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James Sales*
Institute of Animal Science, Pratelstvi 815, 104 00 Prague Uhrineves, Czech Republic
ABSTRACT
Widely distributed throughout the Australian continent, the emu has been hunted by man for thousands of years. Emu farming
for oil, meat and skins, both inside and outside Australia, has been seen as feasible from the end of the 1980s.This paper reviews
the basic biology of the emu with emphasis on breeding and nutrition before then describing the main commercial products of
this species. It is concluded that the emu industry is hampered by a lack of clinical validation of the value of the oil, high costs
of production, and inadequate market outlets.
In the emu, where 4.48% of the genome was probed The feathers of the emu are, similar than those of the
with 23 microsatellites (Roots and Baker, 2002), nine cassowary, double, each with an after shaft almost
macrochromosomes show remarkable homology with equal in length to the main feather. No oil gland is
those of the domestic chicken, indicating strong conser- found (Pycraft, 1901). The wings, with a single clawed
vation of karyotype through evolution (Shetty et al., digit (Maxwell and Larsson, 2007), are tiny stub-like
1999). The sequence of the gender determining gene appendages that hang from the anterior region of the
DMRT1 from the emu has 88% homology with chicken body. Leg feathering ends slightly above the tibiotarsal-
DMRT1, and 65% with human DMRT1 (Shetty et al., metatarsal joint (Cho et al., 1984).
2002). Emus have 54 vertebrae in the axial skeleton,
compared to 56 in the ostrich (Mivart, 1877).
Contrary to two digits in the ostrich foot, the emu
2.2 Behaviour foot, similar to the rhea and cassowary, has three
digits (Fowler, 1991).
As emus do distribute large quantities of seeds, and
The tongue has a serrated edge (Cho et al., 1984), and
might also play an important role in facilitating germi-
the flexible cartilaginous tracheal rings are interrupted
nation of the seeds, they could prove an important link
by a 6 to 8 cm long cleft on the ventral surface. Whereas
between fragments of remnant vegetation by helping to
a thin membrane covers the cleft in the chick, an
maintain the genetic mix in plant communities (Noble,
expandable pouch of approximately 30 cm long forms
1975; Rogers et al., 1993; McGrath and Bass, 1999).
cranial to the cleft as the bird matures. When air is
Although wild emus in Western Australia have been
directed into the pouch the skin of the neck expands and
viewed as essentially solitary or pair-living, groups of
a booming sound by the female, and growling sound by
more than three birds have often been reported (Long,
the male, is produced (Murie, 1867; Cho et al., 1984;
1959; Pople et al., 1991; Coddington and Cockburn,
Fowler, 1991).
1995; Hough et al., 1998; Boland, 2003). Hough et al.
Compared to a tan colour in cassowaries, ostriches
(1998) found that overall vigilance was unaffected by
and rheas, gonads are black in the emu (Cho et al.,
group size in wild emus, with birds spending more time
1984). The epididymis is, as in ostriches and rheas,
vigilant early in the day. However, Boland (2003)
subdivided into a main part and an appendix epididy-
reported that, similar than in ostriches (Bertram,
midis (Budras and Meier, 1981). Lymph heart myocytes
1980) and rheas (Martella et al., 1995), vigilance
in emus, like in ducks and rheas, slowly but progres-
decreased as group size increased.
sively differentiate a cytomorphology that resembles in
When frightened by a predator or other potential
some aspects smooth muscle during development
threat, emus typically flee by running at speeds
(Budras et al., 1987).
approaching 50 km h 1 (O’Brien, 1990). Captive adult
Intrapulmonary chemoreceptors in the paleopulmonic
emus, both in the Northern and Southern hemisphere,
lung of the emu exhibit similar characteristics to those
spend most of their time during daylight hours on either
in birds that possess varying amounts of neopulmonic
sitting (28 – 24%) or standing (22 – 28%). A lot of
parabronchi, such as the duck and chicken (Burger et al.,
sitting is done in a crouching position, even to
1976a,b). Although the wet weight of the heart of the
perform activities such as drinking, preening and
emu is approximately 30 times that of the domestic
pecking (Sales and Horbañczuk, 1998a).
chicken, the time course of atrial and ventricular
activation is identical (Goldberg and Bolnick, 1980).
