( Journal of MicrotcopJ', V o l . 111, Pt 3 Deceiiiber 1977, p p . 283-295.

Revised paper accepted 16 A ~ i g i i s t1977

The analysis of fibre distributions in fibre reinforced

materials*

by PIE T s T R 0 E V E N , Materials Science Group, Stevin Laboratory, Department of

Civil Engineering, Derft University of Technology, Stevinweg 4, Delft, Netherlands

SUMMARY
Different spacing factors and various orientation efficiency factors, applied to
characterize the spatial distribution of the (steel) fibres in fibre reinforced cementi-
tious materials, cannot constitute a sound basis for a mutual comparison of experi-
ments or for an evaluation of experiments in a fracture mechanical sense.
This paper therefore presents a complete framework, based on geometrical
probability theory, providing the investigator with methods to obtain three-
dimensional information from two-dimensional images produced by X-ray radio-
graphy. I n this approach the fibres are assumed to be disposed in such a way that
on the average a partially planar-oriented structure is obtained. In addition, because
of their high aspect ratio, the fibres are considered to be lineal features.
Two methods are elaborated, i.e. the feature counting technique and the method
of directed secants. These operations have to be performed in the projection plane.
Both methods yield data on the degree of inhomogeneity (segregation) and the
degree of orientation (anisometry), as well as on spacing and orientation efficiency.
By substituting design data in the presented formulae, this framework can also
serve to characterize the spatial properties of the fibre structure in the designed mix.
The application of the theory is illustrated with the help of data that confirm the
occurrence of segregation and preferred orientation effects due to vibration of the
specimens.

INTRODUCTION
It has been shown experimentally that the improved mechanical behaviour of
fibre reinforced cementitious materials (FRC) can be largely attributed to the crack
arrest mechanism provided by the fibres (Ramey & McCabe, 1974). So, crack
mechanisms successively in action in specimens subjected to a gradually increasing
load, as well as the morphometric properties of the fibre structure govern the pre-
and postcracking behaviour of these specimens.
The current knowledge on both fields, however, is very limited. In an attempt to
describe quantitatively the effect of the fibres on the crack development process,
Romualdi & Batson (1963) were the first to apply the fracture mechanics concept
to FRC. Since then, considerable discrepancies have been observed between
experiments and theoretical predictions (Shah & Rangan, 1971; Majumdar, 1974).

* Initially presented at the Symposium on Microstructure Quantification at Micro 76.

283
Piet Stroeven
The model underlying these theories generally conceived the fibre structure as
composed of fibres homogeneously (at random) distributed in a matrix. In addition
to the dimensions of the fibres, their spacing was considered to be a leading para-
meter to be embodied in the model.
Without any doubt, part of the confusion must be due to the different spacing
factors developed and used for the evaluation of the experiments (Hughes, 1972;
Krenchel, 1964; Parimi & Sridhar Rao, 1971). Also various orientation efficiency
factors are in vogue (Romualdi & Mandel, 1964; Kar & Pal, 1972; Majumdar, 1974),
which pretend to relate a unidirectional fibre system to the actual one in a purely
geometrical way. Further, it has been demonstrated experimentally that the fibres
tend to segregate and to manifest a partial orientation (Edgington & Hannant, 1972).

STRUCTURAL APPROACH
It is of importance, therefore, to construct a model that is based on a geometrical
probability concept. This will facilitate a mutual comparison and a structural
evaluation of the experiments. The same statistico-geometrical concept has to
underly the techniques for quantitative image analysis. Sections and projections of
specimens only offer two-dimensional information, from which we have to extract
the information concerning the three-dimensional fibre structure. The description
of this stereological framework will be the subject of this paper.
We focused on the development of a similar framework for the analysis of the
defect structure in previous publications (Stroeven, 1973, 1974, 1975b, 1976a, b,
1977b).
Since concrete is a macroscopically heterogeneous material, the grain structure as
well exerts its influence on the microscopical level in question (Stroeven, 1973,
1975a). As a consequence, the interference of cracks and fibres cannot be assumed
to take place in a homogeneous matrix; the morphometry of the ‘skeleton’ of gravel
and sand grains has to be included in a study to reveal the mechanisms governing
the mechanical behaviour of FRC.
For the development of the stereological framework one can select either sections
or projections. Practical difficulties, however, are encountered in recording all fibre
sections in the image plane. This way of tackling the problem, therefore, is more
time-consuming, but an interesting exception is the use of fracture surfaces for the
analysis. The number of fibres protruding from these surfaces is easily counted,
of course.
No doubt the most suitable solution is presented by X-ray radiography. The fibres
dispersed in the opaque elements, obtained by sawing the specimen into slices, will
manifest themselves as dark traces in the projection plane. Because of the slenderness
of the fibres they can be treated as lineal features in space. As such it constitutes a
well-known problem in geometrical probability theory (Kendall & Moran, 1963).
This theory has been surveyed in the literature on projected images (Underwood,
1968, 1970a, b). Nevertheless, the elaboration of the theory for this particular field
of materials science is new and, as a consequence, insertion in the stereological
literature is worth-while.

