The following work will describe some of the great, important information as it

relates to mathematics. From basic math to geometry, STEM fields have led to
inventions, scientific calculations. The greatness of math is that it’s definite. There
is no ambiguity about its cosmology. Either something is right or wrong defines it.
That is why mathematics will always have a great purpose in the Universe.
Part 1: Basic Mathematics
The time has certainly come to write more information about the beautiful subject of mathematics.
For thousands of years, humanity has utilized mathematics for a diversity of purposes. Some wanted
to create complex structures globally. Some wanted to count objects, to device formulas, and to
improve society in a myriad of positive ways. Learning about math can bring about excellent career
choices from engineers to computer software analysts. Not to mention that mathematics can spark up
extra human creativity in a glorious fashion. That is why math is always important. From Euclid’s
Elements to the mathematical views of the Greek philosopher Pythagoras, we witness the glory of
mathematics. The greatness of mathematics deals with learning about factors, prime numbers, and the
concept of i. It is seeing young people and older people search and find solutions to problems that deal
with science, economics, and other spheres of human endeavors. Math can be simplistic or complex in
dealing with trigonometric or calculus. Also, many cultures brought us contributions in mathematical
development. For example, Muslim mathematicians during the Middle Ages brought us the decimal
point, Arabic numerals in notation, and many trigonometric functions. Ancient Babylonian
mathematics was written using a sexagesimal (base-60) numeral system. From this derives the modern
day usage of 60 seconds in a minute, 60 minutes in an hour, and 360 (60 x 6) degrees in a circle, as well
as the use of seconds and minutes of arc to denote fractions of a degree. It is likely the sexagesimal
system was chosen because 60 can be evenly divided by 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 20 and 30. All of these
numbers are factors of the number 60. So, we witness bioformatics being used now and we see people
of all ages enjoying the wonder of mathematics.
Numbers

Mathematics deals with numbers. Numbers are digits used in computations, analysis, and other forms
of developing our world. From telling time, calculating temperatures, and finishing up equations,
numbers are very vital part of math. They help us to count, measure, and label so many items. There
are many types of them too. Natural numbers include 1,2,3,4, 5, and so forth go into infinity. There is
the million which is has 6 zeroes on it. One billion has 9 zeroes. The trillion has 12 zeroes, then there is
the quadrillion, quintillion, sextillion, and all the way to the Googol, which has 100 zeroes and the
Googolplex which is bigger than the Googol too. There are negative numbers and rational numbers.
Rational numbers include numbers like ½ and -2/3. A rational number is any number that can be
expressed as the quotient or a fraction like p/q or two integers with a numerator like p and a non-zero
denominator q. Since q may be equal to 1, every integer is a rational number. In general a/b = c/d if
and only if a x d = c x b. A real number that isn’t rational is called irrational. Irrational numbers
include the √2, π, e, and φ. The decimal expansion of an irrational number continues without
repeating. Since the set of rational numbers is countable, and the set of real numbers is uncountable,
almost all real numbers are irrational. An integer is a number that can be written without a fractional
component. They include 21, 4, 0, and -2048. 9.75, 5 1⁄2, and √2 are not integrers. Complex numbers is
a number that can be expressed in the form a + bi, where a and b are real numbers. The number of i is
a solution of the equation x2 = −1, which is called an imaginary number because there is no real
number that satisfies this equation. For the complex number a + bi, a is called the real part, and b is
called the imaginary part. In mathematics, the absolute value or modulus |x| of a real number x is the
non-negative value of x without regard to its sign. Namely, |x| = x for a positive x, |x| = −x for a
negative x (in which case −x is positive), and |0| = 0. For example, the absolute value of 3 is 3, and the
absolute value of −3 is also 3. The absolute value of a number may be thought of as its distance from
zero.
Prime and Composite Numbers