2.3 Anatomy
2.4 Physiology
Female emus attain a weight of 55 kg and height of
1.8 m, compared to 38 kg and 1.5 m, respectively, for Basal metabolic rate of emus is only 61 – 79% (Buttemer
males (Fowler, 1991). Together with successful digital and Dawson, 1989; Maloney and Dawson, 1993) of the
methods and the use of a fibre optic proctoscope to sex rate predicted by the equation reported by Aschoff and
young and adult emus (Samour et al., 1984), a reliable Pohl (1970) for non passerine birds and varies according
two-primer cleaved amplified polymorphics sequence to gender. Although body weight was similar (37.0 and
assay has been developed for reliable sex identification 39.7 kg, respectively), metabolic rate differed between
of the emu (De Kloet, 2001). males (2.53 ml O2 kg 1 min 1) and females (3.08 ml
The emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae): a review of its biology and commercial products 3
O2 kg 1 min 1) in winter. However, in summer body Sanborn, 1994). Resultant heat from absorption of
weight differed between males (40.7 kg) and females radiation close to the surface of the plumage of the
(45.5 kg), whereas a lower basal metabolic rate was emu is prevented from flowing to the skin by the coat’s
maintained in males (2.42 versus 2.95 ml O2 insulation (Maloney and Dawson, 1995).
kg 1 min 1). Maloney and Dawson (1993) speculated Osmoregulation, defined as the turnover of water and
that this could be related to a reduction of basal homeostasis of water and the major electrolytes of
metabolic rate by males during the inactive incubation plasma and extracellular fluids, has been extensively
period. Mean respiratory and heart rate of 7.1 breaths studied in the emu (Dawson et al., 1983, 1984, 1985,
min 1 and 41 beats min 1, respectively, have been 1991; Skadhauge et al., 1991; Thomas, 1997). Body
reported for resting emus of 38.3 kg body weight hydration status is about 61% of body weight, with a
(Crawford and Lasiewski, 1968). Grubb et al. (1983) water turnover of 45 ml kg 1 d 1 in hydrated emus
reported cardiac output of 67.9 ml kg 1 min 1, blood (Dawson et al., 1983). Although the emu has a limited
pressure of 149.3y116.2 mmHg, and stroke volume of ability to concentrate urine, with a maximal urine to
1.52 ml kg 1 for emus with a similar to above body plasma osmotic ratio of only 1.4 to 1.5, the capacity of
weight. its cloaca-rectum to absorb water and sodium chloride
Body temperatures for males were 37.7 C in both is considerable. Furthermore, the kidney is efficient at
summer and winter, and 38.3 C and 38.2 C in summer recovering water and electrolytes (Dawson et al.,
and winter, respectively, for females (Maloney and 1991). During incubation the male gained water
Dawson, 1993). Body temperature of incubating male through drinking surface water, preening of rain-
emus (37.8 C) varies less throughout the incubation soaked feathers, direct and indirect intake of water
period than that of non-incubating birds (Buttemer and from food through water content and oxidation, respec-
Dawson, 1989). Emus are able to maintain a constant tively, and metabolic water formation from oxidation
body temperature within the ambient temperature range of the bird’s energy stores (Buttemer and Dawson,
of 5 to 45 C. During a falling ambient temperature 1989).
the emu regulates its body temperature initially by Similar to ostriches, thyroid function is abnormally
reducing conductance and then by increasing heat low in emus compared to other avian species, and may
production, whereas cutaneous evaporative water loss explain neotenous characteristics of ratites. Thyroxine
in addition to panting are used during high ambient concentrations increase during the last weeks of incu-
temperatures (Maloney and Dawson, 1994a). bation to stay, together with tri-iodothyronine, high
Morphometric and physiological observations of the during the first 3 days of life, whereafter it falls to a
lung of the emu suggest that this bird has a relatively constant low level. Plasma concentrations of growth
low demand for oxygen, consistent with the evolution hormone are high at the time of hatching and decrease
of a bird of relatively large body mass and low surface gradually over the first 22 weeks of life, whereafter
area, in a warm environment, and with few effective concentrations are variable, similar than in other bird
predators (Maina and King, 1989). An increased meta- species (Blache et al., 2001a).
