METHODS OF RESEARCH

A. The Nature of Research

Research is a systematized problem solving activity. It came from the Latin word which means
“to know”.

RESEARCH
 Is the careful, critical, disciplined inquiry, varying in technique and method according to the
nature and condition of the problem, identified, directed toward the clarification or resolution (or
both) of a problem (good, 1963).
 Systematic search for a pertinent information on a specific topic or problem, followed by the
analysis and interpretation of results of the search, and eventual preparation of the research report.
 Unending process involving gathering information, analysis, classification; “science is not
absolute, it is relative”.
 Systematic, controlled, empirical, inquiry, subject-topic, problem-solving and method.

B. Purpose of Research
1. To improve a certain existing system
2. To research for new knowledge
3. To adjust to present needs of people
4. To evaluate
5. To seek for basis in decision making
6. Discover new facts of known phenomenon
7. Find solution to problems that are only partially solved
8. Improve or develop new products
9. Discover unrecognized substances or elements
10. Validate generalizations into systematic order
11. Provide basis for decision-making in any undertaking
12. Satisfy the researcher’s curiosity
13. Acquire better and deeper understanding about one phenomenon to another
14. Verify existing knowledge
15. Improve educational practices by raising the quality of school products
16. Promote health and prolong life
17. Enhance man’s basic life
Research is a movement from Critical Reflection to a Critical Practice (“first you reflect and do an action to
have an output”).

Characteristics of Research:
1. Empirical. Research is based on direct experience or observation by the researcher.
2. Logical. Research is based on valid procedures and principles.
3. Cyclical. Research is a cyclical process. It starts with a problem and ends with a problem.
4. Analytical. Research utilizes proven analytical procedures in gathering data, whether historical,
descriptive, experimental or any alternative research methods.
5. Replicability. The research design and procedures are replicated to enable the researcher to
arrive at valid and conclusive results.
6. Critical. Research exhibits careful and precise judgement. A higher level of confidence must be
established.
 Components of the Research Process

Research Pole Research Process Empirical Pole

Hypotheses Operational Hypotheses

Concepts Research Design Reality

Propositions Sampling Plan Social (group)
Logical Relations Measurement Psychological
Data Analysis
Analyses Data Collected Data

Hindrances to Scientific Inquiry (Errors in Personal Judgement)

1. Tradition
2. Authority and Dogmatism
3. Inaccurate Observation
4. Over generalization
5. Selective Observation
6. Made-up Information
7. Illogical Reasoning

C. Kinds, Types and Classification of Research

1. According to Purpose:
a. Predictive or Prognostic – the purpose to determine the future operation of the variables under
investigation with the aim of controlling or redirecting such for the better.
b. Directive – determines what should be done based on the findings.
c. Illuminative – interaction of the components of the variable being investigated.

2. According to Goal:
a. Basic or Pure – for the development of theories and principles
b. Applied – application of the results of pure research; testing efficiency of theories and principles.

3. According to the Level of Investigations:

a. Exploratory – studies the variables pertinent to a specific situation
b. Descriptive – studies the relationships of the variables
c. Experimental – studies the effects of the variables on each other.

4. According to the Types of Analysis

a. Analytical approach – identify and isolate the components of the research situation.
b. Holistic approach – total situation, focusing attention on the system first and on its internal
relationships.

5. According to Scope
a. Action Research – application of the steps of the scientific method in the classroom problems.
6. According to Choice of answers to problems
a. Evaluation – all possible courses of action, which are specified and identified in which
researchers, try to find out the most advantageous.
b. Developmental – findings or developing a more suitable instrument or process than has been
available.

Things needed in making Research:

1. Curiosity
2. Concentration
3. Focus
4. Flexibility

D. Choosing a Research Topic

Guidelines for choosing a research topic

1. Choose areas that not only interest you but may also interest a large fraction of the scientific
community, and will have societal or educational impact.
2. Choose a mentor who can guide you in your choice of topic
3. Be realistic about your time frame.
4. Have a research focus
5. Be realistic about your goal.
6. Do a preliminary test when necessary.

