TIME Questions

Q. What is Mechanical Engineering?

​ echanical engineering is the discipline that applies engineering, physics, engineering
Ans-​ M
mathematics, and materials science principles to design, analyze, manufacture, and maintain
mechanical systems. It is one of the oldest and broadest of the engineering disciplines.
The mechanical engineering field requires an understanding of core areas including mechanics,
dynamics, thermodynamics, materials science, structural analysis, and electricity. In addition to
these core principles, mechanical engineers use tools such as computer-aided design (CAD),
computer-aided manufacturing (CAM), and product life cycle management to design and
analyze manufacturing plants, industrial equipment and machinery, heating and cooling
systems, transport systems, aircraft, watercraft, robotics, medical devices, weapons, and others.
It is the branch of engineering that involves the design, production, and operation of machinery.
Mechanical engineering emerged as a field during the Industrial Revolution in Europe in the
18th century; however, its development can be traced back several thousand years around the
world. In the 19th century, developments in physics led to the development of mechanical
engineering science. The field has continually evolved to incorporate advancements; today
mechanical engineers are pursuing developments in such areas as composites, mechatronics,
and nanotechnology. It also overlaps with aerospace engineering, metallurgical engineering,
civil engineering, electrical engineering, manufacturing engineering, chemical engineering,
industrial engineering, and other engineering disciplines to varying amounts. Mechanical
engineers may also work in the field of biomedical engineering, specifically with biomechanics,
transport phenomena, biomechatronics, bionanotechnology, and modelling of biological
systems.

Q. What are Carnot Cycle, Otto Cycle, and Diesel Cycle?

Ans-

Carnot Cycle-

Carnot cycle is a reversible cycle where a working fluid goes under a cycle with working
process Isothermal heat addition, Isentropic expansion, Isothermal heat rejection and
finally Isentropic compression.
Carnot cycle has the most efficiency of all the working cycle present in the world because
its each process is nearly reversible. Heat Engines work on the Carnot Cycle while
Refrigerator and Heat Pumps work on reverse Carnot engine.

Otto Cycle-
It is thermodynamic cycle which is used in internal combustion engine to produce work.

It is mostly used in automobile ​petrol engine​.

There are different type of processes in Otto cycle :-

1) ​Adiabatic compression (2-3):​- air and fuel mixture is compressed isentropically

inside the cylinder.

2) ​Constant volume heat addition (3-4)​:- combustion take place inside the cylinder
due to external source.

3) ​Adiabatic expansion (4-5)​:- high pressure and high temperature gases expand
isentropically inside the cylinder.

4) ​Constant volume heat rejection (5-6)​:- gases come out from the cylinder and
cycle is completed.

Now new mixture will come and cycle will be continued.Where r is compression ratio
and y is specific heat ratio.

Diesel Cycle-

The image above shows a ​p-V diagram​ for the ideal Diesel cycle; where ​P​ is ​pressure​ and V the
volume or ​v​ the ​specific volume​ if the process is placed on a unit mass basis. The ideal Diesel cycle
Process 3 to 4 is isentropic expansion (yellow)follows the following four distinct processes:
● Process 1 to 2 is ​isentropic​ compression of the fluid (blue)
● Process 2 to 3 is ​reversible​ constant pressure heating (red)
 ● Process 4 to 1 is reversible constant volume cooling (green)

Q. Explain simple vapour compression cycle in refrigerator.

Ans- ​A simple vapor compression refrigeration system consists of the following equipments:
i) Compressor ii) Condenser iii) Expansion valve iv) Evaporator.

The schematic diagram of the arrangement is as shown in Fig.6.5. The low temperature, low
pressure vapor at state B is compressed by a compressor to high temperature and pressure
vapor at state C. This vapor is condensed into high pressure vapor at state D in the condenser
and then passes through the expansion valve. Here, the vapor is throttled down to a low
pressure liquid and passed on to an evaporator, where it absorbs heat from the surroundings
from the circulating fluid (being refrigerated) and vaporizes into low pressure vapor at state B.
The cycle then repeats.

The exchange of energy is as follows: Refrigeration Cycles

a) Compressor requires work, δw. The work is supplied to the system from the surroundings.
b) During condensation, heat δQ1 the equivalent of latent heat of condensation etc, is lost from
the refrigerator.
c) During evaporation, heat δQ2 equivalent to latent heat of vaporization is absorbed by the
refrigerant.
d) There is no exchange of heat during throttling process through the expansion valve as this
process occurs at constant enthalpy.
Q. Which compressor is usually used in AC?

Ans-
Reciprocating Air Conditioner Compressor
The reciprocating compressor is the most popular type of AC compressor. A piston compresses
the air by moving up and down inside of a cylinder. As the piston moves down, it creates a
vacuum effect that sucks in the refrigerant. As it moves up, the gas compresses and moves into
the condenser. A reciprocating air conditioning compressor is very efficient, as AC units can
have up to eight cylinders within the compressor.

Scroll AC Compressor
Scroll air conditioning compressors, like this LG compressor, are newer on the scene. They
contain one fixed coil—called the scroll—in the center of the unit, and then there is another coil
that rotates around it. During this process, the second scroll pushes the refrigerant towards the
center and compresses it. Scroll compressors are quickly becoming as popular as reciprocating
compressors because they do not have as many moving parts and are therefore more reliable.

Screw AC Compressor
The screw compressor is extremely reliable and efficient, but it is mainly used in large buildings
where there is a vast amount of air that requires continuous cooling. A screw air conditioning
compressor contains two large helical rotors that move the air from one end to the other. As the
refrigerant moves through the compressor, the space gets smaller, and it gets compressed.

Rotary Air Conditioning Compressor

Rotary compressors are small and quiet, so they are popular in locations where noise is a
concern. The inside of this type of AC compressor contains a shaft with several blades attached
to it. The bladed shaft rotates inside the graduated cylinder, consequently pushing the
refrigerant through the cylinder and compressing it simultaneously.

Centrifugal Air Conditioning Compressor

The final type of AC compressor is the centrifugal compressor. As the name implies, it uses
centrifugal force to pull in the refrigerant gas and then spins it rapidly with an impeller to
compress it. Centrifugal air conditioning compressors are usually reserved for extra large HVAC
systems.

Q. Why don't CI engines need a spark plug?

Ans- ​Spark plugs are used in the petrol engines to ignite the air fuel mixture whereas in diesel
engines the presence of spark plugs is not necessary. Technically petrol engines are called as
spark ignition engines ( SI ) and diesel engines are called as compression ignition engines (CI )
. In SI engines air and fuel (petrol) get mixed in the carburettor and then it is supplied to the
engine through inlet manifold, then the air fuel mixture is compressed inside the cylinder.At the
end of compression the spark is ignited and then combustion takes place from where the power
stroke is obtained. Normally the compression ratio of SI engines will in the range 6 - 8 .This
proves that in petrol engines the compression alone doesn't makes the fuel to burn.Technically
speaking this process is governed by constant volume process or Otto cycle. But in case of
diesel engines spark plugs are not needed. The air from the atmosphere is sucked into the
cylinder of the engine and then the air is compressed to high pressure which eventually leads to
the increase of temperature, so when the diesel is supplied at end of compression stroke, the
temperature developed is more enough to ignite the diesel, this makes the fuel to burn and then
expansion of gases takes place from where the power stroke is obtained.This eliminates the
usage of spark plug as the temperature required to ignite the fuel is obtained on compression
itself, so always the compression of diesel engines will be in the range 12 -14.This type of
process is governed by constant pressure process. This makes one identify the engines. In
petrol engines spark plugs will be present but in the case of diesel engines fuel pump will be
present.

Q. What are MPFI and TPFC systems?

Ans-
MPFI​ stands for Multi Point Fuel Injection. In this system fuel is injected into the intake ports which is
situated just upstream of each cylinder�s intake valve. These systems are sequential systems, in
which injection is timed to coincide with intake stroke of each cylinder.

TPFC​ stands for transient power fuel control system. In this type of systems constant choke
carburetor is used. The salient feature of this carburetor is that it provides jerk less engine raise. In
these systems, throttle valve creates vacuum which opens the slide which controls the air fuel ratio
through a tapered jet.

Q. State the laws of Thermodynamics.

Ans-
The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics​ states that if two systems are in thermodynamic
equilibrium with a third system, the two original systems are in thermal equilibrium with
each other. Basically, if system A is in thermal equilibrium with system C and system B
is also in thermal equilibrium with system C, system A and system B are in thermal
equilibrium with each other.
First Law of Thermodynamics- ​The First Law of Thermodynamics states that energy
can be converted from one form to another with the interaction of heat, work and
internal energy, but it cannot be created nor destroyed, under any circumstances.

2nd law of thermodynamics​- The Second Law of Thermodynamics states that the
state of entropy of the entire universe, as an isolated system, will always increase over
time. The second law also states that the changes in the entropy in the universe can
never be negative.

Q. State the laws of motion-

Ans-
Newton's first law​ states that every object will remain at rest or in uniform motion in a straight
line unless compelled to change its state by the action of an external force. This is normally
taken as the definition of inertia. The key point here is that if there is no net force acting on an
object (if all the external forces cancel each other out) then the object will maintain a constant
velocity. If that velocity is zero, then the object remains at rest. If an external force is applied, the
velocity will change because of the force.

The second law​ explains how the velocity of an object changes when it is subjected to an
external force. The law defines a force to be equal to change in momentum (mass times
velocity) per change in time. Newton also developed the calculus of mathematics, and the
"changes" expressed in the second law are most accurately defined in differential forms.
(Calculus can also be used to determine the velocity and location variations experienced by an
object subjected to an external force.) For an object with a constant mass m, the second law
states that the force F is the product of an object's mass and its acceleration a:
F=m*a
For an external applied force, the change in velocity depends on the mass of the object. A force
will cause a change in velocity; and likewise, a change in velocity will generate a force. The
equation works both ways.

The third law​ states that for every action (force) in nature there is an equal and opposite
reaction. In other words, if object A exerts a force on object B, then object B also exerts an
equal force on object A. Notice that the forces are exerted on different objects. The third law can
be used to explain the generation of lift by a wing and the production of thrust by a jet engine.

Q. Which is your favourite car and why?

Q. Which is your favourite two-wheeler and why?
Q. When we start a vehicle, exhaust smoke appears white. Why?
Q. What are the various thermodynamic systems? What are the basic
definitions?
​ hermodynamic systems can be classified as follows :
Ans-​ T
1. Open systems -: Open systems are the ones in which both mass (bulk motion) and
energy transfer can take place. Such systems are usually analysed using Eulerian approach
2. Closed Systems -: In closed systems, only energy interaction can take place between
the system and its surroundings. For such systems, Mass contained inside cannot move
out of the system. Usually , Lagrangian approach is used to analyse such systems.
3. Isolated systems-: Isolated systems are often considered as special case of a closed
system, but many books consider it as a separate system. In isolated systems, neither
mass nor energy interaction takes place.

Type of system Example

Open system flow of liquid through a pump
Closed system heating of water in a closed container
Isolated system Universe

Q. What is triple point of water?

Ans- ​Triple point of water is the condition at which all 3 phases of water co-exists (solid, liquid
and gas). For water, triple point is at
P = 611.2 Pa T = 273.16K
Triple point of water is used to calibrate thermometers (Earlier melting and boiling pts. Were
used)
Q. What is an indicator diagram? What are the features and
advantages? How is it different from p-v diagram?

Ans- ​A graphical or other representation of the cyclic variations of pressure and volume within
the cylinder of a reciprocating engine obtained by using an indicator is known as indicator
diagram
or PV diagrams.Specifically, the diagram records the pressure of steam versus the volume of
steam
in a cylinder, throughout a pistons cycle of motion in a steam engine. The diagram enables
calculation of the work performed and thus can provide a measure of the power produced by the
engine.
PV diagram and indicator diagram are essentially same. PV diagrams were initially known as
indicator diagram.To exactly calculate the work done by the system it is necessary to calculate
the
integral of the pressure with respect to volume. One can often quickly calculate this using the
PV
diagram as it is simply the area enclosed by the cycle.

Q. What is a differential and how does it work?

Ans- ​Differential is basically a mechanism by which a car or truck will get a turn.
Whenever the car takes a turn both wheels outer and inner should rotate with different
speed(rpm) which Differential helps to achieve it.It contains 4 bevel gears.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SOgoejxzF8c

Q. Explain 4-stroke and 2-stroke engines.

​ oth have similar method of producing power but mechanism is different.
Ans​- B
In 4 stroke power is produce by 2 rotation of crankshaft and in 2 stroke power is produce on
each rotation of crankshaft.
2 stroke has lubrication system inbuilt,4 stroke requires separate system
2 stroke emits more polluted gases because of lubrication and 4 stroke produces less polluted
gases, efficiency of 2 stroke is 1.5times of 4 stroke but because of pollution government banned
2 stroke.
Thermal efficiency of 4 stroke is more than 2 stroke and Mechanical efficiency of 2 stroke is
more than 4 stroke.

Q. What are the differences between SI and CI engines?

Ans- ​ ​https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_nCViRlkK2k

Q. What is the difference between turbo charging and supercharging?

Ans- ​Ans 1) ​https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l8TF1Djlc1g
2) ​https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Hct8r2acSw

Q. What are knocking detonation and pre-ignition? What are the

preventive measures adopted?
Ans. ​https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_nCViRlkK2k

Q. What is meant by Jet Propulsion? Ramjet, Scramjet, Turbojet,

Turboprop, and Turbo fan?
Q. Explain common automobile specifications.
Ans-
https://www.drivespark.com/off-beat/car-specifications-explained-understanding-
car-specs/articlecontent-pf18525-010391.html

Q.Explain refrigerator system. What are the refrigerants used in

refrigerators, AC, water coolers, walk-in coolers, and freezers?

Ans- ​ Ø​ ​ ​https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h5wQoA15OnQ

Mechanical-Compression Refrigeration Systems

The most widely used refrigeration cycle method is mechanical compression. It has applications
in both air conditioning and commercial and industrial refrigeration.
As the name suggests, these types of systems transfer heat by mechanically compressing
refrigerant into a low-pressure, cold liquid and expanding it into a high-pressure, hot gas.
Refrigerants are substances that can boil at a wide range of temperatures with the application or
removal of pressure.
Like all liquids, they absorb heat when they boil into a gas and release it when they condense
back into a liquid. The basics of the process deal with moving the refrigerant from the
low-pressure side of the closed system to the high-pressure side. The liquid refrigerant boils at
40°F on the low-pressure side and absorbs heat from the warm indoor air. On the high-pressure
side of the system, the heat travels from the 110°F vapor refrigerant to the cooler outdoor air,
and the process repeats.[2]

Absorption Refrigeration

Heat is also transferred in absorption refrigeration systems by compressing and expanding

refrigerant. These systems rely on the process of absorption and heat, instead of an electrically
powered mechanical compressor, to move the refrigerant from the low-pressure side to the
high-pressure side. Unlike mechanical-compression refrigeration systems, which typically use
R-22 and R-410A for refrigerants, absorption refrigeration systems use refrigerants that other
substances are attracted to and absorb. For example, residential HVAC chillers often use
ammonia as the refrigerant and water as the absorbent. The water is located in a component
called the absorber, where it sucks ammonia from the low-pressure side of the system and
removes heat while absorbing it. A pump sends the water-ammonia solution to a generator,
which boils it, separating the ammonia from the water before sending it to the high-pressure
side.
In addition to the process of absorption, heat is also used to move the refrigerant throughout the
system. The heat can derive from hot water, steam, natural gas or other fuel sources.
Evaporative Cooling
Unlike the mechanical-compression and absorption refrigeration systems discussed above,
evaporative cooling doesn’t use the traditional refrigeration cycle. Instead, these units, often
called swamp coolers, cool warmer outdoor air by blowing it over water-soaked pads as it enters
the home.
The water absorbs the heat from the air and evaporates. The cooler air is channeled into the
home and the warm air out of it. Evaporative coolers can reduce air temperature by 15° to 40°F
but are best suited for dry climates, such as those in the southwestern U.S. They’re also less
costly to install and use about a quarter of the energy of central air conditioners.