bolic demand for oxygen at low ambient temperatures
is achieved in the emu by a combination of a higher 3. REPRODUCTION
tidal volume and oxygen extraction. At higher ambient
temperatures ventilation is increased through a higher 3.1 Sexual behaviour and egg laying
respiratory frequency to facilitate respiratory water loss
(Maloney and Dawson, 1994b). During a 3 – 4 hour Although the mating system of emus has previously
heat stress created by increasing ambient air tempera- been assumed as monogamous (Davies, 1972, 1976;
ture from 21 to 46 C emus intensified their respiratory Handford and Mares, 1985), more recent research
frequency from 5.3 to 52.9 breaths min 1. (Coddington and Cockburn, 1995) indicates mono-
Exceptionally the emu is not susceptible to the respira- gamy, sequential polyandry and promiscuity.
tory alkalosis that overtakes most other birds after Furthermore, serial polyandry had earlier been reported
prolonged panting when heat stressed (Jones et al., in captive emus (Fleay, 1936; Kendeigh, 1952; Curry,
1983). Beak, lower leg, neck, foot and toe surface 1979; O’Brien, 1990). The social mating system of the
temperatures are controlled in emus to alter heat captive emu is mainly of a monogamous type, but a
exchange with the environment (Phillips and few males will be promiscuous before they start
4 James Sales
incubating. This is also true for some females after to lay fertilised eggs after their partner has started
their mate has started incubating. In addition, there are incubating and consequently lost his sexual drive
significant numbers of extra-pair copulations (Malecki, 1997). It is suggested, based on an increase
(Coddington and Cockburn, 1995; Blache et al., in sperm concentration in the outer perivitelline layer
2000). Although the last male to mate does not of the egg, that emus copulate weekly rather than daily.
always fertilise all of the eggs that are subsequently Whereas male fertility can be influenced by season and
produced, for inseminations one week apart, last-male egg incubation, female fertility will continue as long as
precedence is dominant in emus (Taylor et al., 2000a). she is supplied with sperm on a weekly basis, as the
Intra-specific brood parasitism has been proven with frequency of sperm supply is sufficient to compensate
the use of molecular markers in the emu. Of 106 chicks for the rate of sperm lost from the oviduct (Malecki and
sampled during one breeding season in Australia, 51% Martin, 2002a). A mean number of 25.3 eggs per
were not fathered by the male that incubated them female for a season, with the spread of laying 83.8
(Taylor et al., 2000b). days, starting in April, reaching a peak in June and
The emu is a prolific breeder with an annual finishing in September, have been reported for a
reproductive cycle, both in the wild and captivity, in captive population of emus in Western Australia.
which egg-laying and sperm production start in the Clutch size was 6.7 eggs, with 3.4 clutches per
autumn and last until spring before food resources female over the laying season. Most eggs were laid at
become limited by the start of the dry season 3 day intervals with an inter-clutch period of 6.4 days.
(Davies, 1976; Malecki et al., 1998). Photoperiod is Females laid fertilised eggs for 6 to 24 days after
the main controlling factor in the timing of the natural or artificial insemination, with a fertile period,
breeding season (Blache et al., 2001b; Sharp et al., estimated from clutch size and egg interval, of 20.1
2005). Dissipation of photorefractoriness by short days days (Malecki and Martin, 2002b).