STEREOLOGY AND FRC

The FRC-specimens will develop an axis of symmetry caused by the densification
process, which will coincide with the direction of the gravity field. In what follows
this will be called the axial direction. Slices in axial direction will show this partial
orientation after projection. Transverse elements will produce an isometric system
of fibre projections, but situated at different positions will give evidence of segrega-
tion effects.
284
 Fibre distributions in reinforced cernentitious materials
The image can be sampled in two different ways, the most obvious being by
counting the number of fibre projections per unit of area (Na').Further, the image
can be covered by a line array, whereupon the number of intersections with the
fibre projections per unit of line length can be determined (PI,'). The problem is
to relate these basic two-dimensional data (N.&' and PI,') to spatial characteristics
(Lvor Vvand a).*
By subjecting the image to a lineal analysis the average intercept length Llll'
could have been determined. However, unlike sections, where the average intercept
length Lnl equals the mean free spacing A, its counterpart for projections has no
relationship to spacing, despite its use for that purpose (Kasperkiewicz, 1975).
The volume fraction of (steel) fibres in FRC only attains small values (say, 2(jt,
or less). That is the reason why initially, before vibrating the specimen, the fibres
can be assumed to be distributed homogeneously through the mix. As a consequence
deviations from this state in the hardened concrete can be associated with the type
and intensity of vibration. Hence, it must be evident that the theory should account
for random and partially oriented structures consisting of fibres having a constant
length 1.

ISOMETRIC FIBRE SYSTEMS

The result obtained by feature counting, NA', can be related to the number of
fibres per unit volume NL-by means of the relationship :

T o account for truncation, i.e. for the contribution to NA' of fibres having their
centres outside the slice with thickness t, one of-their- ends still penetrating it, the
thickness of the slice has to be increased with H, H being the tangent height of a
fibre. For a random dispersion H amounts to 0.5 1.
For the limiting cases of thick ( t91) and thin ( t < I ) slices, equation (1) yields the
results :
(thick element) N.4' =Nvt
(thin element) Nn' = 4Nvl (sections t = 0 --f N A= 3Nvl).

The total length of the fibre projections per unit of sampled area, LA', is related to
the result of the intersection counting by

which is obtained by integration of both sides of the total projection rule.

In the second step the fibre length per unit of volume is related to LA' by
(Underwood, 1970a)
L v = ~ L A 'Trt=4Vp-/
/ Trdz (3)

where I is the length and Vv the volume fraction of the fibres. Combining (2) and
( 3 ) yields the required relationship

* LV and Vv respectively define the length and volume of the fibres per unit of volume,
is a measure for the degree of orientation.

285
Piet Stroeven
PARTIALLY ORIENTED FIBRE SYSTEMS
In order to maintain a manageable procedure it is necessary to make an assump-
tion with respect to the actual orientation of the fibres. Analogously to Saltikov’s
classification of idealized surfaces in space (Saltikov, 1976; Underwood, 1968), we
presume the lineal features to be disposed according to a partially planar-oriented
structure. This implies the real structure to be composed of an isometric fibre
system and a system of which the fibres are oriented parallel to the orientation plane,
i.e. perpendicular to the orientation axis. The anisometric portion of fibres is
distributed in such a way that the radiographs of axial elements are statistically
identical. Worth mentioning is that, unlike Saltikov’s, our idealization concerns
LV (instead of SV).It can be shown that the number of features in the projection
plane of axial sections is given by (Underwood, 1970a; Stroeven, 1976b, 1977a):

(NA’), = (Lv)is (E + ) +
0.5 (Ll-)or (;+a)
The factor 2Zj.r is the tangent height of a randomly distributed fibre in a plane.
( L V )and
~ ~( L Y ) , ,refer
~ to the isometric and oriented portions of the fibre system.
For a transverse element we find