Thermoelectric Refrigeration
Thermoelectric refrigeration systems are unique from the three other types of refrigeration in
that no refrigerant or water is used. These systems use an electric current and a thermocouple.
A thermocouple is made up of two different metal wires that are united at both ends. Insulation
separates the rest of the wires from each other. When the current is directed on the
thermocouple, one end will become hot and the other cool.
Reversing the current’s direction has the effect of swapping the cold and hot junctions. The hot
end will typically be placed outside of the area to be cooled with a heat sink attached to it to
keep it the same temperature as the surrounding air. The cold side, which is below room
temperature, is placed in the area to be cooled, attracting heat out of the air.This type of
refrigeration is generally used for small cooling loads that can be difficult to access, such as
electronic systems.

The first refrigerators built from the 1800’s until the 1920’s primarily used toxic gases such as
ammonia (NH3), methyl chloride (CH3Cl), and sulfur dioxide (SO2) and chlorofluorocarbon
(CFC) gas known as Freon, which was a mixture of chlorine, fluorine and carbons.
In the 1970’s, scientists discovered that when CFCs leaked into the atmosphere, a chemical
change occurred as a result of exposure to the ultraviolet rays of the Sun, resulting in a
greenhouse effect and depletion of the ozone.
So from then, CFCs were replaced by HCFCs which are a mixture of hydrogen, chlorine,
fluorine and carbon. These have a shorter life when exposed to the atmosphere, resulting in
less potential damage to the ozone. Another popular refrigerant gas is HFC, which contains no
chlorine and is thought to have absolutely no negative effect on the ozone.

Modern refrigerators, ACs , etc. use a refrigerant called HFC-134a

(1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane), which does not deplete the ozone layer.

Q. How are AC systems like window AC, split AC, and central AC
different from each other?
Ans-
Window AC
This one is a portable and quick AC cooling solution. It also has a lot of history to it. Surely we
can all see pictures of New York apartments with big metal boxes sticking outside people’s
windows whenever we think about them.
Window AC takes all the heat near it and throws it outside.
They’re ideal for single room cooling or for small apartments. Note, that they are reliant on
airflow, the air it pushes cannot travel through walls or doors to cool another space/room.
If your looking to cool more than one room or a very large space, you’ll need to looking at a
central AC system or installing multiple window ACs.

Split Air Conditioner

A split-AC is like a window AC on steroids. They offer the same room/single space cooling that
window AC does, but at a higher capacity.
They also operate at a high-efficiency, as high as 25 SEER. That helps you get a good ROI
from energy savings in the long run.
However, with such advantages come increased costs and space demands. A split AC is
comprised of two components, the indoor head unit and the outdoor condenser. These two
components also need to be connected by copper tubes called refrigerant lineset.

Central Air Conditioner

This is one of the most common cooling solutions for a residential home. The central AC allows
for thorough cooling and dehumidification of your home.
Like your furnace, your central AC is reliant on the ductwork that connects to each individual
room/space to ensure proper cooling.
As heated air is picked up in each room and carried back to the your furnace, a cooling coil
cools the air before it is pushed back throughout your home. The heat picked up by your cooling
coil (evaporator) is than carried through the refrigerant lineset and is released at the outdoor unit
(condenser).
The best way to comprehend this concept is to understand that cold is not the presence of cold,
but the absence of heat. To cool down a space, you merely have to remove the heat that space
and throw it somewhere else (outside).

The disadvantage of a central system is that it’s heavily reliant on the ductwork. If ductwork is
improperly sized, installed or damaged; cooling will be drastically reduced.
This becomes very problematic when old homes with duct sizes only sized for heating acquire a
new air conditioner

Q. What are Heat Exchangers?

Ans-​ A heat exchanger is a device used to transfer heat between two or more fluids. In other
words, heat exchangers are used in both cooling and heating processes.[1] The fluids may be
separated by a solid wall to prevent mixing or they may be in direct contact.[2] They are widely
used in space heating, refrigeration, air conditioning, power stations, chemical plants,
petrochemical plants, petroleum refineries, natural-gas processing, and sewage treatment.

Types:
Shell and tube heat exchanger
Q. What are Conduction, Convection and Radiation?
Ans-

CONDUCTION​ is the transfer of heat in a material due to molecular motion, such that energy
transfers through matter from particle to particle.

● a temperature gradient must exist to act as the potential for the flow of heat. heat will
always flow from high temperatures to cooler temperatures.
● the rate of heat transfer for conduction is governed by fourier’s law of conduction, which
expresses the rate of heat transfer from each end of a medium

Convection:

● convection is the transfer of heat between a solid surface and the adjacent fluid that is in
motion by the actual movement of the warmed matter.
● the faster the fluid motion, the greater the amount of heat transferred via convective heat
transfer.
● forced convection occurs when the fluid is forced into motion by a fan, pump, moving
object, or other form of external energy introduced into the system that results in the fluid
flower over the solid surface.
● free convection, also known as natural convection occurs when the fluid is forced into
motion by buoyancy forces that are induced as a result of changes in density due to
changes in the temperature of the fluid.
● the rate of heat transfer for convection is governed by newton’s law of cooling.
● the convective heat transfer coefficient “h” is a function of the reynolds number. the more
turbulent the flow, the higher the convective heat transfer coefficient will be.

Radiation:

● radiation is the transfer of heat in the form of electromagnetic waves that directly
transport energy through space.
● radiation heat transfer is temperature dependent, to the fourth power, and can occur
without a medium.
● a black body is defined as a body that absorbs all energy incident upon it. it also emit
radiation at the maximum rate for a body of particular size at a particular temperature.

black bodies are perfect emitters and absorbers

Explain the concept of a black body.

Explain Stephan-Boltzmann Laws, Kirchoff's Law, Planck's Law and Wien's
Displacement Law.
Explain lubrication system in IC engines.
Ans-
Lubrication is the process of applying the lubricant between the surfaces of contact of two
moving parts.
2 types of lubrication : a. Petrol or mist lubrication b. Wet sump lubrication
Wet sump lubrication is generally used in our cars
In this system a big oil sump is provided at the base of crank case. From the sump the oil is
pumped to different parts of the engine.

In this lubrication system, the lubricating oil is filled in the slump. Scoop are attached to the big
end of the connecting rod.When every time the piston reaches bottom dead center (BDC) the
scoop dip into the sump and carries lubricating oil. The lubricating oil is splashed to the
piston,cylinder,small & big end of connecting rod,main bearing and can shaft bearing.The
splashed oil settle on the engine parts and then falls into the sump.

Q. What is SAE?

Society of Automotive Engineers

SAE INDIA is an affiliate society of SAE International, registered as an Indian non profit
engineering and scientific society dedicated to the advancement of mobility community
in India.

Q. How to identify two balls having same external radius and weight,
one hollow and the other solid, of different materials?

If we place the ball on the ground spin the ball by applying a torque the hollow ball will
spin faster. Or ​I think if the ball is hollow then it should not be submerged into water if
the material sp.gravity is more than water. Also you can get hollow sound if you strike it
with a bar…

Q.​ ​Explain the principle of Watt's Governor.

Ans-
The governor used in steam engine for the first time was Watt governor because the first
steam engine was invented by James watt. So, Watt governor was named after him.
It is simple type centrifugal governor. The Watt governor is also known as simple
conical governor.
Working:
When the speed of the engine is increased, then the governor ball moves in outward
direction due to the centrifugal force and the sleeve moves upward on the spindle
through the links.
When the speed of the engine decreases, then the governor ball moves inward and the
sleeve moves downward on the spindle.

TYPES OF WATT GOVERNOR:

There are three types of watt governor:-
Pinned arm type watt governor
Open arm type watt governor
Crossed arm type watt governor.

Q.​ ​Differentiate between governor and fly wheel.

Flywheel is a heavy rotating wheel attached to a revolving shaft that smooths out the
delivery of power of a reciprocating engine due to the difference between the driving
torque and the active torque over the cycle of operation

Both flywheel and governor are mechanical devices used mostly for the same
purpose.that is to control or regulate the fluctuations in speed with the exception of the
point of impact.

While a flywheel regulates the variation of speed at crankshaft, governor controls the
variation of speed caused by load variation.

The main difference between the two is that the flywheel is always under operation
when the engine is running and the operation is continuous from cycle to cycle, whereas
the operation is intermittent in case of the governor, which means it only operates when
the engine does not run at its mean speed.

Well, both tend to stabilize speed during fluctuations

Q. What is ASHRAE?

American Society of Heating Refrigeration and Air conditioning Engineers for

advancement of indoor-environment-control technology in the heating, ventilation and
air conditioning (​HVAC​) industry. In 2018, the organization has more than 56,000
members from over 132 nations

Q​. ​What are the different types of turbines and compressors?

Steam turbines - coal, fuel oil, nuclear oil plants, Electric power plants
Gas turbines :- used in air crafts, trains, ships
Water turbines:- 1. Impulse turbines ( Pelton Turbine, Cross flow turbine)
2.Reaction turbines ( Keplan turbine, Francis turbine)
Wind turbines:- converts K.E. of wind into electrical power
Types of compressors:
Rotary: Compressors of the rotary type are generally low capacity equipment, used
normally in home refrigerators and freezers, and not used for air conditioning. These
compressors can consist of one vane, which is placed in the body, and sealed against the
rotor, or multi vane rotary, with vanes located in the rotor.

Centrifugal Compressors​: These compressors revolve at high speed, and refrigerant

is compressed by the application of centrifugal force. These compressors are normally
used with refrigerants possessing higher specific volumes, which need lower
compression ratios. Multi-stage units can be used to attain greater discharge pressures,
and the number of stages is determined by the discharge temperature of the gas as it
exits from the rotor. These compressors are utilized for water chilling in air conditioning
and for low temperature freezing purposes.

Reciprocating Compressor​: These compressors have pistons, and move in cylinders.

Types of reciprocating compressors are:

Open Compressors​: One extremity of the crankshaft is drawn out of the crankcase,
due to which multiple drives can be used with the compressor. A mechanical seal is used
to check external seepage of refrigerant and oil, and escape of air towards the inside.
These compressors are driven by electric motors or internal combustion engines. With
belt drive, changes in speed are achieved by altering the dimensions of the pulleys, while
with direct drive units the compressor is planned to operate at the speed of motor.
Hermetic Compressors: These compressors are serviceable hermetic, in which motor
and compressor are enclosed in the same housing, while the welded hermetic type has
the compressor and motor sealed in a welded steel shell.
Differences:- ​Energy is put into a compressor while in a turbine, energy is the output.
Also for a compressor, a low pressure stream of air goes in but a high pressure stream
comes out. In a turbine, a high pressure stream goes in and a low pressure stream comes
out.
1. Turbine delivers work, while compresor requires work.

2. Turbine extract energy by decreasing the pressure, while compressor increase fluid
pressure.

3. This because turbines deliver works by decreasing total pressure to certain static
pressure, without its dynamic velocity. While compressor requires energy to achieved
total pressure at the outlet.

4. Reheat for turbine increases efficiency by deliver more works. In compressor usually
use intercooler, not preheater to increase efficiency."

Q.​ ​What are the new trends in IC engine? What do you know about
CDI, ball piston, camless engines like GDI, VTEC?

New Trends ​:

Cylinder Deactivation ​- Method of deactivating cylinders as per the power

requirement to achieve better fuel efficiency and emission control also to reduce
pumping losses
Disadvantages: May lead to engine balance troubles causing vibrations and noise
problems, due to additional components like lifter locking mechanism weight gets
increase.

CDI ​: Capacitor Discharge Ignition stores electrical energy and discharges to the
ignition coil to produce a powerful spark in the spark plug, usually found in bikes.

VTEC:​ Variable valve Timing and lift Electronic Control developed by Honda to
improve vol. Efficiency of 4 stroke IC engine

Turbocharger (TDI- Turbocharged Direct Injection)​: These are nothing but

turbines which are operated by engine exhaust gases to produce power for a compressor
which is in turn used to increase the mass flow rate of air, which is sucked inside during
the intake stroke. This method, increases the power and performance of an IC engine.
Gasoline Direct Injection (GDI)​ : This method is often used in Gasoline engines. As
the name indicates, it involves the direct injection of Gasoline into the combustion
chamber of an engine by means of electrically controlled actuators and sensors. This
method helps in metering the quantity of the fuel injected, based on our requirements
thereby reducing fuel consumption.

Variable Valve Timing (VVT)​: This method involves the electronic control of valves,
thereby adjusting the valve opening and closing mechanism based on our needs. This
technology also improves fuel efficiency and performance.

Common Rail Direct Injection (Crdi)​: This method is often used in Diesel engines
to control and maintain the effective usage of fuel under different conditions. It consists
of a common rail, were the fuel accumulates and then supplied to the cylinders through
high pressure injectors.

Start- Stop Technology​: This method is used to stop the vehicle when it is idle for a
long period of time. i.e during traffic. This helps in reducing fuel consumption. Now, to
start the vehicle, it is enough to hold the clutch. This method also reduces emissions.

Catalytic Converters​: Today, due to the stringent emission norms, after treatment
devices are necessary to bring down the emissions in an IC engine. Catalytic converters
are one of the devices which reduces the emissions from IC engines, thereby making
them to comply with the emission standards.

FYI,

IC engines are becoming endangered. Yes, this is because of the development of the
Hybrid and Electric vehicles.Still, IC engines are in use because of the availability of
such new developments, which could increase their lifespan for a few decades. Also,
there are even more developments on IC engines still in progress.

Q. How does the number of valves per cylinder affect the cycle?

Answer 1-
Considering 2 engines with similar displacement only differing in the number of valves,
one having 2 valves and the other with 4 (2 inlet & 2 outlet). The engine with 2 valves
will be slower as the valves will have longer time to travel for ensuring optimum flow of
charge and exhaust gases since the valve timing are governed by engine speed. For the 4
 valve-d engine, 2 inlets will happily let in charge in a shorter time span resulting into
faster combustion cycles, hence rev faster and higher. For the exhaust valves, the
principle remains the same, 2 valves are better at dispensing hot exhaust than a single
one.
Their only drawback, the design and manufacturing of cylinder heads become complex
and expensive.

Answer 2-

- Advantage of more valves per cylinder

It is in lighter valve mass and greater area for fluid flow- meaning more area of intake and
exhaust transfer. this roughly means with about same camshaft duration and lift a extra
1000 rpm higher engine speed possible.
- Advantage in power and rpm for racing.
- Advantage for long haul street use..
- For cheap production of engine - 2 valves will get most engines on street around
reliably for many years. The multi valve engine on street use will be a little more $ to
fix and there is the added valves mean added potential potential problems issue.
- With current emissions laws - a 4 valve with central located spark plug has a even
burn rate and potential easier to meet pollution standard compared to the offset
spark plug, longer burn/flame front of the 2 valve design in semi hemi combustion
chamber.
Try a 2 valve, 2 spark plug combustion chamber and you meet pollution laws and get
decent street performance with moderate cost.

Q. How can you differentiate between the inlet and outlet ports?

Ports generally serves the purpose of fluid flow control , port is just an opening which is
opened and closed by the piston
Four stroke engine uses valves whereas a two stroke engine uses ports

1. Inlet ports are bigger

2. Outlet ports are smaller

during intake stroke, amount of air going into the cylinder would depend upon
the pressure difference between the atmosphere, and that within the cylinder due
to piston going down, ​provided that this flow is not restricted by the size of inlet
ports in first place. ​Moreover, this pressure difference at the time of intake is
only about 0.2atm. now, during exhaust, which is just after the combustion, there
is already quite large pressure difference between the cylinder and the
 atmosphere (about ~10atm). therefore, it is easier to throw the exhaust gases out
even through a relatively smaller port.

Q.​ ​What is ABS, GPS, SBC, SOHC, and DOHC?