in autumn increases secretion of gonadotrophins to For the purpose of artificial insemination two
levels that are sufficient to support full reproductive methods for collecting semen from male emus with
condition in the emu, resulting in the initiation of the use of an artificial cloaca have been developed. A
breeding. An increase in prolactin secretion, which, semen collector stimulates erection and subsequent
unusually for birds, increases in emus while the days ejaculation using the artificial cloaca when the male
are still short, might play an important role in the mounts a female teaser in the first method. In the
termination of the breeding cycle (Blache et al., 2001b; second method males are trained to development
Sharp and Blache, 2003). sexual behaviour towards the semen collector, and
Although adult emus are generally quite docile when semen is collected when the male mounts the collec-
often handled by humans, they could become more tor’s back (Malecki et al., 1997a). In experiments on
aggressive during the breeding season (Long, 1959; the influence of collection frequency (every 1, 2 or 4
Davies, 1976). Both sexes vocalise strongly, and fluff days for 16 days; once, twice or three times daily for 6
out the feathers on the front of the neck in commu- days) on semen collection, the mean ejaculate had a
nicative postures (Fleay, 1936; Curry, 1979; volume of 0.61 ml (range 0.27 – 1.39). It contained
Coddington and Cockburn, 1995), with often curving 1.946109 sperm (range 0.71 – 4.75) at a concentration
their necks into a slight S-shape. When they identify of 3.346109 sperm ml 1 (range 1.81 – 4.67). Over a 6
with each other, they will raise their heads, and males day period twice-daily collection produced the highest
may attempt to follow the female and place their heads output of semen volume (5.8 ml) and number of
over the female’s back. Signs showing interest by spermatozoa (19.86109), compared to collection at
females include a gradually lowering of the head, one or three times a day (Malecki et al., 1997b).
raising of the tail, and crouching into the mating During twice weekly semen collection at twice a day
position (Malecki, 1993). over an 8 week period from July to September in
The male starts incubating as soon as 5 to 10 eggs are Australia production of semen and spermatozoa
laid for a period of around 56 days (Gaukrodger, 1925; declined (Malecki et al., 2000). Based on objective
Long, 1959; Davies, 1976), during which he might lose evaluation of membrane integrity and fertilising ability
17 to 20% of his body weight (Dawson et al., 1984). (Malecki et al., 2005a), emu spermatozoa could be
Female emus can store viable sperm in their reproduc- stored undiluted at 20 C for up to 6 hours. However,
tive tract for up to 21 days, allowing them to continue for storage at 4 C, spermatozoa needed to be diluted,
The emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae): a review of its biology and commercial products 5
naturally incubated emu eggs lost only about 10% of Studies are needed to determine the emergence and
their initial weight during the incubation period, attrib- occurrence of a pecking order in emu chicks and their
uted to the low water vapour conductance already relationship to growth (Elston et al., 1998).
described (Buttemer et al., 1988).
Although a higher incubation temperature shortened 4. NUTRITION
the duration of artificial incubation, it decreased hatch-
ability and increased the percentage of dead embryos Similar to other ratites (Sales, 2006), emus have
(Table 2). Hatchability, as a percentage of eggs set, was exceptionally slow growth rates relative to other
68.3, 55.3 and 56.0% for 113 emu eggs stored before domestic poultry species, such as broiler chickens
artificial incubation for 7, 14 or 21 days, respectively. (Table 3). According to the model illustrated in
Corresponding values for dead embryos were 22.0, Table 3 emus would reached a body weight of about
31.9 and 32.0%, respectively (Majewska, 2001). It 40 kg, established by the industry as the slaughtering
was found by Bowthorpe and Voss (1968) that a point, at 584 days. Due to an increase in maintenance
captive male emu turned the eggs from 2 to 4 times a requirements cost per unit of gain increases after the
day. point of inflection, which can be described as the point
Emu chicks are precocious and become ambulatory of highest growth velocity (Goonewardene et al.,
within 2 days after hatching. This results in attending 2003). Emus are slaughtered at 497 days beyond this
males in the wild shifting duties from egg incubation to point (Table 3).