Elements of a Research Problem

1. Purpose of the problem - “why”
2. Subject matter to be investigated - “what”
3. Place where the research will be conducted - “where”
4. Time of the Study - “when”
5. Research procedures - “how”
6. Population/Observation units of the study - “who”

Important Milestones and Deadlines (Essential Steps)

1. Appointment of Thesis Evaluation Committee
2. Approval of the thesis proposal draft (2 weeks)
3. Approval of the final thesis proposal
4. Conduct of research
5. Research Colloquium
6. Submission of final draft of thesis
7. Thesis defense
8. Approval of the final copy of the thesis and graduation

Preparing of Thesis Proposal

Parts of the Thesis Proposal

Preliminary pages
Title Page
Endorsement and Acceptance Page
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Figures

Text of the Thesis Proposal

Chapter 1 Introduction
Background of the Study
Theoretical or Conceptual Framework
Research Paradigm
Assumption of the Study (optional)
Statement of the Problems and Hypotheses
Scope and Delimitation of the Study
Significance of the Study*
Definition of Terms*
Chapter 2 Research Methodology
Research Design and Method(s)
Duration and Locale of the Study
Population/Subjects/Test Organism of the Study
Materials and Procedures
Treatment of the Data
Flow Chart Presentation of the Study*

Bibliography
Appendices
Time Table

E. Research Methodology

Types of Research Methods:

Two Primary Classification of Research Methods
A. Qualitative - is a generic term for investigative methodologies described as ethnographic,
naturalistic, anthropological, field, or participant observer research. It emphasizes the importance
of looking at variables in the natural setting in which they are found. Interaction between
variables is important. Detailed data is gathered through open ended questions that provide direct
quotations. The interviewer is an integral part of the investigation (Jacob, 1988).
B. Quantitative – attempts to gather data by objective methods to provide information about
relations, comparisons and attempts to remove the investigator from the investigation
(Smith,1983).
 Comparison of Qualitative and Quantitative Research

Point of Comparison Qualitative Research Quantitative Research

1. Focus of research
2. Philosophical roots
3. Associated phrases
4. Goal of Investigation
5. Design Characteristics
6. Setting
Merriam,S.B. (1988). Case study research in education: A qualitative approach. San Francisco: Jossey-
Bass, p.18
Quality (nature, essence) Quantity (how much, how many)
Phenomenology, symbolic Positivism, logical empiricism
interaction
Fieldwork, ethnographic, Experimental, empirical,
naturalistic, grounded, subjective statistical
Understanding, description, Prediction, control, description,
discovery, hypothesis generating confirmation, hypothesis testing
Flexible, evolving, emergent Predetermined, structured
Natural, familiar Unfamiliar, artificial

Qualitative Research Methods

A. Historical. The historical method is employed by researchers who are interested in reporting
events and/or conditions that occurred in the past. An attempt is made to establish facts in order to
arrive at conclusions concerning past events or predict future events.
B. Ethnographic. Ethnographic research involves the collection of extensive narrative data over an
extended period of time in natural setting to gain insights about what is really going on there.
End result: A detailed description of the roles, expectations, relationships, events,
physical attributes, and other features of a setting (Main reference: Slavin, R., 1984)
C. Case Study. Case studies are detailed investigations of individuals, groups, institutions or other
social units. Data include interviews, field notes of observations, archival data and biographical
data.

Quantitative Research Methods

A. Descriptive. Descriptive research is used to obtain information concerning the current status of
the phenomena to describe “what exists” with respect to variables or conditions in a situation.
Types of subjects it studies: individual subjects ----- case-study approach
Large groups of subjects. Often these are pre-existing classes

Steps to Follow
 Statement of the problem
 Identification of information needed to solve the problem
 Selection or development of instruments for gathering the information
 Identification of target population and determination of sampling procedure
 Design of procedure for information collection
 Collection of information
 Analysis of information
 Generalizations and/or predictions

The methods involved:

1. Survey Studies - Survey studies assess the characteristics of whole populations of people or
situations.
 Types:
 School Surveys
 Job Analysis
 Documentary Analysis
 Public Opinion Surveys
 Community Surveys
Cross-sectional vs. Longitudinal Survey
Cross-sectional - single sample at one point in time; several groups in various
stages of involvement are studied simultaneously.
Longitudinal – survey the respondents at several points in time
Trend – different people at two, or more points in time
Cohort – different people (based on sertain characteristics) at two, or more
points in time
Panel – same people over time
Advantages of Survey
 Real world setting
 Can measure a large number of variables
 Strong external validity – generalization
Disadvantages of Survey
 Can’t establish causality
 Relatively lack in control over extraneous variables
 Often relatively weak measurement
 Weak relationships among variables
2. Interrelationship Studies - Interrelationship studies trace relationships among the facts
obtained to gain a deeper insight into the situation.
Types:
 Case Studies – Probes in depth into an individual situation or personality with
the intent of diagnosing a particular condition and recommending corrective
measures
 Casual Comparative Studies – Compares the likeness and difference among
phenomena to determine if certain factors or circumstances tend to accompany
certain events, conditions, or processes.
 Correlation Studies – Determine the extent of the relationship between two or
more variables.
3. Developmental Studies – are concerned with the existing status and interrelationships of
phenomena and changes that take place as a function of time.
Types:
 Growth Studies
 Trend Studies
 Model or System Development (paradigm)

B. Experimental
A method or procedure involving the manipulation of conditions for the purpose
of studying relative effects of various treatments applied to members of a sample, or of
the same treatment applied to members of different samples (Good, 1963).
Essential of Experimental Research
 Manipulation of an independent variable.
 An attempt is made to hold all other variables except the dependent variable constant -
control.
 Effect is observed of the manipulation of the independent variable on the dependent
variable – observation.
 Experimental control attempts to predict events that will occur in the experimental setting
by neutralizing the effects of other factors.

Types of Causation Relationships

1. One-to-one relationship – One independent variable causes an effect on one dependent
variable.
2. Two-variable relationship – Two independent variables causing an effect upon one
variable
3. Complex relationship – Two or more variables cause a single effect.

Methods of Experimental Control

Control refers to efforts on the part of the researcher to remove the influence of any
variable (other than the independent variable) which might affect performance on the dependent
variable.

Physical Control – Gives all subjects equal exposure to the independent variable. It controls non-
experimental variables that affect the dependent variable.
Selective Control – Manipulate indirectly by selecting in or out variables that cannot be
controlled.
Statistical Control – Variables not conducive to physical or selective manipulation may be
controlled by statistical techniques (example: covariance).

Steps involved in conducting an experimental study

1. Identify and define the problem.
2. Survey related literature and studies.
3. Formulated hypotheses and deduce their consequences.
4. Identifying the experimental variables.
5. Select and construct an experimental design that represents all the elements, conditions,
and relations of the consequences.
6. Selecting or constructing appropriate instruments to measure the results of the
experiment.
7. Conduct the experiment.
8. Compile raw data and reduce to usable form.
9. Apply appropriate statistical procedures.
10. Writing the report.

Experimental Design
- A blueprint of the procedure that enables the researcher to test his hypothesis by
reaching valid conclusions about relationships between independent and dependent variables.
It refers to the conceptual framework within which the experiment is conducted.
THE PURPOSE OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS IS TO ELIMINATE ALTERNATIVE
HYPOTHESES.

Experimental Designs
1. Single-factor Experimental Design
a. Single-group with only a post-test design or one-spot case study
b. Single-group with a pre-test and a post-test design
c. Matched groups design or static-group comparison design
d. Randomized multi-group with a post-test design or post-test only control-
group design
e. Randomized multi-group with a pre-test and a post-test design

2. Two Factor Experiment

a. Factorial Design

Single-group with only a post-test design

X O where: X - treatment O - post-test

Single-group with a pre-test and a post-test design

O1 X O2

Where: O1 - pre-test X – treatment O2 - post-test

This design involves one-group with pre-test and post-test.