One major type of numbers is called prime numbers. A prime number is any number that is a natural
number greater than one that can't be formed by 2 natural numbers (these numbers can't be one). The
number 5 is prime, because it can only be formed by 1 X 5 or 5 X 1. So, prime numbers are only
divisible by itself and one. Natural numbers are positive integers. Therefore, prime numbers are: 2,3, 5,
7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, etc. The ancient world knew of prime numbers for years and years. A composite
number is different. A composite number is a whole number that can be divided by itself, the number
1, and other numbers. They have much more factors than prime numbers. A factor is a number that
you can multiply in order to get into a new number. For example, the simple math problem of 2 X
3=6 has the factors of 2 and 3. More examples of composite numbers include: 4, 6, 8, 9, 12, 14, 15, 16, 18,
20, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26, etc. Prime and composite numbers are very diverse. The numbers of 0 and 1 are
neither prime nor composite because of many reasons. 0 is not a product of 2 factors. The number 1 is
not part of any factors and it has an infinite number of divisors. Any prime number must be greater
than one, so one isn't a prime number. Number 1 is a unit. An unit is a special class of numbers.
Natural numbers are counting numbers from 1, 2, 3, etc. Whole numbers include the pattern of 0, 1, 2,
3, etc.

Decimals

Decimals are very unique in mathematics. A decimal is a fraction whose denominator is a power of
ten. They exist to the right of the decimal point. One example is that the number 1984.56 has decimals.
0.56 is known as 56 hundredths. To the right of the decimal point is tenths, hundredths, thousandths,
ten-thousandths, hundred-thousandths, millionths, etc. There is a link between decimals and fractions
too. 0.1 is the same as 1/10. 0.25 is the same as 25/100 or 1/4. You can break down fractions in using the
lowest common denominator. So, 3/6 can break down to 1/2. In using addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and dividing any number, the decimal points must be in the right place, so
mathematical accuracy can be complete.

A fraction is parts to one whole. It is not part of the complete whole. For example, 1/2 of 1 is not 1, but
part of 1. The top number is the numerator and the bottom number is the denominator. If the
numerator is greater than the denominator, then that fraction is more than one. If it is the opposite,
then that number is less than one. Adding fractions with the same denominator is easy since you only
need to add the numerators. For example, 2/3 + 1/3 equals to 3/3 or one. When the numerator and
denominator is the same, then the answer is always one. To add, subtract, or multiply plus divide
fractions with different denominators, then people must use alternative methods like finding the least
common denominator or the common denominator. In dividing fractions, you can invert the second
fraction as a reciprocal because division is the opposite of multiplication. For example,

1/2 ÷ 1/6 is the same as:

1/2 X 6/1=
6/2=3

3 is the answer as any fraction must be simplified.

In many mathematical problems, there is addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. The
numbers added in addition are called the addends like 6 and 6 in 6+6 are the addends. The solution to
2 addends being added is called the sum. In subtraction, the largest number in the problem is the
minuend, the smaller number is the subtrahend, and the answer is the difference. So, in 4-1=3, the
minuend is 4, the subtrahend is 1, and the difference is 3. In multiplication, the 2 numbers being used
in multiplying are the factors. The answer is the product. So, in 2 X 15 =30, the 2 factors are 1 and 15
while the product is 30. There are four basic terms to be known in division. The dividend is the
number divided. The divisor is the number that the dividend is divided by. The quotient is the
number of times the divisor will go into the dividend. The remainder is a number that is less than the
divisor and is too small to be divided by the divisor to form a whole number. So, in a problem with
49474 / 7 = 7067 R 5. In this example 7 is the divisor, 49474 is the dividend, 7067 is the quotient and 5
is the remainder of the division.

In terms of the measuring mass in the metric system, 1 milligram (mg) is 0.001g, 1 centigram is 0.01 g, I
decigram is 0.1 gram, 1 dekagram is 10 grams, 1 hectogram is 100 grams, and 1 kilogram is 1,000 g. kilo- is
a prefix that means 1,000 times larger than a base unit, hector refers to 100 times larger, deci means 10
times smaller than a base unit, centi- means 100 times smaller than a base unit, and milli- means 1,000
times smaller than the base unit. In terms of volume, 4 liters is a litter more than 1 gallon. 1 quart is 2
pints. 4 quarts is equal to 1 gallon.
The Order of operations

The Order of operations is one of the most important parts of Elementary Mathematics. It is a
simplistic method to solve long mathematical problems. In order to use the order of operations, rules
must be utilized. First, you have to look at the problem from left to right. Then, you solve the
problem first with roots and exponents, then parenthesis, then multiplication and division, and lastly
with addition and subtraction. For example, if a problem exists with the following:

√(1+3) + 5, then the answer is

√4 +5

2 +5

The answer is 7.