rearing the chicks (Buttemer et al., 1988). In a zoo Literature on the anatomy of the digestive tract of the
environment (Bowthorpe and Voss, 1968), it was emu and food selection in the wild has been compared
necessary to coax the first chicks born to start eating. to that of the ostrich by Angel (1996), O’Malley
Table 3 Growth characteristics of emus (1 to 240 days) compared to broilers (1 to 42 days) based on the
Richard’s (yt ¼ A(1 be-kt)m) model (Goonewardene et al., 2003)
Parameter Symbol Units Emu Broiler
Asymptote (mature weight) A kg 49.5 4.6
Constant b – 0.965 0.106
Maturing rate k d1 0.0037 0.0463
Shape parameter m – 1.53 44.34
Time of inflection TI d 105 32
Weight at inflection WI kg 9.8 1.7
Absolute growth rate AGR g d1 68.4 54.0
Absolute maturing rate AMR d1 0.0014 0.0017
Relative growth rate RGR g d1 0.0107 0.0474
Degree of maturity at TI UTI % 19.8 36.3
A ¼ asymptote or mature weight when time (t)! 1; b ¼ an integration constant; k ¼ coefficient of relative growth
also called a maturing index establishing the rate at which weight (Wt) approaches the mature weight A;
m ¼ shape parameter that determines the time of inflection (TI) and the weight at inflection (WI);GR ¼ the first
derivative of the function with respect to age (dWtydt); AMR ¼ the instantaneous growth rate relative to the mature
weight A; RGR ¼ instantaneous growth rate relative to current weight; UTI ¼ degree of maturity at inflection (TI).
The emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae): a review of its biology and commercial products 7
Table 4 Dimensions of the digestive tract and characteristics of gut contents of wild adult (body weight
of 36 kg) emus (Herd and Dawson, 1984)
Component Dimensions Gut contents
(1995), and Sales (2004), and to that of all other extant passage of 5.5 h of digested plant particulate matter in a
families of ratites (ostrich, rhea, cassowary and kiwi) by compound diet (Herd and Dawson, 1984), although
Sales (2006). High fibre digestibility (35 – 45% of some food items such as seeds may stay for up to a
neutral detergent fibre) and contribution of fibre diges- week in the digestive tract of the emu. The latter
tion to energy requirements (50% of maintenance illustrates that gut retention times depend in part on
requirements) had been reported in adult emus (Herd the nature of the item ingested (Wilson, 1989). Indeed,
and Dawson, 1984). However, the emu’s digestive Farrell et al. (2000) found that dry matter digestibility
system lacks special digestive adaptations (huge caeca and metabolisable energy values of diets containing
or colon) needed for fibre fermentation. Whereas the different fibre sources were similar between emu chicks
colon represents 54.9% of the length of the total and adult cockerels (Table 5). The diet containing
digestive tract in the ostrich (O’Malley, 1995), it is lucerne showed a higher digestibility of dry matter
only 6.5% of total length in the emu (Table 4). The and metabolisable energy value for the 4.5-month old
caecum length of a male rhea (25 kg body weight) was emus than for older birds, with all other diets presenting
found to be 0.48 m, compared to a value of 0.12 m similar values between age groups.