ABS-
ABS uses wheel speed sensors to determine if one or more wheels are trying to lock up
during braking. If a wheel tries to lock up, a series of hydraulic valves limit or reduce the
braking on that wheel. This prevents skidding and allows you to maintain steering
control.
The anti-lock brake controller is also known as the CAB (Controller Anti-lock Brake)

SOHC-
SOHC stands for ​Single Overhead Camshaft​. That means that there is only one
camshaft per header. Inline engines will contain one camshaft. V-type and/or flat will
contain 2 camshafts. For a SOHC engine there are usually 2 valves per cylinder but
there can be more with the addition of cams for each valve.a ​SOHC​ is ​more fuel
efficient​. But, it should be known that it is the skills of a driver and the design of the
engine that can make a ​DOHC​ engine reflect ​fuel efficiency

DOHC-
Double OverHead Cam, ​means​ you have two separate camshafts, one for intake
valves and one for exhaust valves. the DOHC engines usually have more ​valves​ per
cylinder than the SOHC versions. They will also usually have less parts involved (most
DOHC directly actuate the ​valves​, where SOHC usually have rocker arms). More
valves​ means the engine can intake and exhaust more gasses from the engine.
Generally, engines with dual overhead camshafts (​DOHC​) are ​higher​ performance
engines, they ​produce more power​, and can run at ​higher​ speeds. The camshafts
have the job of opening the valves that let air into and exhaust out of the engine. ...
Having four valves per cylinder gives an engine several advantages.

GPS​ systems are extremely versatile and can be found in almost any industry sector.
They can be used to map forests, help farmers harvest their fields, and navigate
airplanes on the ground or in the air. ​GPS​ systems are used in military ​applications
and by emergency crews to locate people in need of assistance.

Q. Explain different types of gears and their applications.

A gear is a rotating machine part having cut teeth, which mesh with another toothed
part to transmit torque. Geared devices can change the speed, torque, and direction of a
power source.

Types of gears

● Parallel Axes / Spur Gear, Helical Gear, Gear Rack, Internal Gear.
● Intersecting Axes / Miter Gear, Straight Bevel Gear, Spiral Bevel Gear.

● (Worm Wheel)

● Others / Involute Spline Shaft and Bushing, Gear Coupling, Pawl and
Ratchet.

SPUR GEAR
In spur gears, the edge of each tooth is parallel to the axis of rotation and they mesh
together when they are fitted to parallel shafts.
APPLICATIONS- ​aircraft engines, trains, and even bicycles.

HELICAL GEAR
The leading edges of the teeth are not parallel to the axis of rotation, but are set at an
angle.
APPLICATIONS -Watches and marine engines etc
 Advantages of the helical gear​. Silent operation: In a helical gear train, the teeth
engage a little at a time rather than the entire face at once. This causes less noisy power
transfer in case of helical gears

​Double helical gear

​ herringbone gear, a specific type of double helical gear, is a special type of gear that is
A
a side to side (not face to face) combination of two helical gears of opposite hands

they have the advantage of transferring power smoothly because more than two teeth
will be in mesh at any moment in time. Their advantage over the helical gears is that the
side-thrust of one half is balanced by that of the other half.

Spiral bevel gear

Bevel gears are gears where the axes of the two shafts intersect and the tooth-bearing
faces of the gears themselves are conically shaped. A spiral bevel gear is a bevel gear
with helical teeth. The main application of this is in a vehicle differential, where the
direction of drive from the drive shaft must be turned 90 degrees to drive the wheels.

APPLICATIONS- ​Helicopter engines utilize bevel gears to redirect the shaft of the engine to the

vertical turn of the rotors. These gears are also used in the functioning of mechanical garage

doors.

Metre gear

Metre gears are bevel gears has the same number of teeth on mating gears and with
perpendicular axes specially used for 1:1 gear ratio.

WORM GEAR

A worm gear (or worm drive) is a specific gear composition in which a screw (worm)
meshes with a gear/wheel similar to a spur gear. The set-up allows the user to determine
rotational speed and also allows for higher torque to be transmitted.

APPLICATIONS - Shutter lifter mechanism and Gate opening mechanism

RACK & PINION

A rack and pinion is a type of linear actuator that comprises a pair of gears which
convert rotational motion into linear motion.

The flat, toothed part is the rack and the gear is the pinion.

APPLICATIONS- Stairlifts, steering ,rack railways and actuators .

Q. Certain vehicles can be started by keeping the gears engaged,

while certain others cannot be - explain?

Q. Tell us about different types of manufacturing processes.

Molding-(Casting, Blow Moulding, Injection Moulding, Compression Moulding,

Extrusion Moulding)
Casting :- ​in which a liquid material is usually poured into a mold, which contains a
hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify
Blow Moulding:- a manufacturing process that is used to create hollow plastic parts by
inflating a heated plastic tube until it fills a ​mold​ and forms the desired shape.
Injection Moulding:- ​producing parts by injecting molten material into a ​mould​. It is
used for fabricating items from plastic trinkets and toys to automotive body parts, cell
phone cases, water bottles, and containers.

Compression Moulding:- ​Compression molding is the process of molding in which a

preheated polymer is placed into an open, heated mold cavity. The mold is then closed
with a top plug and compressed in order to have the material contact all areas of the
mold.

Extrusion moulding:-​process is used for to make uniform cross section shape.extrusion

process zone like feed, compress, metering for extrusion of plastics.

Machining, ​in which a piece of raw material is cut into a desired final shape and size by a
controlled material-removal process.

Joining ( Welding):- ​fabrication of usually metals or thermoplastics, by using high heat

to melt the parts together and allowing them to cool causing fusion.
Q.How do you polish a ball bearing?

Q.Differentiate between lathe and a milling machine.

Ans-​.​ ​Lathe Machine : Lathe is one of the most versatile and widely used machine tools all
over the world. The main function of lathe is to remove metal from a job piece to furnish it to a
required shape and size. The job is rigidly hold by the chuck or in between centers on the lathe
machine and then turn it against a single point cutting tool which wi1l remove meta1 from the
job in the form of chips.
Milling Machine : A milling machine is a machine tool that removes metal as the work is fed
against a rotating multi-point cutter. The milling cutter rotates at high speed and it removes
metal at a very fast rate with the help of multiple cutting edges. One or more number of cutters
can be mounted simultaneously on the arbor of milling machine.

The Main difference between the Lathe and Milling machine is written in the 2nd sentence of
each of the above para. That is, In Lathe machine work-piece is hold by the spindle which rotate
as per the feed, where as the rigidly fixed tool move against the work-piece to cut it as per the
desired need. However, In Milling machine the tool is hold by the spindle which rotate as per the
feed, where as the rigidly fixed work-piece move against/along the tool to get cut as per the
desired need.

Q.How will you machine a square cross-section in lathe?

Q.​ ​What are the different processes carried out on a lathe?

Ans-
DRILLING-​ Drilling is the operation of producing a cylindrical hole in a workpiece. It is done by a
rotating tool, the rotating side of the cutter, known as drilling drill. In this operation, The
workpiece is revolving in a chuck or a faceplate and the drill is held in the tailstock drill holder or
drill chuck. The feeding is adopted is affected by the movement of the tailstock spindle.

BORING-​ Boring is the operation of enlarging the hole which is already drilled, punched or
forged. In this operation, the work piece is revolved in a chuck or a faceplate and the tools which
are fitted to the tool post is fed into the work. It consists of a boring bar having a single point
cutting tool which enlarges the hole. It also corrects out of roundness of a hole.

COUNTER BORING​-Counterboring is the operation of enlarging the end of the hole through a
certain distance.it is similar to a shoulder work in external turning. The operation is similar to
boring and plain boring tools or a counter-bore may be used. The tool is used called as a
counterbore. The speed is slightly less than drilling.
REAMING-​ It is the process of enlarging holes to accurate sizes. Reaming is always carried out
after drilling. It is similar to the drilling process - the reamer is held in the tailstock to carry out
the reaming operation.

MILLING-​ Milling is the operation of removing metal by feeding the work against a rotating cutter
having multiple cutting edges. The milling operation is carried out by a cutter revolving against
the workpiece.
This process is used for milling small work pieces only, where a milling machine cannot be
used. The most common way of milling in the lathe is to use a vertical slide with a small
machine vice attached.

GRINDING-​ This is a process of removing material by means of rotating abrasive wheel for
finishing operations. On a lathe, the work piece is held between the centres and the grinding
operation is carried out by mounting the tool post grinder on the compound slide. The grinding
operation is carried out after rough turning, to provide an accurate finish to the work piece by
removing a small amount of material.

KNURLING-​ Knurling is a process of impressing a diamond shaped or straight line pattern into
the surface of a workpiece by using specially shaped hardened metal wheels to improve its
appearance and to provide a better gripping surface. It is done using a knurling tool. The tool
consists of a set of hardened steel roller, and it is held rigidly on the tool-post. Knurling is done
at the lowest speed available on a lathe. It is done on the handles and also in case of ends of
gauges. The feed varies from 1 to 2 mm per revolution.
THREAD CUTTING-​Threading is the process of creating a screw thread. Thread cutting on
lathe is an operation that uses a single-point tool to produce a thread form on a cylinder or cone.
The tool moves linearly while the precise rotation of the work piece determines the lead of the
thread. The process can be done to create external or internal threads (male or female). In
external thread cutting, the piece can either be held in a chuck or mounted between two
centers. With internal thread cutting, the piece is held in a chuck. The tool moves across the
piece linearly, taking chips off the work piece with each pass. Usually 5 to 7 light cuts create the
correct depth of the thread.
PARTING OFF​- Parting-off is the operation of cutting a work piece after it has been machined to
the desired size and shape. The process involves rotating the work piece on a chuck or
faceplate at half the speed to that of turning and feeding by a narrow parting off tool
perpendicular to the lathe axis by rotating the cross slide screw by hand. The feed varies from
1.7 to 0.15 mm per revolution and the depth of cut is equal to the width of the tool.

CHAMFERING-​Chamfering is the operation of beveling the extreme end of a work piece. This is
done to remove the burrs, to protect the end of the work piece from being damaged and to have
a better look. The operation may be performed after knurling, rough turning, boring, drilling.

GROOVING​- It is the process of reducing the diameter of a workpiece over a very narrow
surface. It is done by groove tool. A grooving tool is similar to the parting-off tool. It is often done
at the end of a thread or adjacent to a shoulder to leave a small margin.
FACING-​Facing is the process of making flat surfaces on a lathe. The job is held on a faceplate
or chuck and the tool is fed at right angles to the bed to obtain flat surfaces. For this operation,
regular turning tool or facing tool may use. The cutting edge of the tool should set to the same
height as the centre of the workpiece.

TURNING-​It is the most common type of operation in all lathe machine operations. Turning is
the operation of removing the excess material from the workpiece to produce a cylindrical
surface to the desired length.The job held between the centre or a chuck and rotating at a
required speed.The tool moves in a longitudinal direction to give the feed towards the headstock
with proper depth of cut.
TAPER TURNING-​Tapered turning produces a cylindrical shape that gradually increases or
decreases in diameter fom one end to the other.

Q.​ ​What are CNC and DNC machines? Compare.

DNC MACHINE-
DNC stands for direct numerical control which can be defined as a manufacturing system in
which a number of machines are controlled by a computer through direct connection. Taper
reader is omitted in DNC instead of which the part program is transmitted to the machine tool
directly from the computer memory.
The DNC computer is designed to provide instruction to each machine tool on demand. It also
receives data back from the machine tools. This two way information flow occurs in real time,
which means that the computer must always be ready to respond to the demands of the
machine tool.
Its main components are-

● Central computer.
● Bulk memory for storing part programs.
● Telecommunication lines.
● Machine tools.

CNC MACHINE​- CNC stands for Computer Numerical Control which can be defined as the
numerical control system where in a dedicated, computer performs some or all of the basic
numerical control functions in accordance with the part program stored in its memory.
A CNC may be designed to perform a number of functions, some of which would be either
impossible or very difficult to accomplish with conventional NC.
Difference between DNC & CNC machine-
Q. What is the mode of manufacture of common articles like chairs,
toothpaste tubes, and pens?

Ans- ​There are actually three methods involved in manufacturing plastic chairs-
Rotational molding​.- Plastic chairs are created in several ways and which all of them involve
metal molds that are carved into desired shape. Among the most popular form of furniture
molding is the rotational molding wherein large metal mold is injected with plastic polymer
powder. This will be heated to melting point. The mold is turned mechanically
three-dimensionally to distribute the polymers very evenly to the inside part of the mold. After a
number of minutes of spinning, the mold will then be cooled off and the rotation comes to an
end. Then the mold is opened and the new entirely hollow chair is being removed.

Injection molding​ -is the fastest and cheapest technique used to manufacture plastic chairs. All
you need is Injection molding equipment, material and mold. Material used for manufacturing
chair is Polyethylene terephthalate also known as PET. ​It has good mechanical properties and
good corrosion resistance of thermal radiation.

Process: Plastic pellets are added in the hopper and is heated above its melting point. These
are then sent in an injection molding machine. These are then pressed and squeezed into the
mold (mold shown in Figure below) then they are separated to get to get the molded chair.
These are then cleaned by removing the burr present on the part. After this sharp corners are
removed and finishing operations are done on it to make it shine.
Gas Assisted Injection Molding-

● Injection molding can also be done with the help of gas that is blown at high velocity
inside the mold, pushing the molten plastic out of certain parts of the mold. This creates
channels in the plastic form that make the chair much more lightweight while at the same
time maintaining its strength. All of the other aspects of injection molding remain the
same, but the result is a chair with some parts that are hollow and other parts that are
solid.
● The plastics used in the chair-making process are usually a composite of several
different types of plastics all blended together during the heating part of the molding
process. This makes the chair much stronger than it might be if only one type of plastic
was involved.

​PENS-​ There are five unique steps in the manufacturing of custom plastic pens.

● Step One: Injection

● Step Two: Ink Refill
● Step Three: Pen Testing
● Step Four: Assembly
● Step Five: Inspection

Injection​-The process begins with the PPC pellets being fed into a large mixer, separated, and
measured into the perfect portions. From there, they are poured into a giant funnel known as a
hopper. The plastic pellets travel through the machine where they’re melted down and injected
into molds in the shape of the pens. These are attached to a plastic framework known as a
runner.
The process is repeated for pen caps, clutches, and interior barrels. Once the pens are
removed, the runner is ground down and turned back into coloured PPC pellets, which are used
to make more pens.

Ink Refill-​ After the molds are created, metal tips called nibs are attached to plastic barrels that
travel on an assembly line to get their ink. This ink is then injected through the tip of the pen into
cartridges called "ink refills" and given a twist.

Pen-Testing-​Nothing but perfection is expected when it comes to personalized pens. This is

why every pen goes through multi-parameter testing machines, which test the ink refills affinity,
wear rate, and amount of ink flow at various writing speeds.
Assembly-​ Of course, a pen is more than just a plastic barrel filled with ink. Once the refill has
been tested, a technician places the ink chamber into the barrel, slides on the spring, screws on
the tip, and pops on the thrust tube and push button.
Inspection​- Every pen is inspected by hand to ensure quality control. If any of the pens are
faulty, they are tossed aside. The plastic bits from these pens are ground up and reused for the
next batch.
TOOTHPASTE TUBES​- A ​tube​, ​squeeze tube​, or ​collapsible tube​ is a collapsible package
which can be used for viscous liquids such as toothpaste, artist's paint, adhesive, caulk,
ointments, and so on. Basically, a tube is a cylindrical, hollow piece with a round or oval profile,
made of plastic, paperboard, aluminum, or other metal.