Another problem is :

3 + 6 x (5 + 4) ÷ 3 - 7

You solve first by handling the parenthesis, so the that would cause the problem to look like this:

3+6X9÷3-7

Then you go left and right to solve multiplication first:

3 + 54 ÷ 3 -7
Then, comes division

3 + 18 -7

21 -7

The answer is 14.

Involving numbers, there are tons of divisibility rules. One is that if a digit ends with the numbers of
0, 2, 4, 6, and 8, then it is an even number. If the sum of the digits of a number is divisible by 3, then it
is an even number. There are other rules too. Math has many properties. Math properties include the
associative, commutative, identity, and distributive properties.

*The commutative property is about how changing the order of addends or factors does not affect the
sum or product.

Some examples include the following:

axb=c

bxa=c

5 x 7 = 35

7 x 5 = 35

a + b =c

b+a=c

12 + 6 =18

6 + 12 = 18
*The associative property is that the order in which numbers are grounded does not affect the sum or
product. Here are some examples of this:

(a + b) + c = d

a + (b+c) = d

(3+5) + 2 =10

3 + (5+2) =10

(a x b) x c = d

a + (b x c) = d

(4x7) x 3 -84

4 x (7x3) = 84

*The distributive property is when adding two or more numbers together, then multiplying the sum
by a factor is equal to multiplying each number alone by the factor first, and then adding the
products.

One example is:

a (b + c) = (a x b) + (a x c)

4 (1+8) = (4 x 1) + (4X8)
4 X 9 = 4 + 32

36 = 36

*The Identity property is when the additive identity is zero, then you can add zero to the addend and
the sum will equal to that addend. In Multiplication, the multiplicative identity is one. If you multiply
a factor by one, the product is equal to that factor.

Examples are:

a + 0 =a

8+0=8

ax1=a

25 X 1 = 25

Problem solving deals with math too. It deals with everyday life, because we have to problem solve in
terms of buying items, planning events, and learning new information as well. One word problem
that deals with the Order of Operations is the following:

Adam has $450. He spends $210 on food. Later he divides all the money into four
parts and gives three parts to his mom and one part he keeps for himself. Then he
found $20 in one of his Minecraft books being used as a bookmark. Write an
expression that shows all of this determine how much money he has left?

First, it is time to organize the information. Adam has $450, show you start with that. Later,
you must know that he spends $210 on food, so that deals with subtraction. Later, he
divided the money among 4 people. Every time, you see the word divide or share that
involves division. Therefore the equation should be:
(450-210) ÷ 4 +20

That is the expression. The answer should be:

(450-210) ÷ 4 +20
240÷4+20
60+20
80 or $80 left.

Another problem in dealing with the Order of Operations includes the following:

Sam has $1,000 to be distributed among two groups equally. Later, the first part is
divided among five children and second part is divided among two brothers. Give the
expression that represents how the money distribution between two groups was
dispersed?

First, 1,000 dollars is what is needed to be known first. Second, the groups are divided into
2, so addition is important to known. Also, each group will have $500, because each group
will have $1,000 equally distributed. The first group will have 500 ÷ 5 per $100 each. The
second group will have 500 ÷ 2 or $250 each.

To make an equation, the answer involves $1,000 = (5 X 100) + (2 X 250).

Part 2: Algebra

For thousands of years, algebra has improved humanity in innumerable ways. From engineering to
science, mathematics has been beneficial to the Universe. Algebra comes from the Arabic word “al-
jabr” that means “reunion of broken parts.” It is part of mathematics along with the subjects of
number theory, geometry, and analysis. Algebra focuses on solving problems, using mathematical
symbols, and its rules are relevant in handling the composition of such symbols. Algebra is the glue
that holds together other forms of mathematics. It holds everything together. Basic algebra is
elementary algebra, and more abstract forms of it have been called abstract algebra or modern algebra.
Elementary algebra is used by scientists and engineers including by teachers plus students. It is used in
medicine and economics. Abstract algebra used advanced math, and it is studied by professional
mathematicians. At the core of algebra is the embrace of abstractions. That means that letters are used
to stand for numbers that are either unknown or allowed to take on many values. One example is a
simple problem of X + 2 = 5. The letter X refers to the unknown. So, you have to use the law of
inverses to find the value of X. The value of X is, of course, the number 3. Writing and solving
equations are key methods to understand algebra.