reported for emus (Table 4). The structure of the Depending on season, wild emus consume high
digestive tract of the emu (Table 4) is more comparable quality shrubs, annual grasses, and insects in inland
to that of the domestic chicken, with values of 78 and Western Australia, without any preference for dried
6% for the small intestine (dueodenum, jejunum and herbage or grass and mature leaves of shrubs (Davies,
ileum) and colon as proportion of total digestive tract 1978). Habitat usage in the wild appeared to be related
length, respectively (Feltwell and Fox, 1978), than to to availability of food and water, and to a lesser extent,
ostriches and rheas. A further inconsistency to the shelter (Quin, 1996). Compared to the domestic
reported high fibre digestibility is the rapid intestinal chicken, low maintenance requirements for nitrogen
Table 5 Dry matter (DM) digestibility coefficients and apparent metabolisable energy (AME) of diets with different roughage sources
compared between emus and adult cockerels (Farrell et al., 2000)
Diet Emus Cockerels
Chicks Juveniles
(4.5 months, 11 kg body weight) (9 months, 21 kg body weight)
Table 6 Body weight and feed consumption of emus fed varying levels of dietary protein (Blake and Hess, 2004)
Measurement Dietary protein Day of experimental period
level (%)
15 30 43 79 108 135 176 248
Body weight (kg) 14 12.04 13.77 15.03 18.24 21.77 24.04 28.37 35.23
16 12.56 14.42 16.06 19.82 23.72 26.42 30.52 38.08
18 12.34 14.25 15.88 19.65 23.11 25.85 29.12 36.29
Feed consumption (kg) for period 14 5.48 7.98 6.90 17.40 23.08 18.75 33.14 81.81
16 6.07 8.45 7.86 18.64 22.86 21.41 36.74 80.95
18 5.86 8.48 7.17 17.99 22.61 18.10 33.16 78.25
Seventy-two emus (mean age 107 days) were randomly distributed among six pens (4.2624.2 m) with 12 birds pen1. Two pens each were fed either a
14, 16, or 18% protein (11.97 MJ kg1 metabolisable energy) maize-soybean meal diet from day 0 to 176. From day 176 to 273 a 14% protein finisher
diet containing either 11.97 MJ kg1 or 12.90 MJ kg1 metabolisable energy was fed to each of two pens fed the same protein level prior to day 176.
(0.09 versus 0.34 g kg 0.75 d 1) and energy (284 versus in Australia increases at the end of the breeding season
405 kJ kg 0.75 d 1) is probably related to a low basal (O’Malley, 1996; Blache and Martin, 1999), during
metabolism and some form of urine nitrogen recycling which body fat reserves lost during the winter are
(Dawson and Herd, 1983). As a guideline for possible quickly replaced (Davies, 1978). Glatz (2001) found
feed formulation, the amino acid requirements of that feed withdrawal resulted in birds being more
growing emus have been estimated at age intervals restless and aggressive towards each other compared
with the use of a mathematical model utilised for to birds with food available.
commercial poultry production by O’Malley (1996), Emus can remain in water balance without drinking
and compared to values determined with ostriches by only if the food has a high (50 – 77%) water content
Sales (2004, 2006). According to this model a lysine (Dawson et al., 1983). According to Maloney and
requirement of 0.76 g lysine MJ 1 metabolisable Dawson (1998) adult emus ceased food intake by the
energy for 3 to 4 week old emus has been estimated fourth day of water restriction. The major part of the
(O’Malley, 1996). This is lower than a dietary lysine water from the kidneys and ileum can be reabsorbed in
value of 0.83 – 0.90 g MJ 1 metabolisable energy been the lower gut on both high and low sodium chloride
found as optimal for maximum growth rate and intake. An apparently high transport capacity of the
minimum food conversation ratio in young growing lower gut is aided by a high degree of folding of the
(23 – 65 days) emus (Mannion et al., 1999). Results mucosal surface (Skadhauge et al., 1991).
(Blake and Hess, 2004) indicate that a dietary concen-
tration of 14% protein failed to support maximum 5. PRODUCTS
growth (Table 6). However, birds fed the 14%
protein diet showed compensatory growth, as indicated Ever since the start of the development of the commer-
by the highest body weight gain during days 135 to 176 cial emu industry around 1990 most of the attention
days of growth. Although absolute carcass weight was focused on oil production and its potential use in the
higher in females than males, neither dietary protein cosmetic, pharmaceutical and medicinal industries.
level nor gender had any effect on carcass yields. However, emus are also valued for their low-fat red
Decreasing the selenium content of a commercial meat, and hides in making of leather products. Other
emu breeder diet from 1.55 to 0.52 ppm increased egg potentially marketable emu products include feathers,
production by 23%, and there was an overall reduction eggs, egg shells, toenails, bones, and manure
in leg deformities in chicks (Kinder et al., 1995). (Fronteddu, 2001).