Aluminium​- Aluminium tube caps and closures are generally threaded, as is the nozzle.
Aluminium tubes generally have the far end folded several times after the contents have been
added. The tube is thus hermetically sealed and nearly germ-free due to the high temperatures
during the production process. The inside of the tube can be coated to prevent the material from
reacting with the contents.
Aluminum tubes are produced by impact extrusion from a small round blank.
Designs can be printed onto the tube, using the wet-in-wet offset printing method. Six tones are
often used.
The filled content can be squeezed out by finger pressure. The main characteristic of aluminium
tubes is the total separation of the contents from the surrounding atmosphere; therefore, such
tubes are especially suitable for the packaging of highly perishable contents. Aluminium tubes
are used for cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, food, paint, and technical products.
Plastic-
Tubes can also be produced in plastic, most commonly polyethylene. Plastic tubes are popular
for cosmetics such as hand creams, and also some foodstuffs. The plastic tube retains its shape
after each squeeze unlike laminate tubes such as toothpaste tubes. Plastic tubes can be highly
decorated or have a special additive such as soft touch to make the tube more appealing during
use or at the point of sale.
Plastic tubes are produced by extrusion. A sleeve is first produced on a specialised extrusion
machine. It must be produced to a very high standard (for decoration purposes) and also to tight
tolerances, compatible with automated processes after extrusion. Once the sleeve is produced,
the tube head is fitted using an automated heading machine. Tube printing using specialised
printing machines such as silk screen printing applies the desired decoration. The open tubes
are typically filled and sealed at a separate facility.
Multi-layer plastic tubes have become increasingly popular; they isolate the contents better from
the air, allowing them to be used for a wider range of products, such as food.

Q. What are different cutting tool materials and composition?

Ans-

Carbon Steel- ​Its composition is C = 0.8 to 1.3%, Si = 0.1 to 0.4% and Mn = 0.1 to 0.4%. others
metals like Cr, V are added to change the hardness and grain size.

● It is used for machining soft metals like free cutting steels and brass and used as chisels
etc.
● These tool loose hardness above 250°C.
● Hardness of tool is about Rc = 65.
● Used at cutting speed of 5m/min.

High Speed Steel (H.S.S)-

General use of HSS is 18-4-1.
18- Tungsten is used to increase hot hardness and stability.
4 – Chromium is used to increase strength.
1- Vanadium is used to maintain keenness of cutting edge.
In addition to these 2.5% to 10% cobalt is used to increase red hot hardness.

● H.S.S is used for drills, milling cutters, single point cutting tools, dies, ​reamers​ etc.
● It looses hardness above 600°C.
● Some times tungsten is completely replaced by Molybdenum.
● Molybdenum based H.S.S is cheaper than Tungsten based H.S.S and also slightly
greater toughness but less water resistance.

UCON-

● UCON is developed by union carbide in USA.

● It consists of Columbium 50%, Titanium 30 % and Tungsten 20%.
● This is refractory metal alloy which is cast, rolled into sheets and slit into blanks. though
its hardness is only 200 BHN, it bis hardened by diffusing nitrogen into surface producing
very hard surface with soft core. It is not used because of its higher costs.

Sialon (Si-Al-O-N)-

● Sialon is made by powder metallurgy with milled powders of Silicon, Nitrogen, Aluminium
and oxygen by sintering at 1800°C.
 ● This is tougher than ​ceramics​ and so it can be successfully used in interrupted cuts.
Cutting speeds are 2 to 3 times compared to ceramics.
● At present this is used for machining of aerospace alloys, nickel based gas turbine
blades with a cutting speed of 3 to 5 m/sec.

DIAMOND-

● Diamond has
1. Extreme hardness
2. Low thermal expansion.
3. High thermal conductivity.
4. Very low coefficient of Friction..
● Cutting tool material made of diamond can withstand speeds ranging from 1500 to
2000m/min.
● Can withstand above 1500°C.
● A synthetic (man made) diamond with polycrystalline structure is recently introduced and
made by powder metallurgy process.

Non- Ferrous Cast Alloys-

It is an alloy of
Cobalt – 40 to 50%,
Chromium – 27 to 32%,
Tungsten – 14 to 29%,
Carbon – 2 to 4%

● It can not heat treated and are used as cast form.

● It looses its hardness above 800°C
● It will give better tool life than H.S.S and can be used at slightly higher cutting speeds.
● They are weak in tension and like all cast materials tend to shatter when subjected to
shock load or when not properly supported.

CERMETS-

● Cermets is the combination of ceramics and metals and produced by Powder Metallurgy
process.
● When they combine ceramics will give high refractoriness and metals will give high
toughness and thermal shock resistance.
● For cutting tools usual combination as Al​2​O3 + W + Mo + boron + Ti etc.
● Usual combination 90% ceramic, 10% metals.

CEMENTED CARBIDE-
It is made by powder metallurgy technique. In this material, cobalt acts as binding material.
These material can be divided into three types.
1. Straight tungsten carbide with cobalt as a binder.
2. Tungsten carbide with cobalt as a binder and having large percentages of carbides of
titanium, tantalum, niobium and columbium etc.
3. Titanium carbide with nickel or molybdenum as the binding material.

Its highest speed up to which it can work is about 60-200 mm and its working temperature limit
is up to 1000-1200 degree centigrade.
All carbides when finished are extremely brittle and weak in their resistance to impact and shock
loading. That’s why vibrations are very harmful for carbide tools.

CUBIC BORON NITRIDE-

● The trade name is Borozone.

● Consists of atoms of Nitrogen and Boron and produced by power metallurgy process.
● Used as a substitute for diamond during machining of steel.
● Used as a grinding wheel on H.S.S tools.
● Excellent surface finish is obtained.
● Its highest cutting speed is about 600 – 800 mmm

Q. Tell about cooling fluids and their functions.

Ans-​ A ​coolant​ is a substance, typically liquid or gas, that is used to reduce or regulate the
temperature of a system. An ideal coolant has high thermal capacity, low viscosity, is low-cost,
non-toxic, chemically inert and neither causes nor promotes corrosion of the cooling system.
Some applications also require the coolant to be an electrical insulator
The different types of cooling fluids are as follows-

1. Straight oils​-These oils are non-emulsifiable and very useful in machining operations
where they function in undiluted form. Their composition is a base mineral or even petroleum oil.
Often they contain polar lubricants like vegetable oils, fats and esters.
They may also contain extreme pressure additives including sulphur, chlorine, and phosphorus.
To achieve the best lubrication use straight oils however they may have poor cooling
characteristics.

Synthetics fluids-​They do not contain mineral oil base or petroleum. Instead, they’re
formulated from the alkaline organic and inorganic compounds alongside additives to prevent
corrosion. They function well in their diluted form. Of all the varieties of cutting fluids, synthetic
fluids offer the best cooling performance.

Soluble oil-​Soluble Oils usually form an emulsion after mixing them with water. The resulting
concentrate contains emulsions and a base mineral oil to produce a stable emulsion. They
function well in their diluted form and offer a great lubrication in addition to heat transfer
performance. They are the least expensive and are the most widely used fluids in the industry.

Semi-synthetic fluids​-These fluids are basically a combination of the soluble oils and synthetic
fluids. Besides, the heat transfer performance and cost of the semi-synthetic fluids falls between
those of the soluble and synthetic fluids.

Pastes or gel​-Cutting fluid may also take the form of a paste or gel when used for some
applications, in particular hand operations such as drilling and tapping. In sawing metal with a
bandsaw, it is common to periodically run a stick of paste against the blade. This product is
similar in form factor to lipstick or beeswax. It comes in a cardboard tube, which gets slowly
consumed with each application.

Gases-​ Air is a common form of a coolant. Air cooling uses either convective airflow (passive
cooling), or a forced circulation using fans.

Hydrogen is used as a high-performance gaseous coolant. Its thermal conductivity is higher

than all other gases, it has high specific heat capacity, low density and therefore low viscosity,
which is an advantage for rotary machines susceptible to windage losses. Hydrogen-cooled
turbogenerators are currently the most common electrical generators in large power plants.

Inert gases are used as coolants in gas-cooled nuclear reactors. Helium has a low tendency to
absorb neutrons and become radioactive. Carbon dioxide is used in Magnox and AGRreactors.

Sulfur hexafluoride is used for cooling and insulating of some high-voltage power systems
(circuit breakers, switches, some transformers, etc.).
Steam can be used where high specific heat capacity is required in gaseous form and the
corrosive properties of hot water are accounted for.

Liquid gases​-

● Liquified gases are used as coolants for cryogenic applications, including cryo-electron
microscopy, overclocking of computer processors, applications using superconductors,
or extremely sensitive sensors and very low-noise amplifiers.
● Carbon Dioxide (chemical formula is CO​2​) - is used as a coolant replacement for cutting
fluids. CO​2​ can provide controlled cooling at the cutting interface such that the cutting
 tool and the workpiece are held at ambient temperatures. The use of CO​2​ greatly
extends tool life, and on most materials allows the operation to run faster. This is
considered a very environmentally friendly method, especially when compared to the use
of petroleum oils as lubricants; parts remain clean and dry which often can eliminate
secondary cleaning operations.
● Liquid nitrogen, which boils at about -196 °C (77K), is the most common and least
expensive coolant in use. Liquid air is used to a lesser extent, due to its liquid oxygen
content which makes it prone to cause fire or explosions when in contact with
combustible materials (see oxyliquits).
● Lower temperatures can be reached using liquified neon which boils at about -246 °C.
The lowest temperatures, used for the most powerful superconducting magnets, are
reached using liquid helium.
● Liquid hydrogen at -250 to -265 °C can also be used as a coolant. Liquid hydrogen is
also used both as a fuel and as a coolant to cool nozzles and combustion chambers of
rocket engines.

​ Solids​-

● In some applications, solid materials are used as coolants. The materials require high
energy to vaporize; this energy is then carried away by the vaporized gases. This
approach is common in spaceflight, for ablative atmospheric reentry shields and for
cooling of rocket engine nozzles. The same approach is also used for fire protection of
structures, where ablative coating is applied.
● Dry ice and water ice can be also used as coolants, when in direct contact with the
structure being cooled. Sometimes an additional heat transfer fluid is used; water with
ice and dry ice in acetone are two popular pairings.
● Sublimation of water ice was used for cooling the space suit for Project Apollo.

​Molten Metals And Salts-

● Liquid fusible alloys can be used as coolants in applications where high temperature
stability is required, e.g. some fast breeder nuclear reactors. Sodium (in sodium cooled
fast reactors) or sodium-potassium alloy NaK are frequently used; in special cases
lithium can be employed. Another liquid metal used as a coolant is lead, in e.g. lead
cooled fast reactors, or a lead-bismuth alloy. Some early fast neutron reactors used
mercury.
● For certain applications the stems of automotive poppet valves may be hollow and filled
with sodium to improve heat transport and transfer.
● For very high temperature applications, e.g. molten salt reactors or very high
temperature reactors, molten salts can be used as coolants. One of the possible
combinations is the mix of sodium fluoride and sodium tetrafluoroborate (NaF-NaBF​4​).
Other choices are FLiBe and FLiNaK.

​ wo Phase Coolants​- Some coolants are used in both liquid and gas form in the same circuit,
T
taking advantage of the high specific latent heat of boiling/condensing phase change, the
enthalpy of vaporization, in addition to the fluid's non-phase-change heat capacity.
 ● Refrigerants are coolants used for reaching low temperatures by undergoing phase
change between liquid and gas. Halomethanes were frequently used, most often R-12
and R-22, often with liquified propane or other haloalkanes like R-134a. Anhydrous
ammonia is frequently used in large commercial systems, and sulfur dioxide was used in
early mechanical refrigerators. Carbon dioxide (R-744) is used as a working fluid in
climate control systems for cars, residential air conditioning, commercial refrigeration,
and vending machines. Many otherwise excellent refrigerants are phased out for
environmental reasons (the CFCs due to ozone layer effects, now many of their
successors face restrictions due to global warming, e.g. the R134a).
●
Water is sometimes employed this way, e.g. in boiling water reactors. The phase
change effect can be intentionally used, or can be detrimental

Function of coolant in cutting-

(a) It carries away the heat and thereby prevents a dangerous rise in temperature.

(b) It lubricates the chip, work-piece and tool and thus reduces the heat of friction.

(c) It improves finish on the job and saves it from rusting.

(d) It avoids welding between chip and tool by providing a film, which helps in reducing friction.

(e) It increases the life of tool.

(f) It flushes out the chips and keeps the cutting point clear.

(g) Sometimes a cutting fluid prevents expansion of work also.

(h) It improves machinability and reduces machining forces.

Q.Differentiate between shaper and planer.

S.No. Shaper Planer

1. Shaper is used to machine small It can work with large size of work
work piece which can fit on the table. piece.

2. Tool is the moving part in shaper Work piece is the moving part in
machine. planer.
 3. Work piece remain stationary on this Tool remains stationary on planer.
machine.

4. It is light duty machine. It is a heavy duty machine.

5. It can use only one cutting tool at a It is equipped more than one cutting
time. tool at a time.

6. It uses single point cutting tool. It also used single point cutting tool but
more than one tool can be used at
same time.

7. Shaper is used quick return Planer is driven by gear or hydraulic

mechanism to drive the ram. In arrangement.
modern machine hydraulic drive is
also used.

8. It gives poor accuracy compare to It gives higher accuracy.

planer.

9. Shaper is smaller in size and gives It is larger in size and gives large
slow cutting speed. It is not suitable productivity.
where productivity is prime concern.

10. The stroke length can be adjustable. Stroke length can be adjusted.

Q.Explain heat treatment processes.

​ eat treatment is the heating and cooling of metals to change their physical and
Ans- H
mechanical properties, without letting it change its shape. Heat treatment could be said to be a
method for strengthening materials but could also be used to alter some mechanical properties
such as improving formability, machining, etc. The most common application is metallurgical but
heat treatment can also be used in manufacture of glass, aluminum, steel and many more
materials. The process of heat treatment involves the use of heating or cooling, usually to
extreme temperatures to achieve the wanted result. It is very important manufacturing
processes that can not only help manufacturing process but can also improve product, its
performance, and its characteristics in many ways.

Heat Treatment Processes

Hardening

Hardening involves heating of steel, keeping it at an appropriate temperature until all pearlite is
transformed into austenite, and then quenching it rapidly in water or oil. The temperature at
which austentizing rapidly takes place depends upon the carbon content in the steel used. The
heating time should be increased ensuring that the core will also be fully transformed into
austenite. The microstructure of a hardened steel part is ferrite, martensite, or cementite.

Tempering

Tempering involves heating steel that has been quenched and hardened for an adequate period
of time so that the metal can be equilibrated. The hardness and strength obtained depend upon
the temperature at which tempering is carried out. Higher temperatures will result into high
ductility, but low strength and hardness. Low tempering temperatures will produce low ductility,
but high strength and hardness. In practice, appropriate tempering temperatures are selected
that will produce the desired level of hardness and strength. This operation is performed on all
carbon steels that have been hardened, in order to reduce their brittleness, so that they can be
used effectively in desired application

Annealing

Annealing involves treating steel up to a high temperature, and then cooling it very slowly to
room temperature, so that the resulting microstructure will possess high ductility and toughness,
but low hardness. Annealing is performed by heating a component to the appropriate
temperature, soaking it at that temperature, and then shutting off the furnace while the piece is
in it. Steel is annealed before being processed by cold forming, to reduce the requirements of
load and energy, and to enable the metal to undergo large strains without failure.

Normalizing

Normalizing involves heating steel, and then keeping it at that temperature for a period of time,
and then cooling it in air. The resulting microstructure is a mixture of ferrite and cementite which
has a higher strength and hardness, but lower ductility. Normalizing is performed on structures
and structural components that will be subjected to machining, because it improves the
machinability of carbon steels.

Carburization

It is a heat treatment process in which steel or iron is heated to a temperature, below the
melting point, in the presence of a liquid,solid, or gaseous material which decomposes so as to
release carbon when heated to the temperature used. The outer case or surface will have
higher carbon content than the primary material. When the steel or iron is rapidly cooled by
quenching, the higher carbon content on the outer surface becomes hard, while the core
remains tough and soft.