Linear algebra and algebraic topology are part of the overall algebra subject too. Algebra has roots
from ancient Babylonia where they created math with algorithmic parts. They calculated linear
equations, quadratic equations, and indeterminate linear equations. Ancient Egyptian, ancient Greek,
and ancient Chinese mathematics used geometric methods to solve equations too. This process has
been found in works like the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, Euclid's Elements, and The Nine Chapters
on the Mathematical Art. The geometric work of the Greeks, typified in the Elements, provided the
framework for generalizing formulae beyond the solution of particular problems into more general
systems of stating and solving equations, although this would not be realized until further
mathematics would be developed in medieval Islam. During the time of Plato, Greek mathematicians
used geometric algebra. Diophantus (3rd century AD) was an Alexandrian Greek mathematician and
the author of a series of books called Arithmetica. These texts deal with solving algebraic equations
and have led, in number theory to the modern notion of the Diophantine equation.

The Persian mathematician Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī (c. 780–850) and the Indian
mathematician named Brahmagupta developed an understanding of algebra too. Later, Persian and
Arabic mathematicians developed algebraic methods to a much higher degree of sophistication.
Although Diophantus and the Babylonians used mostly unique ad hoc methods to solve equations,
Al-Khwarizmi's contribution was fundamental. He solved linear and quadratic equations without
algebraic symbolism, negative numbers or zero; thus he had to distinguish several types of equations.
Al-Khwarizmi and Diophantus are the fathers of algebra. Another Persian mathematician Omar
Khayyam is credited with identifying the foundations of algebraic geometry and found the general
geometric solution of the cubic equation. His book Treatise on Demonstrations of Problems of
Algebra (1070), which laid down the principles of algebra, is part of the body of Persian mathematics
that was eventually transmitted to Europe.

Yet another Persian mathematician, Sharaf al-Dīn al-Tūsī, found algebraic and numerical solutions to
various cases of cubic equations. He also developed the concept of a function. The Indian
mathematicians Mahavira and Bhaskara II, the Persian mathematician Al-Karaji, and the Chinese
mathematician Zhu Shijie, solved various cases of cubic, quartic, quintic and higher-order polynomial
equations using numerical methods. In the 13th century, the solution of a cubic equation by Fibonacci
is representative of the beginning of a revival in European algebra. Abū al-Ḥasan ibn ʿAlī al-Qalaṣādī
(1412–1486) took "the first steps toward the introduction of algebraic symbolism". He also computed
∑n2, ∑n3 and used the method of successive approximation to determine square roots. Italian
mathematician Girolamo Cardano and other scholars developed algebra concepts. Abstract algebra
was formed in the 19th century. Josiah Willard Gibbs built algebra of vectors in a three-dimensional
space, and Arthur Cayley developed an algebra of matrices (this is a noncommutative algebra).

The basic form of algebra is called elementary algebra. Basic algebra uses arithmetical operations (such
as +, −, ×, ÷) greatly. In algebra, numbers are often represented by symbols called variables (such as a,
n, x, y or z). This is useful because it promotes functional relationships, it helps to solve equations, and
it promotes arithmetical laws. In the algebraic expression notation of 3x2-2xy+c, you have the
exponent, the coefficient being 3, 2, and 1, there is the term (or 3x2, and 2xy), the operator (or the
subtraction and addition sign), and the constant term which is c. The variables or constants in the
notation include the letters of x, y, and c. A polynomial is an expression that is the sum of a finite
number of non-zero terms, each term consisting of the product of a constant and a finite number of
variables raised to whole number powers. For example, x2 + 2x − 3 is a polynomial in the single
variable x. A polynomial expression is an expression that may be rewritten as a polynomial, by using
commutativity, associativity, and distributivity of addition and multiplication. For example, (x − 1)(x
+ 3) is a polynomial expression, that, properly speaking, is not a polynomial. A polynomial function is
a function that is defined by a polynomial, or, equivalently, by a polynomial expression. The two
preceding examples define the same polynomial function. You can factor polynomials, add them,
subtract them, multiply them, and divide them. To factor them, you have to find the polynomial
greatest common divisors. The example polynomial above can be factored as (x − 1)(x + 3). A related
class of problems is finding algebraic expressions for the roots of a polynomial in a single variable.
Algebra is readily taught to children as young as 11 years old (or younger).