Encephalomalacia, characterised by backward stag-
gering, lack of coordination, general weakness, and 5.1 Oil
sitting on hocks with heads retracted backwards, had
been associated with vitamin E deficiency in emus Emu oil is derived from both retroperitoneal and
(Aye et al., 1998). subcutaneous adipose tissue sites (Yoganathan et al.,
Dawson et al. (1984) showed that emus devote a 2003). The native Aboriginal and early white settlers in
large proportion of their time to active feeding early in Australia used the liquid fat from emus to facilitate
the day. Food intake of emus in the wild and on farms wound healing and discomfort from musculo-skeletal
The emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae): a review of its biology and commercial products 9
Table 7 Fatty acid composition (% of total fatty acids) of emu fat and meat (Wang et al., 2000)
Fatty acid Fat Meat
Abdominal Back
C14 : 0 0.45 0.36 0.40
C16 : 0-isomer ND ND 3.95
C16 : 0 22.40 21.51 18.48
C18 : 0 8.25 9.11 10.42
SFA 31.20 30.97 33.30
C16 : 1 4.37 3.31 3.49
C18 : 1n-9 48.31 49.91 34.97
C18 : 1n-7 2.35 2.10 2.66
C20 : 1 0.54 0.49 0.16
MUFA 56.00 56.19 41.95
C18 : 2n-6 11.38 10.95 15.19
C20 : 4n-6 ND 0.14 5.37
n-6 PUFA 11.52 10.99 21.17
C18 : 3n-3 1.86 1.79 1.31
C20 : 5n-3 ND ND 0.41
C22 : 5n-3 ND ND 0.47
C22 : 6n-3 ND ND 0.88
n-3 PUFA 1.86 1.79 3.07
PUFA 13.45 12.77 24.08
n-6 : n-3 6.39 6.33 6.97
P:S 0.43 0.42 0.72
SFA ¼ saturated fatty acids; MUFA ¼ mono-unsaturated fatty acids; PUFA ¼ polyunsaturated fatty acids; P:S ¼ ratio of
polyunsaturated to saturated fatty acids; ND ¼ not detected.
disorders. Rendering procedures of emu fat at tempera- Zemtov et al. (1996) found emu oil to cause pimples,
tures up to 15 C produced a thick oil, that can be that does not support the claim that emu oil is non-
cleared (approximately 80% vyv) by filtering at 2 C comedogenic. Rather, it shows emu oil to have a low
(Whitehouse et al., 1998). incidence of comedogenicity (Fronteddu, 2001).
The fatty acid composition of fat from two different Compared to coconut oil, crude and refined emu oil
regions in the emu is shown in Table 7. Higher values at 10% dietary inclusion lowered plasma total choles-
than reported in Table 7 were reported for emu oil terol and low-density lipoprotein, and aortic choles-
supplied by a commercial producer (Fukushima et al., terol ester concentrations, with no difference in
1999) for the ratio of n-6 to n-3 (13.7) and polyunsa- plasma high-density lipoprotein or triacylglycerol, in
turated to saturated (0.7) fatty acids. Differences in hypercholesterolemic hamsters. This demonstrates that
fatty acid composition of oil due to type of adipose emu oil is capable of reducing aortic early athero-
tissue, dietary fat and gender have been reported sclerosis in this species (Wilson et al., 2004).
(Beckerbauer et al., 2001). The a-linolenic acid However, a commercial emu oil, containing about
(C18 : 3n-3) content in the total triglyceride fraction 15% linoleic acid (C18 : 2n-6), and included at 5%
varies from almost zero in many farmed birds, up to in a cholesterol-enriched diet, has the same effect on
20% in some feral birds, reflecting the influence of the serum and liver cholesterol levels of rats as dietary
diet on oil composition (Whitehouse et al., 1998). beef tallow and lard (Fukushima et al., 1999).
