P. (2011). Pink brain, blue brain - how small differences grow into troublesome gaps.
Oneworld Publications.
Halpern, H. P., & Perry-Jenkins, M. (2016). Parents’ gender ideology and gendered behavior as
predictors of children’s gender-role attitudes: A longitudinal exploration. Sex roles,
74(11-12), 527-542.
Kavathatzopoulos, I. (2006). Kohlberg and Piaget: Differences and similarities. Journal of Moral
Education, 20(1), 47-54.
Martin, C. L., & Ruble, D. (2004). Children's search for gender cues: Cognitive perspectives on
gender development. Current directions in psychological science, 13(2), 67-70.
Piaget, J. (1936). Origins of intelligence in the child. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Rafferty J. (2013). Gender Identity and Gender Confusion in Children. Retrieved 11 November
2013 from http://www.healthychildren.org/English/ages-stages/gradeschool/pages/
Gender-Identity-and-Gender-Confusion-In-Children.aspx
Thompson, T. L., & Zerbinos, E. (1995). Gender roles in animated cartoons: Has the picture
changed in 20 years?. Sex roles, 32(9-10), 651-673.
Your child is being asked to participate in a research study conducted by Mark Blando, Jackline
Pineda, and Sharyn Villanueva from De La Salle University-Manila. The purpose of this study is
to confirm Kohlberg's theory to determine whether children already have a gender identity, gender
Research Procedures
Should you decide to allow your child to participate in this research study, you will be asked to
sign this consent form once all your questions have been answered to your satisfaction. This study
consists of two series of interviews that will be administered to individual participants at your
home. Your child will be asked to provide answers to a series of questions related gender roles.
Time Required
Participation in this study will require 10-20 minutes of your child’s time.
Risks
The researchers do not perceive more than minimal risks from your child’s involvement in this
study; there are no risks beyond the risks associated with everyday life.
Benefits
After your child’s participation is complete, you will be given an opportunity to learn about this
research, which may be useful to you as a parent. You will also have an opportunity to contribute
Confidentiality
The results of this research will be presented at conference. Your child will be identified in the
research records by a code name or number. The researchers retain the right to use and publish
non-identifiable data. When the results of this research are published or discussed in conferences,
no information will be included that would reveal your child’s identity. All data will be stored in
it is our ethical responsibility to report situations of child abuse, child neglect, or any life-
threatening situation to appropriate authorities. However, we are not seeking this type of
information in our study nor will you be asked questions about these issues.
Your child’s participation is entirely voluntary. He/she is free to choose not to participate. Should
you and your child choose to participate, he/she can withdraw at any time without consequences
of any kind.
If you have questions or concerns during the time of your child’s participation in this study, or
after its completion or you would like to receive a copy of the final aggregate results of this study,
please contact:
Giving of Consent
I have read this consent form and I understand what is being requested of my child as a participant
in this study. I freely consent for my child to participate. I have been given satisfactory answers
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
8. What do you think will happen if a boy decides to wear a dress to school
Set 2 Questions
5. Who is stronger?