American schools have algebra classes in the seventh or eighth grades. Some schools start algebra in the
ninth grade. Abstract algebra uses sets or numbers found in matrices, polynomials, and two-
dimensional vectors in a plane. It has binary operations and identity elements. Inverse elements are
negative numbers. The inverse of a is written −a, and for multiplication, the inverse is written a−1. A
general two-sided inverse element a−1 satisfies the property that a ∗ a−1 = e and a−1 ∗ a = e, where e is
the identity element. Many integers have associativity too. That is, the grouping of the numbers to be
added does not affect the sum. For example: (2 + 3) + 4 = 2 + (3 + 4). In general, this becomes (a ∗ b) ∗
c = a ∗ (b ∗ c). This property is shared by most binary operations, but not subtraction or division or
octonion multiplication. Numbers include natural numbers, integers, and rational numbers too. The
quadratic formula, which is the solution to the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c =0 where a doesn’t
equal to 0. Here the symbols a, b, and c represent arbitrary numbers, and x is a variable which
represents the solution of the equation. The quadratic formula is x = (-b+/-square root of b2-
4ac)/(2a). The Pythagoras rule is a similar formula that means a2 + b2 = c2 which refers to right
triangles. Linear equations with one variable deal with the expression of ax + b = c. Linear equations
form a straight line in a graph.
One simple equation in algebra is about how if you double the age of a child and add
4, the resulting answer is 12.

How old is the child? The equation will be 2x + 4 =12. When you solve it, the X will equal
to 4.

A quadratic equation is one which includes a term with an exponent of 2, for example, x2, and no
term with higher exponent. The name derives from the Latin quadrus, meaning square. In general, a
quadratic equation can be expressed in the form ax2 + bx + c=0 where is not zero (if it were zero, then
the equation would not be quadratic but linear). Because of this, a quadratic equation must contain
the term ax2, which is known as the quadratic term. Hence, a is not equal to 0 and so we may divide
by and rearrange the equation into the standard form. Quadratic equations look at parabolas on the
graph. Complex numbers, exponential equations, and logarithmic equations are all part of algebra.
Radical equations use square roots, cube roots, and nth roots. The system of linear equations and the
substitution method are great ways to understand mathematics.

Part 3: Geometry

The world and the Universe are filled with geometry. From architecture to science, geometry is a
branch of mathematics that is glorious and exciting. To understand shapes, three dimensional images,
and the idea of pi is to comprehend geometric dimensions. When we were children, we understood
simplistic shapes from rectangles to rhombus. Later on, we learned about complex formulas, cones,
and equations as a way for us to detail the diverse nature of geometry. For thousands of years, human
beings have utilized this aspect of mathematics to build structures, to study the stars, and to devise
formulas in deducing how reality is shaped fully. Comprehending the beauty of geometry can be
realized by understanding the formulas of shapes. The area of a square is the Base X Height. The area
of a circle is Pi X Radius (squared). The circumference of a circle is 2 X Pi X Radius. The area of a
triangle is the (Base X Height) divided by 2. The volume of a three dimensional rectangle is Length X
Weight X Height. The volume of a pyramid is 1/3 X Length * Width * Height. A squared + B squared
= C squared is the formula of a right triangle. It is also called the Pythagorean Theorem. The surface
area formula of an Isosceles Triangular prism is bh + 2ls + lb. B stands for base, L stands for length,
and S stands for the side of the isosceles triangular prism. The volume of the isosceles triangular prism
is 1/2 (bh)l. The area of a cube is 6 X A (squared). The volume of a cube is A (cubed). Geometry deals
with shapes and with sine, cosine, and tangent. These concepts are found in right angle triangles. In all
right triangles, you have the opposite, hypotenuse, and adjacent. The opposite is the opposite area of
the angle in question. The adjacent part is adjacent to the angle and the hypotenuse is the longest line
of the right triangle. So, sin (angle) is when you have opposite/hypotenuse. Cos (angle) is mean you
have adjacent/hypotenuse. Tan (angle) is when you have opposite/adjacent. When you study
buildings, research in the oceans, or work in math, geometry is extremely common place.