Matched groups design or Static-Group Comparison Design

X O1 where: X - treatment
---------------- O1 - experimental post-test
O2 O2 - control post-test
----------- - groups not randomly formed

This is a design in which a group, the experimental group, which has experienced X is
compared with one which has not, the control group, for the purpose of establishing the effect of
X. Both groups are post-tested.

Randomized multi-group with a post-test design or Post-test only Control Group Design
R X O1
R O2

Where: R - random assignment

X - treatment
O1 - experimental post-test
O2 - control post-test

Randomized multi-group with a pre-test and a post-test design

R O1 X O2
R O2 O3
 Where: R - random assignment
X - treatment
O1 - experimental pre-test
O2 - experimental post-test
O3 - control pre-test
O4 - control post-test

Solomon Four-Group Design

- extension of the randomized multi-group with a pre-test and a post-test design.

R O1 X O2
R O3 O4
R X O5
R O6

Two groups are pre- and post-tested; two groups are post-tested only; two groups have
treatments; two groups do not have experimental treatments.

FACTORIAL DESIGN
Factorial means that two or more independent variables are being investigated, each
having two or more levels. The purpose of the factorial design is to evaluate whether the effects
of an experimental variable are generalized across all levels of a control variable or whether or
not the effects are specific to specific levels of the control variable. Moreover, this design can tell
if there is an interaction among the variables which a single-variable experiment cannot.

Eg. Hypothetical 2 x 2 experimental comparison

Fertilizer (F) no fertilizer

With pesticide (P) P&F P only

No pesticide F only control

SAMPLING
Strategies which enable a researcher to pick a small group from a larger group
and then use this small group to make a general statement about the larger group (Vockell,1983).
Small group – sample; larger group – population

Steps in Sampling:
1. Identification of the population
2. Determination of the required size
3. Selection of the sample

C. Quasi-Experimental Designs and Ex Post Facto Research Method

The word “quasi” means as if or almost, so a quasi-experiment means almost a true
experiment.
Quasi-Experimental Designs
 No random sampling of subjects. Intact groups often used.

Quasi-experimental designs came about because of:

1) Difficulty of applying the classical natural science method to the social sciences
2) Overemphasis on theory testing and development
3) High cost of classic natural science methods
4) Development of new statistical tools that allowed for statistical control

Features:
1. Matching
2. Time Series
3. Unit Analysis

Comparison Group Pre-test/Post-test Design/Non-equivalent Control Group Design

This design is the same as the classic controlled experimental design except that the
subjects cannot be randomly assigned to either the experimental or the control group, or the
researcher have the same chance of being in the control or the experimental groups, or of
receiving or not receiving the treatment. This eliminates history effects but not subject effects.

This design can be diagrammed as follows:

O1 X O2
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
O1 O2
Interrupted Time Series Design
This design uses several waves of observation before and after the introduction of the
independent (treatment) variable X. It is diagrammed as follows:

O1 O2 O3 O4 X O5 O6 O7 O8

This eliminates subject effects but not history effects. This design is used most often to evaluate
public policy changes which affect a large group of people.

Counterbalanced Designs or Latin-square Arrangement

Designs that allow subjects to try out all the experimental treatments but in a different
sequence

T1 T2 T3 T4
Group 1 X1O X2O X3O X4O
Group 2 X2O X4O X1O X3O
Group 3 X3O X1O X4O X2O
Group 4 X4O X3O X2O X1O

Where: T - time sequence

Purposes of quasi-experimental designs:
1. To capture longer time periods and a sufficient number of different events to control for
various treats to validity and reliability. The hope is that the design will generate stable,
reliable findings and tell us something about the effects of time itself.
2. The word “trend” is used instead of cause, and quasi-experimental researches are
interested in finding the one true trend. Unfortunately, this kind of research often
uncovers several trends, and the major ones are usually developed into “syndromes” or
“cycles” while the minor ones are just referred to as normal or abnormal events.

EX POST FACTO RESEARCH or CASUAL COMPARATIVE METHOD

 The researcher investigates a problem by studying the variables in retrospect.

 The researcher does not have control over independent variables because they have
already occurred or cannot be manipulated.
 Dependent variable is immediately observable and the main concern is to find out the
cause.