Surface Hardening
In many engineering applications, it is necessary to have the surface of the component hard
enough to resist wear and erosion, while maintaining ductility and toughness, to withstand
impact and shock loading. This can be achieved by local austentitizing and quenching, and
diffusion of hardening elements like carbon or nitrogen into the surface. Processes involved for
this purpose are known as flame hardening, induction hardening, nitriding and carbonitriding

Q.What do you mean by bending moment diagram? Explain its

significance.
Ans- ​A moment is rotational force that occurs when a force is applied perpendicularly to a
point at a given distance away from that point. It is calculated as the perpendicular force
multiplied by the distance from the point. A Bending Moment is simply the bend that occurs in a
beam due to a moment. It is important to remember two things when calculating bending
moments;
(1) the standard units are Nm and
(2) clockwise bending is taken as negative. Anyways, with the boring definitions moment is
rotational force that occurs when a force is applied perpendicularly to a point at a given distance
away from that point. It is calculated as the perpendicular force multiplied by the distance from
the point. A Bending Moment is simply the bend that occurs in a beam due to a moment. It is
important to remember two things when calculating bending moments; (1) the standard units are
Nm and (2) clockwise bending is taken as negative. Bending moment digram signifies the stress
distribution and can be used to find the weak spots, which can be reinforced later.

Q.What is Hook's law?

Ans- ​ ​https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y4Gd6Fmb7qw

Q.What is Poisson's ratio? Between glass and rubber for which

material it is more and why? Can Poisson's ratio be negative?
Ans- ​Poisson's ratio also known as the coefficient of expansion on the transverse axial, is the
negative ratio of transverse to axial strain.When a material is compressed in one direction, it
usually tends to expand in the other two directions perpendicular to the direction of
compression. This phenomenon is called the Poisson effect. Poisson's ratio is a measure of this
effect. The Poisson ratio is the fraction (or percent) of expansion divided by the fraction (or
percent) of compression, for small values of these changes.
Why does poisson's ratio of rubber is greater than that of glass?
Poisson's ratio also known as the coefficient of expansion on the transverse axial, is the
negative ratio of transverse to axial strain.When a material is compressed in one direction, it
usually tends to expand in the other two directions perpendicular to the direction of
compression. This phenomenon is called the Poisson effect. Poisson's ratio is a measure of this
effect. The Poisson ratio is the fraction (or percent) of expansion divided by the fraction (or
percent) of compression, for small values of these changes.

Conversely, if the material is stretched rather than compressed, it usually tends to contract in
the directions transverse to the direction of stretching. This is a common observation when a
rubber band is stretched, when it becomes noticeably thinner. Again, the Poisson ratio will be
the ratio of relative contraction to relative expansion, and will have the same value as above. In
certain rare cases, a material will actually shrink in the transverse direction when compressed
(or expand when stretched) which will yield a negative value of the Poisson ratio.

The Poisson's ratio of a stable,isotropic ,linear elastic material cannot be less than −1.0 nor
greater than 0.5 due to the requirement that Young's modulus,bulk modulus and shear modulus
have positive values.Most materials have Poisson's ratio values ranging between 0.0 and 0.5. A
perfectly incompressible material deformed elastically at small strains would have a Poisson's
ratio of exactly 0.5. Most steels and rigid polymers when used within their design limits (before
yield) exhibit values of about 0.3, increasing to 0.5 for post-yield deformation which occurs
largely at constant volume.

Rubber has a Poisson ratio of nearly 0.5. Cork's Poisson ratio is close to 0: showing very little
lateral expansion when compressed. Some materials, mostly polymer foams, and materials with
special geometries such as zigzag-based materials can have a negative Poisson's ratio; if these
auxetic materials are stretched in one direction, they become thicker in perpendicular direction.
Some anisotropic materials, such as zigzag-based folded sheet materials,have one or more
Poisson's ratios above 0.5 in some directions.

Also,the stiffness of the rubber is greater when the distance between cross links is shorter and
so when each chain is less free to move.Poisson's ratio for rubber and glass are 0.48-0.50 and
0.22 respectively

Q.​ ​Explain bending moment equation and torque equation.

Ans​- Moment is the effect of a force that is acting eccentrically from the axis of rotation.
When this moment is applied perpendicular to axis of a shaft or a beam than it is called
bending moment. The equation of pure bending moment of a beam having very high
slenderness ratio is
Twisting Equation-

Q.​ ​Explain crippling load with equations.

Ans- ​Euler’s crippling load formula is used to find the buckling load of long columns.
The load obtained from this formula is the ultimate load that column can take. In order
to find the safe load, divide ultimate load with the factor of safety (F.O.S)
Formula-
Mathematically, Euler’s formula can be expressed as;

P = ​Π​2​EIl​2
Where,

P = Buckling Load,

E = Modulus of Elasticity of material,

I = Moment of Intertia of column section

l = Equivalent/ Effective length of the column.

Q. What are the principal stresses and strains?

Answer 1 - ​The plane on which no shear stress is acting is called a principal plane and
the stress on this plane is called principal stress.
In any loaded member,there exists a three mutually perpendicular planes on which the
Shear stress vanishes (zero),the Three planes are called principal planes and the normal
force acting acting on that principal plane are called principal stresses
In an undeformed member, there Exists Three mutually perpendicular line Elements
that remain perpendicular After application of load.The Three line Elements are called
Principal strains at that point.

Answer2-

Principal Stresses. It is defined as the normal stress calculated at an angle when shear
stress is considered as zero. The normal stress can be obtained for maximum and
minimum values.

Principal Strain: Maximum and minimum normal strain possible for a specific point on
a structural element.

Q. What is Euler's theory?

The ​critical load​ is the maximum load (unit: Newton, it is a force) which a column can bear
while staying straight. It is given by the formula.
p​cr​=(pi)​2*​EI/(KL)​2
where
P​CR​= Euler's critical load (longitudinal compression load on column),
E= modulus of elasticity of column material,
I= minimum area moment of inertia of the cross section of the column,
L= unsupported length of column,
K= column effective length factor

Q.​ ​What is factor of safety and its significance in design and

manufacturing?
Ans- ​Factor of Safety (FOS) is FOS = Strength of Component Material / Load applied on component 
Structures or components can fail, collapse, rupture or break if the components or structures is 
subjected to loading that over the material strength. Thus, there is a need to ensure there is proper 
safety margin and the basic principles used is the allowable stress and limit state design method. 
These method basically divide the material strength with appropriate yield by the safety factor of 1.5 
or ultimate strength by the safety factor of 2.5-3.0. Thus, FOS is important to avoid the structures 
and components fail.Factor of safety greatly affect the design of a structures and components as 
when the design exhibit the stresses that over the limit of the material strength, the structure or 
component will fail and break. However, when the FOS is too high, it will be over-design and the 
design most probably will be too bulky, less aesthetic values and eventually increase the costing 
from excessive material usage. 

● In case of ​ductile materials​ e.g. mild steel, where the yield point is clearly defined, the factor 
of safety is based upon the yield point stress. In such cases, 

​Factor of safety = Yield point stress / Working or design stress 

● I​n case of b
​ rittle materials​ e.g. cast iron, the yield point is not well defined as for ductile 
materials. Therefore, the factor of safety for brittle materials is based on ultimate stress. 

  Factor of safety = Ultimate stress / Working or design stress 

Loads and force which affects FOS 

● Repeated Cyclic loads : 

The factors established above must be based on the endurance limit (fatigue strength) rather than 
to the yield strength of the material. The strength calculations should also include for stress 
concentration factors. 
Impact Shock forces:  

The factors given in items 3 to 6 are acceptable, but an impact factor (the above dynamic 
magnification factor) should be included. 

● Brittle materials : 

The ultimate strength is used as the theoretical maximum, the factors presented in items 1 to 6 
should be approximately doubled. 

Impact Shock forces: 

The higher factors of safety given above (2.5 to 4) may be used but based on stress levels 
calculated based on the resulting dissipated energy at impact. 

Where higher factors might appear desirable, a more thorough analysis of the problem should be 
undertaken before deciding on their use. 

Extreme care must be used in dealing with vibration loads, more so if the vibrations approach 
resonant frequencies. The vibrations resulting from seismic disturbances are often important and 
need to be considered in detail. 

Factors on which FOS depends: 

● Material selection: Ductile or Brittle 

● Type of Loading: Static, Variable or Shock 
● Cost or Economy: As FOS increases dimensions of material increases resulting in higher 
cost 
● Importance of that machine part in the entire machine 
● Safety of human life 
 

The importance of FOS in design and costing are: 

● Engineers must consider any reasonable foreseeable use & misuse of materials which may 
lead to over-costing due to high value of FOS. 
● Consideration of the complexity of design. The value of FOS increases with the complexity of 
a part design. Therefore, certain design have to be validated to ensure reasonable of the final 
cost. 

Q.What is Endurance limit?

Endurance Limit: The maximum value of completely reversed bending stress that a material can
withstand without any failure for ‘infinite number of cycles’.

The endurance limit is due to interstitial elements, such as carbon or nitrogen in iron, which pin
dislocations. This prevents the slip mechanism that leads to the formation of micro-cracks. Care
must be taken when using the endurance limit since it can be reduced due to:

○ Periodic overloads (which unpin dislocations)

○ Corrosive environments (due to fatigue corrosion interaction)
○ High temperatures (which mobilize dislocations)

The effect of periodic overloads relates to smooth specimens. Notched components may have
completely different behaviour, due to the residual stresses set up by overloads. Most
nonferrous alloys have no endurance limit.
Endurance limit ensures the number of cyclic loads that can be acceptable by the component
before going to fail by limiting the stress values.
See the graph between the Stress – No of Cycles (S-N curve)

Q.How is flow measurement in pipe channel done?

There are numerous types of flow meters depending upon the application, the specific fluid and
the construction, including materials, of the flow meter. The 5 basic classification of flow meters
include:

Differential Pressure Flow Meters

Differential pressure flow meters measure the differential pressure across an orifice where flow
is directly related to the square root of the differential pressure produced. There are also primary
and secondary elements in differential flow meters. The primary element produces change in
kinetic energy using either flow nozzle, Pitot tube, orifice plate, or venturi flow meters. The
secondary element measures the differential pressure and provides the signal.
Differential pressure meters represent around 1/5 of all flow meters around the world. They are
commonly used in the oil & gas industry, along with HVAC, beverage, water, pharma, mining,
paper and chemical applications.

Positive Displacement Flow Meters

Positive displacement (PD) flow meters measure the volume filled with fluid, deliver it ahead and
fill it again, which calculates the amount of fluid transferred. It measures actual flow of any fluid
while all other types of flow meters measure some other parameter and convert the values into
flowrate. In PD flow meters, output is directly related to the volume passing through the flow
meter. PD flow meters include piston meters, oval-gear meters, notating disk meters, rotary
vane type meters, etc.

Positive displacement flow meters are known for their accuracy. They are commonly used in the
transfer of oils and fluids, like gasoline, hydraulic fluids as well as in-home use for water and gas
applications.
Velocity Flow Meters
Velocity meters measure velocity of the stream to calculate the volumetric flowrate. These are
less sensitive when the Reynolds number of fluid is higher than 10000. Velocity flow meters
include turbine, paddlewheel, vortex shedding, electromagnetic and sonic/ultrasonic flow
meters.

Mass Flow Meters

Mass flow meters are more effective in mass related processes as they measure the force that
results from the acceleration of mass. More specifically, the force is measured as the mass
moving per unit of time, instead of the volume per unit of time. Mass flow meters include Coriolis
mass meters and thermal dispersion meters.

Typical applications for mass flow meters are tied to chemical processes. In addition to the
chemical and gas industries, typical industries using mass meters include pharma, power,
mining and wastewater.
Open Channel Flow Meters

Measurement of liquid in open channels include v-notch, weirs and flumes. These dam-like
structures, or overflows, allow for a limited or concentrated free-flow of liquids based on the
unique shape and size of the structure. This type of flow meter allows for a reading of the
flowrate to be calculated.

Common applications of open channel meters include free flowing liquids like streams, rivers,
irrigation channels and sewer/wastewater systems.

Q.What is water hammer?

Water hammer is a noise that occurs in pipes when too much pressure builds up in them. So,
rather than a normal flow within the pipes, the water is crashing around in them and creates a
loud noise. The banging sound happens after the shut-off of a valve, which stops the water from
exiting a faucet. Once the water, or other fluid, is stopped, there is a surge of pressure against
the existing pipe structure.

What really happens in the pipes with too much pressure? Well, think of the water as a solid
object for this example. The water is flowing through the pipes until the valve is closed. When
the flow is stopped by the closure, it causes a sudden stop in velocity, and the water has
nowhere to go. Remember, an object in motion stays in motion. A shockwave effect occurs, so
built up pressure and suddenly halted water results in the liquid slamming against the pipes.
This is the noise you hear from the disruption inside the plumbing--just like a hammer hitting
another object.

Not only is the banging, followed by an echoing, sound annoying, it can lead to problems down
the road. Understanding what water hammer is pretty important. If you’re hearing the noise, you
can be pretty positive you have the problem. Regardless, look into the problem, or hire a
plumber. If you let it go on for too long, the gauges might break, the pipes might crack, or
something might blow, like the gasket, seal or diaphragm. Too much water pressure from the air
pockets and rushing water cause these issues.

Water hammer can happen in more than just a home, and cause pretty catastrophic issues in
industrial applications. Lorenzo Allievi was one of the first to successfully analyse water
hammer. In determining the peak pressure of a water hammer problem, and are from
McGraw-Hill’s Fluid Mechanics and Thorley’s Fluid Transients in Pipelines.

To help alleviate water hammer problems, arrestors can be installed. A sliding piston in the
arrestor absorbs pressure changes which helps prevent the pipes from banging. Another way to
stop water hammer is by installing air pockets that work basically the same way. The extra
space acts like a cushion and absorbs the pressure that occurs when the valve is suddenly
closed.

In a home, the dishwasher or washing machine is usually the culprit of the loud banging or
shuddering noise problem. Most of the time, it’s pretty easy to install an arrestor with it being a
simple screw-on device. Sometimes they connect directly to a pipe, like for underneath a sink.
Some pipe cutting can be involved, to install a “T” pipe. If you’re doing it yourself, pliers, an
adjustable wrench and a pipe wrench are generally all you need to install the arrestor. Again, it
depends on the location and arrestor you have.

Q.What is the function of surge tank?

Surge tank is a water storage device used as pressure neutralizer in hydropower water
conveyance system to resists excess pressure rise and pressure drop conditions.

A surge tank (or surge drum or surge pool) is a standpipe or storage reservoir at the
downstream end of a closed aqueduct, feeder, dam, barrage pipe to absorb sudden rises of
pressure, as well as to quickly provide extra water during a brief drop in pressure.
The important functions of surge tank are as follows

● It should Protects the conduit system from high internal pressures.

● It should help the hydraulic turbine regarding its regulation characteristics.
 ● It should store the water to raise the pressure in pressure drop conditions.

The surge tank dimensions and location are based on the following considerations

● The surge tank should be located as close to the power or pumping plant as possible;
● The surge tank should be of sufficient height to prevent overflow for all conditions of
operation;
● The bottom of surge tank should be low enough that during its operation the tank is
drained out and admit air into the turbine penstock or pumping discharge line; and
● The surge tank must have sufficient cross sectional area to ensure stability.

Types of Surge Tank:

Simple Surge Tank

A simple surge tank is like vertical pipe which is connected in between penstock and turbine
generator. These are constructed with greater height and supports are also provided to hold the
tank. Whenever the water flow suddenly increased the water is collected in the surge tank and
neutralize the pressure.
Top of the surge tank is opened to atmosphere If surge tank is filled completely then it overflows
to maintain the pressure neutralization.

Gallery Type Surge Tank

Gallery type surge tank consists extra storage galleries in it. These storage galleries are also
called as expansion chambers. So, gallery type surge tank can also be called as expansion
chamber type surge tanks.
These expansion chambers are generally provided at below and above the surge levels. Below
surge level chambers are used to storage excess water in it and released when it is required or
there is a brief drop in pressure. Upper surge level chambers are used to absorb the excess
pressure.