In everyday life, geometry is common in our world. For example, when you see graphics on computers
or on HD-TV, it has geometry. When you witness patterns of homes, cars, and various inventions,
geometry is part of their functions. Studying shape, size, the properties of space, and relative size is
necessary in any generation. Lengths, areas, and volumes are elements of mathematical science. There
are more formal aspects of geometry like points, lines, planes, surfaces, angles, and curves. Then, you
have more advanced aspects of math like topology, metric, and manifolds. From four dimensional
shapes to planes, mathematics is a powerful aspect of human living.
History

Geometry has a very long history. It was first recorded in ancient Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt by
the 2nd millennium B.C. Back then, early geometry was made up of empirically discovered principles.
These principles dealt with lengths, angles, areas, and volumes. Scholars used these concepts to
develop skills in surveying, construction, astronomy, and other fields. The earliest known texts on
geometry are the Egyptian Rhind Papyrus (2000–1800 B.C.), Moscow Papyrus (c. 1890 B.C.), the
Babylonian clay tablets such as Plimpton 322 (1900 B.C.). For example, the Moscow Papyrus gives a
formula for calculating the volume of a truncated pyramid, or frustum. Later clay tablets (350–50
B.C.) demonstrate that Babylonian astronomers implemented trapezoid procedures for computing
Jupiter's position and motion within time-velocity space. These geometric procedures anticipated the
Oxford Calculators, including the mean speed theorem, by 14 centuries. South of Egypt the ancient
Nubians established a system of geometry including early versions of sun clocks. The Greek
mathematician Thales of Miletus by the 7th century B.C. used geometry to solve problems such as
calculating the height of pyramids and the distance of ships from the shore. He is credited with the
first use of deductive reasoning applies to geometry by deriving four collarieis to Thales's Theorem.

Pythagoras created the Pythagorean School, which is credited with the first proof of the Pythagorean
Theorem. Yet, the statement of the theorem has a long history. Eudoxus (408- ca. 365 B.C.) developed
the method of exhaustion, which allowed the problem of incommensurable magnitudes, which
enabled subsequent geometers to make significant advances. Around 300 B.C., geometry was
revolutionized by Euclid, whose Elements. Elements is seen as one of the most successful and
influential textbooks of all time. Elements introduced mathematical rigor through the axiomatic
method and is the earliest example of the format still used in mathematics today, that of definition,
axiom, theorem, and proof. Although most of the contents of the Elements were already known,
Euclid arranged them into a single, coherent logical framework. The Elements was known to all
educated people in the West until the middle of the 20th century and its contents are still taught in
geometry classes today. Archimedes (c. 287–212 B.C.) of Syracuse used the method of exhaustion to
calculate the area under the arc of a parabola with the summation of an infinite series, and gave
remarkably accurate approximations of Pi. He also studied the spiral bearing his name and obtained
formulas for the volumes of surfaces of revolution.

Indian mathematicians worked in geometry too. The Satapatha Brahmana (3rd century B.C.)
contained rules for ritual geometric constructions that are similar to the Sulba Sutras. According to
(Hayashi 2005, p. 363), the Śulba Sūtras contain "the earliest extant verbal expression of the
Pythagorean Theorem in the world, although it had already been known to the Old Babylonians."
They contain lists of Pythagorean triples, which are particular cases of Diophantine equations. In the
Bakhshali manuscript, there are a handful of geometric problems (including problems about volumes
of irregular solids). The Bakhshali manuscript also "employs a decimal place value system with a dot
for zero." Aryabhata's Aryabhatiya (499) includes the computation of areas and volumes.
Brahmagupta wrote his astronomical work Brāhma Sphuṭa Siddhānta in 628. Chapter 12, containing
66 Sanskrit verses, was divided into two sections: "basic operations" (including cube roots, fractions,
ratio and proportion, and barter) and "practical mathematics" (including mixture, mathematical series,
plane figures, stacking bricks, sawing of timber, and piling of grain).