The effect of inhomogeneity and anisometry on the number of fibre projections

can be demonstrated by substituting w = ( L ~ ) ~ ~in
l Lequations
v (5a) and (5b).
This operation yields

(NA’)
ll = LV [ (:+ 0.5) + -(: 0-5) w ]

For the limiting cases where w = 0, respectively

- 0.5 w

w = 1,
I
this gives

w =0 (isometry) NA’= Lv (:+ 0.5) (viz equation 1)

w = 1 (planar orientation) (NA’) !, = L\- (:+ z)

By solving (6)for LV and w it follows that

For a successful application of the alternative method a single axial element has to
be X-rayed and sampled with a lineal array in the axial (yielding (PL’)11)and trans-
verse direction (yielding ( P L ’ ) ~ ) .
286
 Fibre distributions in reinforced cementitious materials
It can be shown that L Vis given by (Stroeven, 1976b, 1977a; Underwood, 1970a):

L\-= ” [(PI,’)f0.273 (PL’)J

2t
~

The degree of orientation, defined as w = ( L v ) ~ ~ / L Lcan

- , be derived from (8a).
V(’e obtain

AS has been done for the feature counts, we can demonstrate the effect of inhomo-
geneity and anisometry on the observations. By combining equations (8a) and (8b)
and after some arithmetic manipulations it follows that :

(PL’)II = ;Lv [l, (“,- 1) -1 t

For the limiting cases where w = 0, respectively w = 1, this gives

= 0 (isometry) PLI = 4Lvt (viz equation 4)
2
W = 1 (planar orientation) (PL’), = 7T Lvt

(PL‘)l= 0
It follows from the assumption of partial planar orientation that the rose of the
number of intersections for the axial element has the form:
p L ’ ( q = (PL’)L+ [(PI,’
11)-(PL’)rl cos 6 (9)
where I9 indicates the position of the line array with respect to the orientation axis.
By performing a number of intersection counts in different directions I9i one can
verify this idealization.
Because of the total projection rule the rose constitutes a reflection of the planar
distribution of the fibre projections. However, Hilliard (1962) has proved that this
rose presents a biased estimate for the spatial distribution of the fibres. Neverthe-
less, one can determine a prediction for Lv( 0), which is solely based on a series of
PI,’( 0) observations, by following a mathematical procedure described in the litera-
ture (Hilliard, 1962, 1967; Philofsky & Hilliard, 1969).

FIBRE EFFICIENCY
The geometrical efficiency factors for various fibre systems are obtained readily.
Their derivation is achieved in an elegant way by making use of the concept of
total projections. The three basic systems, i.e. the uniform spatial, uniform planar
and unidirectional distributions, can be conceived as successive total projections
of the former system. The projection constants can be determined easily.
The projection of the spatial system, consisting of fibres with unit length, onto
an arbitrary plane would yield the planar system, composed of fibres with an average
length of ~ / 4 .In-plane projection of this system onto an arbitrary line will give
rise to a unidirectional system, the fibres of which will have an average length of
( 4 4 ) . (2/n)= 4.
The efficiency factors of the forementioned systems operative under optimum
conditions, therefore, amount to 3, 2 / ~ and
, 1, respectively; values which were
previously derived for fibre distributions in a somewhat different way by Aveston
19 287
Piet Stroeven
& Kelly (1973). These factors also hold for curved fibres. In the derivation the
fibres are treated as lineal features. This, however, imposes no restrictions, since
the aspect ratio always is high enough (say, 50-100). The efficiency factor for a
partially planar-oriented system under optimum conditions is given by

which for the limiting cases w = 0 and w = 1 agrees with the forementioned factors.
Applied under non-optimized conditions, say in a direction 8 with respect to
the symmetry axis, equation (10) transforms into
2 ( L V ) ~sin
p ( 6 ) = [f,(Lv)iS+; ,. 8

Obviously, the optimum direction of application corresponds to 8 = ~ / 2 substitu-

,
tion of which in (12), indeed, yields (10).
Upon substitution of (7b), respectively (8b) in (11) the formulae for the efficiency
factor are fit for experimental evaluation. It is found that

which are valid for sampling by feature counting, respectively, intersection counting
as applied to the radiographs.