Inclined Surge Tank

In case of inclined surge tank, the surge tank is provide with some inclination. It is provided
when there is a limit in height of tank. By providing inclined surge tank the overflowed water
under excess pressure is entered into inclined tank and pressure destroyed.

Restricted Orifice Surge Tank

Restricted orifice consists an orifice between pipeline and surge tank. This orifice is also called
as throttle so, it is also called as throttled surge tank. This throttle or orifice have very small
diameter.
If the water overflows it should enter into the surge tank through this orifice. Because of small
diameter frictional losses will developed and excess pressure in main pipe line is destroyed.
This will creates quickly a retarding or accelerating head in the conduit. To reduce the water
hammer effect, diameter of orifice should be well designed for full rejection of load by the
turbine.

○ Differential Surge Tank

In case of differential surge tank, an internal riser is fixed in the tank. This riser have very small
diameter through which water enters into the riser when it overflows. The riser also contains
annular ports at its lower end.
These ports help the flow into or out of the tank. So, the excess pressure is destroyed by
internal riser of surge tank and storage of water is done by outer tank. So, it is called as
differential surge tank.
Q.Explain boundary layer theory and separation.
Ans. ​https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=psxFgSUTlNI

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HJmnJkUNfbc

Q.What is Magnus effect?

Answer 1-
A spinning object moving through a fluid departs from its straight path because of pressure
differences that develop in the fluid as a result of velocity changes induced by the spinning
body. The Magnus effect is a particular manifestation of Bernoulli’s theorem: fluid pressure
decreases at points where the speed of the fluid increases. In the case of a ball spinning
through the air, the turning ball drags some of the air around with it. Viewed from the position of
the ball, the air is rushing by on all sides. The drag of the side of the ball turning into the air (into
the direction the ball is traveling) retards the airflow, whereas on the other side the drag speeds
up the airflow. Greater pressure on the side where the airflow is slowed down forces the ball in
the direction of the low-pressure region on the opposite side, where a relative increase in airflow
occurs. ​See​ Bernoulli’s theorem; fluid mechanics.

Answer 2-

The ​Magnus effect​ is an observable phenomenon that is commonly associated with a spinning
object moving through a fluid. The path of the spinning object is deflected in a manner that is not
present when the object is not spinning. The deflection can be explained by the difference in
pressure of the fluid on opposite sides of the spinning object.
Q.Explain Mach number and its significance.

Mach number, in fluid mechanics, ratio of the velocity of a fluid to the velocity of sound in that
fluid, named after Ernst Mach (1838–1916), an Austrian physicist and philosopher. In the case
of an object moving through a fluid, such as an aircraft in flight, the Mach number is equal to the
velocity of the object relative to the fluid divided by the velocity of sound in that fluid. Mach
numbers less than one indicate subsonic flow; those greater than one, supersonic flow. Fluid
flow, in addition, is classified as compressible or incompressible based on the Mach number.
For example, gas flowing with a Mach number of less than three-tenths may be considered
incompressible, or of constant density, an approximation that greatly simplifies the analysis of its
behavior. For Mach numbers greater than one, shock wave patterns develop on the moving
body because of compression of the surrounding fluid. Streamlining alleviates shock wave
effects.

Q.What is draft tube and explain its application?

Draft tubes are important component of reaction turbine. It is a conduit of a gradually increasing
area located under the runner of the reaction turbine. The main purpose here is to convert the
kinetic energy of the fluid into static pressure energy by decelerating the velocity at the runner
exit. Cast steel or cemented concrete is used for the manufacturing of draft tube.
In reaction turbines like Kaplan or Francis, both pressure and kinetic energy are used to make
the rotor run. At the exit of the runner of these turbines, there is a negative pressure developed
which is less than the atmospheric pressure. So, to improve the work done this kinetic energy is
converted to pressure energy again by the means of the draft tube. And the water also moves
out to tailrace.

Different types of Draft Tubes

Simple Elbow Draft Tube​- Low head. This is simple in design. The incoming side and outgoing
side has the same cross-section. Efficiency 60%

Elbow with varying cross section​- Inlet circular cross-section outlet rectangular cross-section.
Generally used in Kaplan Turbines. Efficiency 70%

Moody Spreading Draft Tube​- It reduces the whirling action of water. It has one inlet and two
inlets. Efficiency 88%

Conical Diffuser or Divergent Draft Tube​- The cone angle is less than 10 degrees. If the cone
angle is more then there is a chance of cavitation. Efficiency 90%
Q. Why Are Draft Tubes Not used in Impulse Turbines?

In an Impulse turbine, the Kinetic energy is used to rotate the blades. Here no device is needed
to convert the kinetic energy to pressure energy because there is no loss of pressure. The inlet
and outlet pressure remain the same. Example of impulse turbine is Pelton wheel. In Pelton
wheel, the velocity of water is used to rotate the blade.

Q.How does a centrifugal pump work?

The impeller is the key component of a centrifugal pump. It consists of a series of curved
vanes. These are normally sandwiched between two discs (an enclosed impeller). For fluids
with entrained solids, an open or semi-open impeller (backed by a single disc) is preferred
(Figure 1).
Fluid enters the impeller at its axis (the ‘eye’) and exits along the circumference between the
vanes. The impeller, on the opposite side to the eye, is connected through a drive shaft to a
motor and rotated at high speed (typically 500-5000rpm). The rotational motion of the impeller
accelerates the fluid out through the impeller vanes into the pump casing.
There are two basic designs of pump casing: ​volute​ and ​diffuser​. The purpose in both designs
is to translate the fluid flow into a controlled discharge at pressure.
In a volute casing, the impeller is offset, effectively creating a curved funnel with an increasing
cross-sectional area towards the pump outlet. This design causes the fluid pressure to increase
towards the outlet (Figure 2).

Q.What is cavitation? What is its use?

Simply defined, cavitation is the formation of bubbles or cavities in liquid, developed in areas of
relatively low pressure around an impeller. The imploding or collapsing of these bubbles trigger
intense shockwaves inside the pump, causing significant damage to the impeller and/or the
pump housing.
If left untreated, pump cavitation can cause:
 ● Failure of pump housing
● Destruction of impeller
● Excessive vibration - leading to premature seal and bearing failure
● Higher than necessary power consumption
● Decreased flow and/or pressure

There are two types of pump cavitation: suction and discharge.

● Suction Cavitation
● Discharge Cavitation

Q. Explain the working of reciprocating pumps.

Ans-

PRINCIPLE: Reciprocating pump operates on the principle of pushing of liquid by a piston that
executes a reciprocating motion in a closed fitting cylinder.

CONSTRUCTION DETAILS OF A RECIPROCATING PUMP:

Components of reciprocating pumps:-

a) Piston or plunger: – a piston or plunger that reciprocates in a closely fitted cylinder.

b) Crank and Connecting rod: – crank and connecting rod mechanism operated by a power
source. Power source gives rotary motion to crank. With the help of connecting rod we translate
reciprocating motion to piston in the cylinder.
c) Suction pipe: – one end of suction pipe remains dip in the liquid and other end attached to the
inlet of the cylinder.

d) Delivery pipe: – one end of delivery pipe attached with delivery part and other end at
discharge point.

e) Suction and Delivery value: – suction and delivery values are provided at the suction end and
delivery end respectively. These values are non-return values.

WORKING OF RECIPROCATING PUMP

Operation of reciprocating motion is done by the power source (i.e. electric motor or i.c engine,
etc). Power source gives rotary motion to crank; with the help of connecting rod we translate
reciprocating motion to piston in the cylinder (i.e. intermediate link between connecting rod and
piston). When crank moves from inner dead centre to outer dead centre vacuum will create in
the cylinder. When piston moves outer dead centre to inner dead centre and piston force the
water at outlet or delivery value.

Q.​ ​Explain slip in reciprocating pumps?

Ans-​ Slip of a pump is defined as the difference between the theoretical discharge and actual
discharge of the pump. The actual discharge of a pump is less than the theoretical discharge
due to leakage.
Mathematically, slip= Qth- Qact
Percentage of slip= (Qth- Qact) *100% / Qth
= (1-Cd)*100% where Cd is Co-efficient of discharge.
Negative slip of reciprocating pump: Slip is equal to the difference of theoretical discharge and
actual discharge of the pump. If actual discharge is more than the theoretical discharge, the slip
of the pump will become –ve. In that case, the slip of the pump is known as negative slip.
Negative slip occurs when delivery pipe is short, suction pipe is long and pump is running at
high speed.
Separation: if cylinder pressure is less than the vapor pressure of liquid then the dissolved
gases liberated from the liquid and cavitation takes place. As a result continuous flow of liquid
does not exist and it is called separation

Q. What is an air vessel and explain its functions?

The air vessel, in a reciprocating pump, is a closed container in which the lower half is filled with
fluid being pumped & the upper half with compressed air. Both the halves are separated by a
flexible diaphragm which moves based on the pressure difference between the two fluids. The
air vessels are usually fitted near to the pump, in the discharge pipe to dampen out the pressure
variations during discharge.
Positive displacement pumps, in general, deliver a highly pulsed flow & accounts for the
pressure surges in the output causing severe vibrations in the output manifold of the pump.
These vibrations can cause premature failures of output piping & damage to the machineries.
To reduce the pressure surges & to achieve a smooth flow in the discharg, air vessel is
incorporated in the discharge manifold.

During operation, as the discharge pressure rises the air is compressed in the vessel & as the
pressure falls, the air expands. The pressure energy is thus stored in the air & returned to the
system when the pressure falls.
Apart from above, by using air vessels the acceleration & frictional heads are reduced. Thus the
work in overcoming these losses is also reduced. This reduces the power required to drive the
pump.

Q.​ ​Explain the working of hydraulic ram, accumulator, lift.

Working of hydraulic, ram, accumulator and lift?

Hydraulic ram : A hydraulic ram, or hydram, is a cyclic water pump powered by hydropower. It
takes in water at one "hydraulic head" (pressure) and flow rate, and outputs water at a higher
hydraulic head and lower flow rate. The device uses the water hammer effect to develop
pressure that allows a portion of the input water that powers the pump to be lifted to a point
higher than where the water originally started. The hydraulic ram is sometimes used in remote
areas, where there is both a source of low-head hydropower and a need for pumping water to a
destination higher in elevation than the source. In this situation, the ram is often useful, since it
requires no outside source of power other than the kinetic energy of flowing water.

Hydraulic accumulator : It is a simple hydraulic device which stores energy in the form of fluid
pressure. This stored pressure may be suddenly or intermittently released as per the
requirement. In the case of a hydraulic lift or hydraulic crane, a large amount of energy is
required when the lift or crane is moving upward. This energy is supplied from the hydraulic
accumulator. But when the lift is moving in the downward direction, it does not require a huge
amount of energy. During this particular time, the oil or hydraulic fluid pumped from the pump is
stored in the accumulator for future use.

Hydraulic lift :Hydraulic lifts work on a basic principle: to go up, a pump pushes oil into the
cylinder, pushing the piston (which pushes the lift car) up. To go down, the valve opens and oil
is allowed to flow back into the reservoir, and is pushed back using the gravitational force of the
lift car. The diagram above shows this system.

When the valve is closed, the oil can only go from the reservoir into the cylinder. When the
valve is open, the oil can only flow from the cylinder back into the reservoir.

The controls in the lift car make the pump operate, moving the oil. When a floor is reached, the
pump is switched off and the lift car sits on top of the piston, held in position by the oil which is
trapped in the cylinder.

The position, size and operation of the cylinder can be one of two options – ‘holed’ or
‘hole-less’.

Q.​ ​What is the function of pen stock?

Ans​- ​FUNCTION OF PEN STOCK
A penstock is a sluice or gate or intake structure that controls water flow, or an enclosed pipe
that delivers water to hydro turbines and sewerage systems. It is a term that has been inherited
from the earlier technology of mill ponds and watermills.
Penstocks for hydroelectric installations are normally equipped with a gate system and a surge
tank. Flow is regulated by turbine operation and is nil when turbines are not in service.
Penstocks, particularly where used in polluted water systems, need to be maintained by hot
water washing, manual cleaning, antifouling coatings, and desiccation.
The term is also used in irrigation dams to refer to the channels leading to and from
high-pressure sluice gates.
Penstocks are also used in mine tailings dam construction. The penstock is usually situated
fairly close to the center of the tailings dam and built up using penstock rings. These control the
water level, letting the slimes settle out of the water. This water is then piped under the tailings
dam back to the plant via a penstock pipeline.

Q. Apply Bernoulli's theorem to an aircraft.

Ans. ​http://web.mit.edu/16.00/www/aec/flight.html

Q. Compare the constructional details of a petrol and diesel engine.

Q. Which gear is used to obtain maximum speed ratio?
Q. Which law of thermodynamics is applicable when you inflate a
tyre?
Q. Why isn't the earth expanding?
Q. Differentiate between absolute and kinematics viscosity?
​ ynamic viscosity is measure of fluid’s resistance to shear flow when some external force
Ans-​ D
is applied. It is useful for describing the behavior of fluids under stress. Mainly, it is useful in
describing non-Newtonian fluids by observing how viscosity changes as the shear velocity
changes.

Kinematic viscosity is ratio of dynamic viscosity to density of that fluid. It is measure of fluid’s
resistance to shear flow under the weight of gravity. Force is applied weight here. It’s measure
of fluid’s resistance to flow, when no external forces except gravity is acting. It is more useful in
describing Newtonian fluids.

Summarizing the difference between these two: We denote Dynamic viscosity as Greek letter
‘mu’and kinematic viscosity as ‘nu’. Their units are different: for Dynamic viscosity it is Ns/m*m;
for Kinematic viscosity it is m*m/s. If you notice words Dynamics and Kinematics and know their
respective meanings, in viscosity units you will see that Force is considered for Dynamics which
justifies the word Dynamics and for Kinematics it is not. They both are equally useful for
measuring viscosity for Newtonian and Non-Newtonian fluids. But, Kinematics viscosity is
considered and measured first for a substance and then it’s Dynamic viscosity with the help of
density. Kinematic viscosity results are dependent on density of fluid, where as for dynamic
viscosity it is not. Also, temperature at which viscosity is measured plays an important role while
measuring viscosity for both. Also if for two different fluids, their Dynamic viscosity is same, their
Kinematic viscosity can be different. Read these links for more: Understanding Absolute and
Kinematic Viscosity, Difference Between Dynamic and Kinematic Viscosity, What is the
difference between dynamic and kinematic viscosity? In what scenarios are each measurement
used?

Q. What are Newtonian and Non-Newtonian fluids?

Ans- ​Newtonian fluid is fluid in which shear stress is directly proportional to shear strain (which
is velocity gradient dV/dy) where for Non-Newtonian fluid, it is not. For Non-Newtonian fluid
change in shear stress can create increase in shear strain or decrease, there is no linear
relationship. Do this little experiment: Let’s take honey and mayonnaise in two different jars.
With the help of butter knife stir these two fluids, keeping the depth of butter knife and angle at
which you are stirring, same for both fluids. Which of these two has more resistance to stirring?
Answer is Honey. Now, let the mayonnaise and honey flow freely from their respective jars with
the help of gravity. Maybe try to pour it on your bread by putting jar upside down. Which one of
these flows faster? Answer is Honey. So, well, which of these two fluids were more viscous?
Honey or Mayonnaise? If you say any of them, your answer is correct. Well, partially. Well, the
case is here of Newtonian and Non-Newtonian fluid. Honey is Newtonian fluid and Mayonnaise
is non-Newtonian fluid. Also the shear stresses acting on them plays their role accordingly.
When you stir substance shear rate is changing, while in latter case we are measuring static
resistance to flow.