By the Middle Ages, medieval Islamic scholars contributed heavily to geometry. They were involved in
algebraic geometry. Al-Mahani (b. 853) conceived the idea of reducing geometrical problems such as
duplicating the cube to problems in algebra. Thābit ibn Qurra (known as Thebit in Latin) (836–901)
dealt with arithmetic operations applied to ratios of geometrical quantities, and contributed to the
development of analytic geometry. Omar Khayyám (1048–1131) found geometric solutions to cubic
equations. The theorems of Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen), Omar Khayyam and Nasir al-Din al-Tusi on
quadrilaterals, including the Lambert quadrilateral and Saccheri quadrilateral, were early results in
hyperbolic geometry, and along with their alternative postulates, such as Playfair's axiom, these works
had a considerable influence on the development of non-Euclidean geometry among later European
geometers, including Witelo (c. 1230–c. 1314), Gersonides (1288–1344), Alfonso, John Wallis, and
Giovanni Girolamo Saccheri.

By the early 17th century, there was the creation of analytic geometry with coordinates and equations
made by Rene Descartes and Pierre de Fermat. This helped to develop calculus in the future. Modern
geometry was advanced by Bernhard Riemann and Henri Poincare.
Types of Geometry

Euclidean geometry is geometry in its classic sense. It is taught in schools worldwide. It deals with
points, lines, planes, angles, triangles, congruence, similarity, solid figures, circles, and analytic
geometry. Computer science and crystallography including other forms of mathematics use this
geometry. Differential geometry involved calculus and linear algebra. It works in physics too including
general relativity. Topology is the field concerned with the properties of geometric objects that are
unchanged by continuous mappings. In practice, this often means dealing with large-scale properties
of spaces, such as connectedness and compactness. Convex geometry investigates convex shapes in the
Euclidean space and its more abstract analogues, often using techniques of real analysis. It has close
connections to convex analysis, optimization and functional analysis and important applications in
number theory. Algebraic geometry studies geometry through the use of multivariate polynomials and
other algebraic techniques. It has applications in many areas, including cryptography and string
theory. Discrete geometry is concerned mainly with questions of relative position of simple geometric
objects, such as points, lines and circles. It shares many methods and principles with combinatorics.
Computational geometry deals with algorithms and their implementations for manipulating
geometrical objects. Although being a young area of geometry, it has many applications in computer
vision, image processing, computer-aided design, medical imaging, etc.
Examples of Geometry

Geometry deals with measurement. One point is easy to witness. When you have 2 points like Point A
and Point B connected to each other via a straight line, then it forms a line. 2 lines can form an angle
when they met at a vertex. The endpoints of the line segment just mean the 2 points of the line. The
line segments form many angles. Geometry also has planes where line segments, rays, and endpoints
including points can establish themselves on. Line segments can intersect, run parallel, or never cross
each other at all. Line segments can extend infinitely in opposite directions as well. Protractors
measure angles. It can go from 0 to 180 degrees in their measurements. Any right angle has 90 degree.
An acute angle has less than 90 degrees and an obtuse angle has more than 90 degrees. A circle has 360
degrees in total. With angles in geometry, equations are common place. For example, one problem
may want someone to solve an equation of 9x +194 = 7x +182 to find the angle. That equation would
be 2x =-12 and then the final answer would be x=-6. Then -6 would be substituted for x to get 140
degrees. There are complementary and supplementary angles. Complementary angles have two angles
whose sum is 90 degrees. Supplementary angles are two angles whose sum is 180 degrees. Vertical
angles are angles that intersect at one point. Equations can exist for complementary and
supplementary angles. For example, if one angle LOM is 2x+46 and another angle of MON is 3x-6,
then you can solve for the supplementary angles dealing with x. There is 2x+46 + 3x -6 = 90. Then,
you can solve for x. That would be 5x+ 40 = 90. X would be x = 10. So, the angle MON would be 24
degrees. There are angles, parallel lines, and transversals that deal with everyday life. Shapes in
geometry include: circles, triangles, rectangles, rhombus, squares, trapezoid, pentagons, hexagons,
parallelograms, octagons, heptagon, etc. Three dimensional shapes include cones, cubes, cylinders,
dodecahedron, icosahedron, sphere, cuboid, hexagonal pyramid, octahedron, etc.
By Timothy