FIBRE SPACING
Regardless of size, shape and distribution of the fibres the mean free spacing is
given by (Fullman, 1953)
A=4 1 - v v~~~

sv
where Sv is the surface area of the fibres per unit of sample volume. For FRC,
<
since V v 1, this reduces to

in which a is the aspect ratio or slenderness of the fibre.

For experimental use we can substitute the relevant expressions for Vv into
equation (13). In doing so, we obtain
A= 8 (2t+l)
dl [(NAIL+ 0.273 ( N A ’ ) ~ ]

A= 2(2t + 1)
ndlNA‘

288
 Fibre distributions in reinforced cementitious materials
for the feature counting (equations 14a and 14b) and intersection counting pro-
cedures (equations 14c and 14d) as applied to the radiographs of partially planar-
oriented (equations 14a and 14c) and isometric structures (equations 14b and 14d).
The isometric system requires one single count; the fibre structure with this par-
ticular type of preferred orientation, asks for two such counts in an axial element
in the case of the direct secants analysis, alternatively, in an axial and a transverse
element when the feature counting technique is applied. For a structural founda-
tion of the more structure-sensitive properties of FRC, the concept of the nearest
neighbour can be used. It can be shown that the planar, Az, and the spatial value,
s3,of the nearest neighbour corresponding to a Poisson field of point particles in
a plane, respectively, in space are given by

A, =O * ~ / N A ~ / ~ (154

Since VV < 1 and w will attain only moderate values, both formulae can be applied
as good approximations in the case of FRC.
The design equations (15) can be adjusted to its use for experimental evaluation.
However, only equation (15b) is adaptable to its application to projected images,
In doing so, we find
[m]
A3=0.554 (2t+Z) 113
(feature counting)

113
A3=0554 [2$1:] (random secants)

ACCURACY
Hilliard (1976) has developed estimates for the variance of a secants analysis.
For the present case the standard deviation of LV is given by

a(Lv)/Lv= kIP$2 (17)

in which PT is the total number of intersections of the fibres with a plane. For an
isometric structure k = 1. Since PT =NA.A= LvA,A being the sampled area,
it is simple to see that a square area of 60 x 60 mm2 suits to attain at a coefficient
of variation of 5% for a conventially applied mix as the one investigated in our
laboratory (Lv = 0.266 mm-2). It has been stated, however, that micro-inhomo-
geneity in composition on this structural level is determined predominantly by the
aggregate grains. As has been demonstrated in previous tests on plane concrete
(Stroeven, 1973, 1975a) this implies that even the complete section area of normally
applied specimens (150 x 150 to 200 x 200 mm2) will not be able to bring down the
coefficient of variation of the quantitiative image analysis to below loo/,. In practical
situations, where one wants to be informed about the degree of segregation over
the height of the specimen, the variance of the ‘fibre-free’ area fraction, AA‘, of
the successive radiographs therefore, has to be checked by visual inspection. Since,
due to Underwood (1970a),

v v = -2 In (1

equalness in AA’implies equal volume fractions. A represents the grain diameter.

289
Piet Stroeven

Fig. 1. Steel fibres applied in the experiments ( I = 10 mm; d=0.15 mm).

I
Fig. 2. Location of the elements which are X-rayed. Situation of the
sampled areas (circular) and applied linear grid for intersection counting.
Areas of 20 x 20 mm have been sampled by feature counting in the
positions a, c, d and f. All measurements in mm.

290
 Fibre distributions in reinforced cernentitious materials
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
The design of the concrete mix was based on a grain size distribution in accord-
ance with the Dutch code of practice, the maximum grain size being 23mm
(Stroeven, 1976b). The mix contained 325 kg Portland cement ( A ) per 1 m3 of
concrete and 0.4 volume fraction of steel wires, referred to as fibres in concrete
t&nology (Fig. 1). Furthermore, the composition of the mix can be characterized
by a 0.5 water to cement ratio, a 5.76 aggregate to cement ratio, both by weight and
a slenderness of the cylindrical fibres of 67, their individual length and thickness
being 10 mm and 0.15 mm, respectively. The mixing time was adjusted to 2 min
for the dry components and 1 min after the addition of the water. The test cubes,
with linear dimensions of 150 mm, have been vibrated during 20 s.
The specimens have been sawn into parts as indicated in Fig. 2. The axial and
transverse elements selected for further investigations were finally grinded. These
roughly 7 mm thick tiles have been X-rayed (Fig. 3). The radiographs constituted
the images parts of which were subjected to a features count analysis (yielding
NA’-data) and to a directed secants analysis (yielding P,’(Q)-data). For that pur-
pose, the patterns of approximately lineal features in a plane have been magnified
a couple of times (Fig. 4). The counting was performed in a manual way.