Q. Is turbo charging possible in petrol engines?

Ans-​ We can use turbocharger in petrol as well as diesel engine.However the function of
turbocharger changes in the two cases and hence its size. Diesel and petrol engines have some
key differences – which in turn, mean that the turbochargers need to be designed to work in
slightly different ways. Diesel As a fuel, diesel isn’t as combustible as petrol, which means that
the air in the combustion chamber of diesel engines needs to be at a higher pressure to ignite.
These higher pressures mean that diesel engines need to be stronger than their petrol engine
counterparts, which means using bigger, heavier components. Bigger, heavier components are
hard to rotate at high speeds, which means that diesel engines typically operate at much lower
and narrower RPM band than their petrol counterparts. This lower RPM makes it more difficult
for a diesel engine to draw in enough air into the combustion chambers. Diesel also burns at a
lower temperature to petrol, meaning that it creates more exhaust gases. Petrol Petrol is far
more combustible than diesel –it ignites more easily and burns much hotter, so the pressures
inside the combustion chambers don’t need to be as high. This means that the components can
be smaller, and that the engine can operate at a much higher and wider RPM band. Because
petrol engines operate at higher RPMs, and petrol burns at a higher temperature than diesel,
petrol engines tend to run hotter than diesels. How this affects turbocharging For diesels The
inherent downside of a diesel engine is that it struggles to draw enough air into the combustion
chamber, and turbocharging can really help a diesel engine to combat this. With commercial
diesel engines, the goal is to increase airflow to the engine, rather than to increase combustion
pressures (as combustion pressures are already high). This means that traditionally, with
commercial diesel engines, the overall ‘boost’ provided by the turbo is quite low – somewhere
between 5-8 psi.* In practice, this means that diesel turbochargers are generally larger than
their petrol counterparts, with a large turbine section, which is capable of handling both the high
volume of exhaust gases, and need to provide enough air intake to keep the cylinders filled. For
petrols With petrol engines, the addition of a turbo is all about increasing engine power, so the
goal is to increase the pressures inside the combustion chamber. This means that petrol
turbochargers tend to be smaller, and designed to run at much higher RPMs, providing a higher
boost in pressure, without significantly increasing airflow.

In addition, because petrol engines need to operate at a much wider band of RPMs, it’s
important that petrol turbochargers get up to speed (‘spool up’) more quickly than their diesel
counterparts.

Q. Explain mechatronics?
Ans- ​Mechatronics is a multidisciplinary field of science that includes a combination technology
of electronics and mechanical engineering with computer engineering, telecommunications,
system engineering and control engineering.A mechatronics engineer determines how to
improve production in manufacturing by developing new machinery or tools. Before
implementing changes to the production process, the mechatronics engineer considers factors
such as assembly line efficiency and costs, while using specialized software to perform tests on
various ways to make improvements.Mechatronics has a variety of applications as products and
systems in the area of ‘manufacturing automation'. Some of these applications are as follows:

Computer numerical control (CNC) machines Tool monitoring systems

Advanced manufacturing systems
a. Flexible manufacturing system (FMS)
b. Computer integrated manufacturing (CIM) Industrial robots Automatic inspection systems:
machine vision systems
Automatic packaging systems

Q. Explain the various processes required to manufacture an air

conditioner or a boiler..

Ans-
Making the Parts​ - Most air conditioners are made from sheet steel or other easily formed
metal or plastic. The first step in making an air conditioner is to form the metal and plastic parts.
Metal parts are usually sheet stamped to give them the desired shape. Sheet stamping typically
trims the metal to the required size. Large, flat plastic pieces are often vacuum formed, while
smaller pieces are cast or formed using a number of different techniques, including vacuum
forming. If the metal used is steel, it is then galvanized. Galvanization is the process of adding a
layer of zinc to slow rust and other deterioration. Once galvanized, the steel is painted or
powder coated. Powder coating is a durable form of paint that is sprayed on dry and then
heated to melt and bond to the metal substrate

Assembly-​ Once the exterior parts are made, the air conditioner is ready for assembly. Most
condensers, the devices that perform heat transfer functions, are pre-made. Most compressors,
the device that compresses the gas that transfers the heat through the condensers, are also
pre-built. Assembling the air conditioner is a matter of installing the compressor, the inside
condenser, which cools the air being blown into the indoor area, the outside condenser, which
transmits heat from inside the building to the outside air and and various electronic controls. The
condensers are connected via copper pipes to the compressor, and the electronic controls are
connected to an electric motor, which causes the compressor to spin.

Charging and Finishing-​ Once the air conditioner has been assembled, the coolant gas is
placed in the compressor, condensers and pipes to a predetermined pressure level. The air
conditioner is tested for coolant leaks and the electronics are tested. If it works well, the cover is
screwed in place. If the air conditioner has controls, as opposed to a remote control, control
knobs and sliders are installed. Then the air conditioner is packaged for transportation to a
warehouse and distribution facility.
Q. Draw the Fe-C equilibrium diagram.
Ans-

Q. Which is the type of lighting best suited for Software Company?

Ans- ​ The right light level at the workplace avoids tiredness and lack of concentration. This can
be regulated by the illuminance which is measured in Lux (lx). A minimum of 500 Lux is stated
for the brightness at computer WorkStations. Generally speaking, an increase in illuminance
boosts the visual performance and positively influences the detailed and fast visual information
processing. An illuminance between 500 and 1000 Lux can also be seen as stress-free.Effects
of light and shadows decide on the lighting quality. To achieve a balance between natural and
artificial light and to avoid shadows and glare, it is recommendable to place lights parallel to the
window and the working place.

Q. Tell about head and turbine for different types of hydroelectric

stations.

Ans-​ Turbines convert the energy of rushing water, steam or wind into mechanical energy to
drive a generator. The generator then converts the mechanical energy into electrical energy. In
hydroelectric facilities, this combination is called a generating unit. Types of turbine according to
available head. Propeller up to 15 metres Kaplan up to 30 metres Francis 10 to 300 metres
Pelton 300 metres and over.

Francis Turbine:

The most commonly used turbine in Hydro-Québec's power system. Water strikes the
edge of the runner, pushes the blades and then flows toward the axis of the turbine. It
escapes through the draft tube located under the turbine. It was named after James
Bicheno Francis (1815-1892), the American engineer who invented the apparatus in
1849.

Kaplan Turbine:
Austrian engineer Viktor Kaplan (1876-1934) invented this turbine. It's similar to the
propeller turbine, except that its blades are adjustable; their position can be set
according to the available flow. This turbine is therefore suitable for certain run-of-river
generating stations where the river flow varies considerably.

Propeller Turbine

Since they can reach very high rotation speeds, propeller turbines are effective for low
heads. Consequently, this type of turbine is suitable for run-of-river power stations.

Pelton Turbine:

Named after its American inventor, Lester Pelton (1829-1908), this turbine uses
spoon-shaped buckets to harness the energy of falling water.

Q​. ​What electives have you taken and why?

Ans-​ It should be your personal Answer.

Q.​ ​Where does the future of mechanical engineering lie?

Ans-​Mechanical engineering is one of the core engineering branches. In this Industrial

era there are wide application of this field. With changes and development in our
industrial process there is advancement in this field also. Many industries such as
production, processing, manufacturing industries is mainly driven by mechanical field.
Q.​ ​What is Six Sigma?

Ans​- Six Sigma is a quality management methodology used to help businesses improve
current processes, products or services by discovering and eliminating defects. The goal
is to streamline quality control in manufacturing or business processes so there is little to
no variance throughout.
● Focusing on customer requirements
● Using extensive measurement and statistical analysis to understand how work gets
done and to identify the root cause of problems (variations)
● Being proactive in eliminating variation and continually improving the process
● Involving people in Six Sigma cross-functional teams
● Being thorough and being flexible

A six sigma process is one in which 99.99966% of all opportunities to produce some
feature of a part are statistically expected to be free of defects.

Q. Why is compressor used in gas turbines?

Mostly ​axial compressors​ are used in gas turbines and not centrifugal because of
continuous supply of air and high efficiency, but they have complex design and are
costlier. Centrifugal compressors are used in small gas turbines.

Centrifugal compressors:
Centrifugal compressors typically consist of one or more stages. Each stage typically
consists of an impeller (rotating element) and a diffuser (stationary element). In a
centrifugal compressor, the gas typically enters the impeller axially and is discharged
radially. The gas hurled out radially by the rotating impeller blades. When the gas The
gas then flows through the circular chamber (diffuser), following a spiral path where the
velocity head of the gas gets converted to pressure head as per Bernoulli’s principle. To
put it simply, the impeller imparts kinetic energy to the gas fluid, whereas the diffuser
converts part of that kinetic energy into pressure head. The extent of pressure rise in a
centrifugal compressor mainly depends on the rotational speed of the impeller and the
impeller size. However, the maximum allowable speed is limited by the strength of the
structural material of impeller blades and sonic velocity of the gas. As a result, limitations
on maximum achievable pressure rise exist. These limitations are overcome by the use
of multistage centrifugal compressors, which are able to compress the gas to desirable
pressure using multiple stages of centrifugal compressors operating in series.

High efficiency of the centrifugal compressors and the fact that they can be offered as
packaged items at small sizes is offset by their high initial cost and the sophisticated
vibration monitoring system that is usually required because of the high rotational
speeds at which centrifugal compressors operate. Among others, centrifugal
compressors are used in natural gas processing plants, process air applications etc.

Axial Compressors:
Axial flow compressors are typically used at applications with low differential pressure
(head) requirements and high flow rates. A typical axial compressor consists of a drum,
to which blades of specific geometry are attached. Contrary to centrifugal compressors,
axial flow compressors do not change the direction of the gas: the gas typically enters
and exits the compressor in an axial direction (parallel to the axis of rotation). First, the
gas is accelerated and then diffused so that its pressure is increased. Typical
applications of big-size axial compressors are those used to compress the air intake of
gas turbines. These are typically multistage axial compressors, consisting of several
stages. Each stage typically consists of a rotor and a stator. A rotor is a set or rotating
blades, whose role is to accelerate the gas flow. A stator is a set of stationary blades
whose role is to convert the velocity energy gained in the rotor to pressure energy,
similar to the impeller – diffuser combination used in the centrifugal compressors. Axial
compressors have relatively high peak efficiency. On the other hand, their efficiency is
good over a narrow rotational speed range. Their big weight, combined with their high
starting power requirements are some of their drawbacks.

Q. What is CDI engine?

A Capacitor Discharge Ignition is an electronic ignition device that stores an electrical
charge and then discharges it through an ignition coil in order to produce a powerful
spark from the spark plugs in a petrol engine. Here the ignition is provided by the
capacitor charge. The capacitor simply charges and discharges within a fraction of time
making it possible to create sparks CDIs are commonly found on motorbikes and
scooters.
Working Principle:
A capacitor discharge ignition works by passing an electrical current over a capacitor.
This type of ignition builds up a charge quickly. A CDI ignition starts by generating a
charge and storing it up before sending it out to the spark plug in order to ignite the
engine.

This power passes through a capacitor and is transferred to an ignition coil that helps
boost the power by acting as a transformer and allowing the energy pass through it
instead of catching any of it.

Q. What is Ball Piston?

 The Ball piston engine (Wolfhart engine) is an [[internal combustion engine|internal
combustion]] rotary engine that uses two intertwined rotors instead of reciprocating
pistons. It was invented by German physicist Wolfhart Willimczik. A spherical piston
rotates in combination with a spherical housing, whereby the rotational axes incline
towards each other slightly. In these way “strokes” are created within the rotational
system generating periodic volumetric changes in the 2 working chambers adjacent to
the dividing wall. Every nutation can be described as two oscillations around two axes
perpendicular to each other. One generates the stroke motion, the other generates a
rocking motion of the edge of the piston what allowed the closing of the exhaust before
opening the opening for fresh gas, ergo an unsymmetrical control table as possible by
four stroke engines only. It works as a two stroke engine without any valves, but with
unsymmetrical control times and direct lubrication as an four stroke engine. It has the
best possible kinematic as rotary piston machine with rotations only around the centers
of gravity (no orbiting parts). This engine unifies the advantages of al three categories.
Purpose of this invention was to overcome the shortcomings of the Wankel engine,
especially to avoid high sliding speed of the sealing parts. Here is the sliding speed in
the same range as by a classical piston engine. Higher sustained rotating speeds are
possible due to the absence of oscillating inertial forces.

What does CNC stand for? CNC Meaning / CNC definition.

Answer: CNC stands for Computer Numerical Controls.

Numeric Controls creates the automation of the machine tools. If computer program is used to
make the automation then the system is called CNC system. In modern times Computer Aided
designs (CADs) are used in the CNC machines for precise operation.

How the value of gear train is measured?

Answer: The mechanical system which engages two or more gears in such a way that their teeth
meshes and provides a smooth transmission. For a successful gear power transmission the gears
are designed in a way that the velocity of the pitch circles of the two gears remains the same at
the time of contact.

If a Gear A (driver) and B (driven) meshes having radius Ra and Rb and angular velocity Wa and
Wb then

V= RaWa = RbWb

So Wa/Wb = Rb/Ra = Na/Nb where Na = No. of teeth of driver gear A and Nb is the No. of teeth
on the driven gear B.

What is limiting friction?

Answer: When a body tries to slide over another surface or starts sliding they experience some
opposite force from the adjacent surface. Limiting friction is the maximum value of the friction
force when a body just starts to slide. There are condition and laws of limiting friction.

Laws of Limiting Friction

The direction of limiting friction force is always the opposite of the motion of the body.

The magnitude of the friction force is equal to the force that tends to move the body.

The magnitude of the limiting friction always have a constant ratio with the normal reaction
force which acts between the two surfaces.

Limiting friction force depends on the roughness of the surface.

Area between the surfaces is not responsible for the magnitude of the frictional force.

Describe the coefficient of friction formula​.

Answer: Coefficient of friction is denoted by the Greek letter µ. It is the ratio of maximum
frictional force to the normal force (the force that pushes the object towards the other surface)

µ = F/R , where F = Friction Force and R= Normal force.

Write short notes on lathe chucks​.

Answer: Chucks are the work holding devices for Lathes. Chucks are mechanical vises which
hold the workpiece and transfer rotational motion of the drive motor to the workpiece. Chucks
are adjustable and can be of two basic types.

3 Jaw Self Centering Chuck and 4 Jaw Independent Chuck. Please Click on the image to have a
clear idea of the lathe chucks.

What is the value of modulus of elasticity of steel?

Answer: Up to elastic limit strain is proportional to stress. The ratio of stress to strain is known
as modulus of elasticity or young’s modulus of elasticity. Modulus of elasticity for steel is
measured 210 GPa.

What is the bending moment equation for simple bending of

beams/ Describe bending moment formula?
Answer: σ = MC/I = E/R

Here, M = bending moment, I = Moment of inertia, C = Distance of extreme fiber from the
neutral axis. E= Modulus of elasticity, R = Radius of curvature, σ = Stress
What is the effective length of column?
Answer: Click the image for a clear view and the end conditions. For Pinned ends L= Le , For
both ends fixed Le= 0.5L , For one end fixed one end pinned Le = 0.7L, for One end free and
other end fixed Le = 2L.

What is Case Hardening?

Answer: It is the process of adding carbon or nitrogen or both on to the surface of a steel object.
Case hardening makes a material hard from the outside but keeps the core soft. For example
gear teeth are case hardened as a result the teeth can withstand wear and tear at the same
because of having soft core they can absorb shock.

What is modulus of resilience?

Answer: It is the energy absorbed per unit volume within the elastic limit in the ​stress strain
curve​.

What are the thermal conductivity of different metals?

Answer: Thermal conductivity charts for different materials. It has a unit of Watt per
Meter-Kelvin W/(m K)

What are the different types of boilers?

Answer: Classification of the boiler is done by considering different aspects.

According to the tube content boilers are classified as

1. Fire Tube Boiler also known as smoke boiler and

 2. Water Tube Boiler

According to the furnace position

1. Externally Fired Boiler

2. Internally Fired Boiler

With respect to the axis of the boiler shell boiler is classified as

1. Vertical boiler and

2. Horizontal boiler

According to the number of tubes 1. Single tube boiler 2. Multitube boiler

By the method of water and steam circulation 1. Natural circulation 2. Forced Circulation.

By use or application 1. Stationary and 2. Mobile.

The boiler are also classified by the method of heating source. They are named after the type of
fuel.

What is Bending Moment? Describe the term bending moment

diagram​.
Answer: Most of the time the bending moment is associated with the beams. Beams carry loads
perpendicular to its axis and also withstand bending moment. When some external forces or
moments are applied on a structural element, it can bend. The reaction to this applied forces
and moments are known as the bending moment.

If we have a structural element, suppose a beam and some forces are applied on it and we want
to determine the bending moment in every point then we have to use the bending moment
diagram. Watch this video tutorial on how to draw bending moment diagram for a beam.

Give thermal conductivity definition.

Answer: Thermal Conductivity can be explained as the heat conducted in unit time, through the
unit area of a substance of unit thickness when the difference of temperature between the
opposite faces of the object is unity.

What is boundary layer thickness?

Answer: It is the distance from the wall / plate across the boundary where the velocity of the
flow has become free stream velocity.
What is Reynolds Number?
Answer: Reynolds Number is the ratio of viscous force to the inertia force. Mathematically

Reynolds Number , Nre = ρvd/µ

For further studies of dimensionless numbers go to this link : Dimensionless Groups in fluid
mechanics

What is heat transfer co-efficient? What is the value of heat

transfer coefficient of air?
Answer: Heat Transfer Co-efficient is the parameter used to measure the heat transfer rate in
convective heat transfer. Convective Heat Transfer Rate,

Q = h.A. (T​2​-T​1​)

Here, ​Convection heat transfer coefficient ​is h. It is the rate of heat transfer occurred
between solid and liquid surfaces through unit surface area when the temperature difference is
unity. It has a SI unit of W/m​2 ​K.

Value of heat transfer coefficient of air can be 10-100 W/m​2 ​K.

What is fire tube boiler and water tube boiler?

Answer: In fire tube boiler the hot combustion products (gases and flames) runs through the
tubes and the tube is surrounded by the water. Example of fire tube boiler is : Simple vertical
boiler, Cochran Boiler, Lancashire Boiler and Locomotive boiler.

In Water Boilers the water runs through the tubes and the combustion products surround the
tubes. Example of water tube boiler is : Babcock & Wilcox Boiler, Stirling Boiler, La-monte
Boiler etc.

What is boiler accessory and mounting? Give example.

Answer: Mountings are the parts or the devices which are mounted on the boiler for the proper
and safe functioning of the boiler. Example of boiler mountings: Pressure gage, safety valve,
Water Level Indicator, Steam Stop Valve, Feed check valve and fusible plugs etc.

Accessories are the parts which are additionally attached to the boiler for the increased
efficiency. Accessories include economizer, superheater and feed pumps.

What is latent heat of condensation and latent heat of

evaporation?
Answer: Latent heat is the heat required to change a material from one state to another.

Latent heat of condensation is the heat released while water vapor condenses into liquid.

What is shear force?

Answer: The definition of shear force: Shear forces are generally unaligned forces which pushes
one part of the body in a certain direction and the other part of the body in opposite direction

What is multistage centrifugal pump?

Answer: Multistage Centrifugal pump is a device in which more than one impeller is engaged in
the same shaft or on different shaft. The main reason for constructing these type of pumps is to
create more pressure on the same pump casing. A centrifugal pump having single impeller
cannot produce a pressure between suction and discharge side which is equivalent to 150 psid. It
will be very costly to build such a pump with single impeller system. That’s why multistage
centrifugal pumps are introduced. For producing higher heads impellers are connected in series
and to get more discharge impellers are connected in parallel connections.

What is priming of centrifugal pump?

Answer: When the impeller rotates it adds Kinetic Energy to the adjacent fluid. As a result the
pressure of the adjacent fluid increases. At the same time negative pressure is developed at the
suction side. Because of this pressure differential fluid flows through the impeller. If the
impeller is filled air rather than water then the pressure differential will be small and no fluid
will flow. So to eliminate that phenomenon the pump flow path is filled with water. This is
known as priming.

What is Engine Governor? What is its functions?

Answer: A governor is a device attached in the engine to control the speed. It is actually a speed
limiter. It can measure the speed and can regulate it.

Governor’s function is to keep the speed stable in different loads. If the load is lighter, less fuel
supply is needed to keep a stable speed. But if the load increases more fuel supply is needed.
Governor controls the fuel supplies.

What is draft tube? Why it is used?

Answer: Draft Tubes are used at the exit of the runner of the turbines. These are pipes of
gradually increasing area. The draft tube at the exit of the turbine increases pressure of the
exiting fluid by reducing its velocity. It converts waste kinetic energy of the exit fluid into useful
pressure energy.

What is Break Specific fuel Consumption, bsfc?

Answer: Break Specific fuel Consumption, BSFC is a ratio of the rate of fuel consumption to the
power produced. So it is the measurement of the efficiency of the fuel of any prime mover which
produces power.

bsfc = fuel consumption/ Power Produced. The unit of fuel consumption is gm/s and the unit
for power is watt.

​What are the different unit of viscosity?

Answer: SI unit of Dynamic Viscosity is Poiseuille (Pl). CGS unit is Poise.

1 Poiseuille = 1 Pa-s or 1 (N-s)/m​2 ​or kg (m-s).

The SI unit for kinematic viscosity is m​2 ​/s. CGS unit is stokes.

What are the differences between beams and columns?

Answer: Beams are horizontal structural elements which experiences loads perpendicular to its
axis and also withstands bending moments. Columns are the vertical members which have to
withstand compressive loads which can be parallel to their axis.

What is the difference between machine and engine?

Answer: Engine converts heat energy to Mechanical Energy but machine converts all forms of
energy to mechanical energy except heat energy.

What is viscosity? What is newton’s law of viscosity?

answer: Viscosity is the property of fluid which measures the resistance of the fluid to the
gradual deformation due the shear stress.

Newtons Law of Viscosity states that : the shear stress on the fluid is proportional to the velocity
gradient.

What are newtonian and non-newtonian fluids ? Give examples.

answer : Newtonian fluids follow the newtons law of viscosity and non-newtonian fluids do not
follow the law.Newtonian fluid : Water, air etc. Non-Newtonian Fluid : blood, tar , paste etc.

How the characteristics of a flow is determined?

answer: By Reynolds Number . If Re <2300 then the flow is laminar . if 2300 <Re<4000 then
the flow is transient and if Re>4000 then the flow is turbulent .

What is Bernoulli’s equation? Why it is used?

answer: pressure head + velocity head + datum head = constant

P​1​/γ + (v​2 ​)​1​/2g + z​1 ​= P​2​/γ +( v​2​)​2​ /2g + z​1 = constant

What is cavitation in centrifugal pump? Why priming is done

in centrifugal pump?

Answer: If the suction side develops a pressure less than the vapor pressure of the water then

water will start to boil and create water bubbles and it will spoil the impeller material. It is called

cavitation.

When impeller rotates it adds a rotating motion to the adjacent fluid and as a result K.E and

Pressure in the fluid increases and a negative pressure is developed in the suction side of the

impeller . So water/fluid flows continuously through the impeller. But when the pipe is filled with

air , the impeller rotates but the pressure difference is negligible as a result no water flows through

the pump. Thats why priming is done.

What is the difference between heat engine & heat pump?

answer: Heat Engine produces work and transfers energy from high temp. to low temp source

medium. In Heat pump external work is needed to transfer energy from low to high temp.

medium.

What is the difference between Impulse Turbine and Reaction

Turbine?
Answer: In Impulse Turbine all the pressure energy is converted to kinetic energy but in reaction

turbine a part of the pressure energy is converted to kinetic energy and rest remains as pressure

energy.

What is NPSH?

Answer: NPSH = Net Positive Suction Head. It is the measure of minimum pressure which is

required at the suction pipe to keep the pump from cavitation.

What is Refrigeration ? What is the unit of refrigeration ?

Refrigeration is the process where heat is transferred from low temperature to high temperature

medium with the help of external work. It’s unit is ton of refrigeration.

What is COP ?

answer: COP = Co-efficient of Performance . It is used to measure the performance of a

refrigeration system. It is generally expressed by the ratio of evaporation work or refrigeration

effect to the compressor work or net work .

What is ton of refrigeration ?

answer: 1 ton of refrigeration means heat absorbed while melting 1 ton (2000 lb) of ice at zero

degree Celsius at 24 hours .

What is sub-cooling and super heating in refrigeration system

? Why these are used ?

answer: Sub-cooling or under cooling is done before throttling or expanding the refrigerant and it

ensures that no vapor enters the expansion valve.

Super-heating is done before compression and it ensures that no liquid enters the compressor.

What is the most commonly used refrigerant ?

answer: R134a

What is the difference between cooling tower and condenser ?

answer: Condenser is a heat exchanger which converts saturated vapor into liquid. For doing so

the condenser temperature must be below than the saturation temp.

Cooling tower is the device in which recirculating condenser water is cooled by the evaporative

method with direct contact to the atmosphere.

When a fluid is flowing around an object or flowing through an object, the flow may be smooth or

may be distorted. The smoother flow occurs due to low velocity and distorted flow occurs due to

high velocity. This low velocity smoother flow is called laminar flow and distorted flow is called

turbulent flow.

What is buoyancy force ?

Answer : Buoyancy is the upward force which is felt on an object simply immersed into a fluid.

Which dimensionless number is used to determine the speed

of aircraft ?

Answer : Mach Number.

What are compressible and incompressible flows ?

Answer : compressible flow – variable density fluid flow .

Incompressible flow – fixed density fluid fl

Why Carnot Cycle is not possible practically ?

Ans : It is not because adiabatic processes are not possible to obtain due to losses in the pipes

condensers, compressors and evaporator.

Which Cycle is used in Air – Refrigeration System ?

Ans : Bell – Coleman Cycle

In refrigeration system why heat rejected is more than heat

absorbed ?

Ans: For cooling purpose it is necessary to reject more heat than the heat absorbed.

Mathematically Heat Rejected = Heat absorbed + Work Done .

How Defrosting is done in a refrigerator ?

Ans : Defrosting is done by stopping the compressor for a short time.

What is the difference between heat pump and refrigerators ?

Ans : Heat pumps gives heat by taking work input on the other hand refrigerator ejects heat by

taking heat input.

What is basis of Refrigeration System ?

Ans : Second Law of Thermodynamics .

Describe Dry and Wet Compression in Refrigeration System .

Ans : The starting point of compression in the T-S diagram determines the final state of vapor

after compression. If the final state of vapor is dry and saturated then the compression is known

as wet compression and if the final state of vapor is super heated then it is known as dry

compression.

The refrigerant enters as a vapor in compressor from the evaporator. If the vapor draw into the

compressor is drier than the initial condition on the same pressure range the vapor becomes

superheated.
How to improve Refrigerating effect ?

Ans : By applying superheating and subcooling.

What is advantage of vapor compression refrigeration system ?

Ans: Smaller size for a given refrigeration effect , Higher COP, Lower power consumption, Less

Complicated in design and operation.

What is limiting friction ?

Ans : When an object is sliding over another frictional force is developed in the contact surface.

This friction force creates a resistance. The maximum value of this frictional force is called the

limiting friction.

What is Center of Gravity ?

Ans : Center of Gravity or CG is the point where the whole mass of a body acts (irrespective of

position of that body).

Locate the center of gravity of these simple geometries – Uniform rod , rectangle or

parallelogram , triangle, semi circles, hemisphere, right circular solid cone .

Ans :

Uniform rod : At its middle point

rectangle or parallelogram : Intersect points of its diagonals

triangle : where all the 3 medians of the triangle intersects

Semi-circle : at a distance 4r/3π from the base. (measured along the vertical radius)

hemisphere : at a distance 3r/8 from the base. (measured along the vertical radius)

right circular solid cone : h/4 from base from the vertical axis.
What are manometers ?

Ans : These are pressure measuring devices for liquid. To measure the pressure in a point in the

liquid manometers balance the liquid column to another column or the same column of liquid.

How manometers are classified ?

Ans : 1. Simple manometers like : piezometer and U-tube manometer.

2. Differential manometer.

What are the uses of manometer ?

Ans : Simple Manometers are used to measure 1. high pressure of liquids 2. pressure in pipes and

channels 3. vacuum pressure.

Differential manometers are used for measuring pressure difference between two points in a pipe .

What is the difference between turbocharger and supercharger

?

Ans : Turbocharger and Supercharger both have the same function. These devices are

blowerswhich supplies extra air to the engine. As a result engine gets useful amount of oxygen to

producea proper ignition.

The main difference between the devices is that turbocharger uses exhaust heat from the exhaust

gases as a power source. But Supercharger uses a part of the engine power to run. Turbocharger is

not directly connected to the engine. It decreases the carbon emission because it has smog altering

system. Supercharger on the other hand is connected to the engine with the help of a belt. It

produces smog.

Differentiate between scavenging and supercharging /

turbocharging ?
Ans: In Scavenging the burnt gases from the engine cylinder is pushed out by the fresh air that

before the exhaust stroke ends. Turbocharging/Supercharging is the process of adding extra air to

the engine for a better ignition.

Give the names of different Thermodynamic Processes .

Ans : Isothermal Process : Constant Temperature process

Isochoric Process : Constant Volume Process

Isobaric Process : Constant Pressure Process

Throttling Process : Constant Enthalpy Process

Isentropic or Adiabatic Process : Constant Entropy Process

What is the function of flywheel?

Answer: The main function of the flywheel is to store kinetic energy in the form of moment of

inertia. It also reduces the vibration in the engine and produces an even crank shaft rotational

speed.

What is the function of orifice meter?

Answer: The orifice meter or orifice plate is used for measuring flow rate of a fluid. It is also used

for flow restriction and pressure reducing purpose.

What is Vena Contracta?

Answer: When fluid is passed through the flow meters like orifice or nozzles there is a point in the

fluid stream where the diameter of the stream is minimum and velocity is maximum. In this place

we find the least cross sectional area. This is known as the vena contracta.

How to identify petrol and diesel engines.

Answer: There are many differences in the running cycle of the two engine types. Petrol engine is

spark ignition and Diesel engine is compression ignition. Petrol engine = Otto cycle and Diesel

engine = Diesel cycle.

But the difference between them which is visible practically is the presence of spark plug on the

petrol engine. Diesel engine doesn’t have a spark plug it has an atomizer.

What is valve? What is the function of butterfly valve?

Answer: Valves are devices which can control the flow of fluid. By controlling means directing and

regulating the flow.

In a butter fly valve there is a disc which is hinged to the body. And there is an operator. When

operator moves the butterfly valves disc also rotates and creates or blocks passage for the fluid to

flow. When the disc is parallel to the flow the liquid passes and when the disc is completely

perpendicular the flow also completely stops. Please watch this video for a complete

understanding of the butterfly valve.

Which type of compressor is used in gas turbine?

Answer: In Gas Turbine cycle three types of compressors are used

These are Axial compressor, centrifugal compressor and mixed flow compressor. Axial

compressors are very popular for gas turbine power plants because these are compact and need

less space for medium to large thrust gas turbines.

What happens in superheating process?

Answer: In superheating the temperature is increased of the fluid with increasing its pressure.

Name some of the flow meters.

Answer: Orifice meters, Venturi meters, Rotameters , nozzles

What is a nozzle? What happens in a nozzle?

Answer: nozzle is a device which can control the direction of the fluid along with changing some of

its properties. Nozzle is especially used for increasing the velocity of the fluid stream. Generally

nozzle is a tapered tube. It is used where high velocity and low pressure is required. It depends on

the continuity equation. According to continuity equation if the flow rate is to be remained same

the product of area and velocity should remain same on the inlet and outlet. So if area decreases

then the velocity increases.

What is the expression of a polytropic process?

Answer: Polytrpoic is a thermodynamic process . It follows the relation .

Which one has greater efficiency for the same compression ratio? Diesel engine or

petrol engine? Explain.

Answer: For same compression ratio petrol engine has greater efficiency then diesel engine. Otto

cycle or petrol engine cycle rejects lesser heat for the same compression ratio than the diesel

engine cycle. That’s why it has better efficiency for same compression ratio.