--r-
8l
o
-t- i -

1
I

,
I

F
F
0
3

--i--
bottom
Fig. 3. X-ray patterns of the elements ( 3 ) and (13) indicated in Fig. 2.
Only half of the patterns is shown.
291
Piet Stroeven

Fig. 4. Magnification of radiograph (13),used for the application of the

method of directed secants and for counting the number of fibre
projections.

RESULTS
The results to be presented mainly serve the purpose to illustrate the applica-
bility of the theory outlined. Although the details of the experimental programme
are to be published elsewhere (den Boer, 1972; Vos, 1975; Stroeven, 1977a), we
will nevertheless recall the most essential experimental findings to demonstrate
that stereology can help to solve civil engineering problems concerned with the
mechanical behaviour of building materials, in particular with that of concrete
reinforced with short steel wires.
The data collected in Table 1 which have been obtained by means of the two
counting procedures, bear evidence of both segregation and partial orientation
effects. Moreover, obvious differences in the radii of the roses corresponding to the
top and bottom parts of the axial element no. 3, and shown in Fig. 5, demonstrate
also the occurrence of a gradient in the volume content of fibres. In addition, the
non-circular shape of these roses reflects the anisometry in the pattern of lineal
features presented by the radiograph. The increase in the degree of orientation
from top to bottom (from 8.6% to 14.3%, respectively) must be due to the segre-
gation of the fibres.
The transverse elements all yielded patterns of isometric fibre projections; the
corresponding roses only manifested maximum deviations of 5% from the mean
value.
292
 Fibre distributions in reinforced cementitious materials
Table 1. Results of the stereological analysis of the fibre structure
(all measurements in mm)
Quantity TOP Bottom Mean
secants
0 555 0 770
0 496 0 634 -
0 012 0 027 0,020
(L\ ),\ 0 128 0 164 0.146
L\ 0 140 0 191 0.166
w3 8 60,:i 14 3 O : -
Features count
(Ns’)ii 0 218 0 264 0.241
Lv - - 0.189

Transverse

Fig. 5. Roses corresponding to the top and bottom side of the X-rayed
axial element (3). Also the rose is shown, representing the transverse
element (13). The continuous curves correspond to PL‘ (8) = (PL’)I+
cos 8 in conformity with equation (9).
[(PL’)11 - (PL’)~]

DISCUSSION
The data recorded have partly been checked by subjecting sections to quantitative
image analysis techniques. T o that end, the number of fibre sections was d’etermined
in a cross section of a beam composed of the same material. A sampled area of
3560mm2 comprised 298 fibre sections, which, for a random structure, would
lead to a value of Lv=O.167 mm-2. A count of the number of fibres P, protruding
from a part of a fracture surface of a similar beam test-loaded in bending to fracture
yielded the following data: P=439, A=2500 mm2 and, as a consequence, Lv=
0.176. The results of the four methods obviously fall close together.
The increase in the amount of fibres at the bottom side of the specimen as com-
pared to the average fibre content (i.e. by 12.374 and 9.576 according to the respec-
tive methods), as well as the simultaneous occurrence of a higher degree of orienta-
tion can be utilized in practice as a ‘gift of nature’. T o illustrate this let us consider
a FRC-beam with a cross section comparable in size with respect to the sampled
test specimen (and fabricated in a similar way). When subjected to bending the
293
Piet Stroeven
lower half of the cross section of the beam conventionally has to transmit tensile
stresses.
Upon substitution of the relevant data in equation (11) and by assuming the
local strength to be proportional to the total projection of the local fibres on the
axis of the beam, a strength increase of 1.385 of the bottom part with respect to
the top part of the beam can be calculated. In design one possibly can account
for this extra resistance to fracture.
However, in materials testing-the basis for design-one can be deceived by a
reversed tendency. When cubes are subjected in a prescribed way (i.e. loading on
two opposite casted surfaces) to the splitting tensile test, the resulting tensile
strength will only be 0.74 of the optimum strength capacity of the bottom part of
the specimen.
A discussion focusing on the fracture mechanics of FRC, involving a measure
for spacing, is outside the scope of this publication. This subject will be dealt
with in a future publication of this author.

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