In a double blind clinical study by Zemtov et al. Twice-daily application of emu oil lotion (mixture of
(1996), emu oil was found to be more cosmetically emu oilyfat, vitamin E, and botanical oil) immediately
acceptable with better skin penetrationypermeability after creation of full-thickness skin defects till day six
compared to mineral oil. The latter ability to penetrate delayed wound healing in rodents. However, adminis-
easily through the stratum corneum barrier might be tration of oil 48 hours after defect creation caused a
explained by the high concentration of non-polar two-fold promotion of wound contraction, epitheliali-
monounsaturated fatty acids in emu oil. Furthermore, sation, and infiltration of organised granulation tissue.
it appears that emu oil has better moisturising proper- No such effects were exerted by pure emu oil, furasin,
ties and superior texture compared to mineral oil. cortaid, or polysporin. Although the mechanism
However, 18% of the participants in the study by responsible for the above beneficial effects of emu oil
10 James Sales
Table 8 Mean body weight, carcass weight and weight of by- Table 9 Mean weight of the different muscles (untrimmed) from
products of emus (Sales et al., 1999) the emu carcass (body weight of 41 kg) from both sides (Sales
et al., 1999)
Component kg
Muscle Weight (kg)
Body weight 41.00
Hot carcass weight 20.29 M. obturatorius medialis 0.29
Cold carcass weight 19.62 M. iliotibialis lateralis 1.74
Total meat 14.05 M. femorotibialis medius 0.82
Total fat 11.47 M. flexor cruris lateralis 0.64
Total bone 4.27 M. iliotibialis cranialis 1.02
Neck 1.30 M iliofibularis 1.22
Feathers 0.69 M. gastocnemius pars interna 1.30
Blood 1.41 M. gastocnemius pars externa 0.91
Wings 0.11 M. fibularis longus 0.98
Feet 1.38 M femorotibialis externa et interna 0.61
Tail 0.29 M. iliofemoralis 0.33
Head 0.30 M. ambiens 0.13
Heart 0.34
Lungs 0.25
Trachea 0.24 and Whitehouse, 1997). However, considerable varia-
Empty gizzard 0.51
Proventriculus 0.10
bility in effectiveness of some commercial oil samples
Liver 0.41 has been reported (Whitehouse et al., 1998).
Viscera 1.08
5.2 Meat
lotion remains to be determined, anti-inflammatory, Literature on emu meat has been compared to ostrich
anti-catalytic, mitogenic and lipophilic properties and rhea meat by Sales and Horbañczuk (1998b) and
might be possible (Politis and Dmytrowich, 1998). It Sales (2002). In Australia abattoirs specific for the
was found that treatment with emu oil improved slaughtering of emus were designed at the beginning
consequences of burns caused by fire or hot water of the 1990’s (Tuckwell, 1993), and trade names have
that had affected 5 to 60% of the bodies of 125 children been assigned to emu muscles (Australian Quarantine
(Lagniel and Torres, 2007). and Inspection Services, 1993). The pelvic limb
Block et al. (1996) stated that oils rich in the n-9 fatty musculature of the emu has been described in detail,
acid, oleic acid (C18 : 1n-9), and the n-3 fatty acids, and compared to older literature, by Patak (1988) and
such as a-linolenic acid (C18 : 3n-3), eicosapentaenoic Patak and Baldwin (1998). Four bellies, and not the
acid (C20 : 5n-3), and docosahexaenoic acid (C22 : 6n- usual three, in the Muscularis gastrocnemius (the most
3), are associated with anti-inflammatory activity when powerful muscle in the shank) distinguish emus from
compared to the proinflammatory actions of the n-6 other avian species. Furthermore, contribution of the
fatty acid, linoleic acid. Emu oil contains significantly pelvic limb muscles of emus to total body weight is
less of the above reported anti-inflammatory fatty acids similar to that of the flight muscles of flying birds
than is found in olive oil, flaxseed oil and fish oil (Patak and Baldwin, 1998). The relatively wide distri-
(Yoganathan et al., 2003). However, swelling and bution and occurrence (28%) of slow-tonic glycolytic
oedema due to auricular inflammation induced by fibres in the M. pectoralis pars thoracica of the emu
croton oil in mice were significantly reduced within (Rosser and George, 1984) could represent the ances-
12 hours of treatment with either emu or porcine oil toral avian M. pectoralis, neoteny, or be an effect of
(López et al., 1999). Furthermore, tissue concentrations flightlessness (Rosser and George, 1985).
of two different cytokines, interleukin (IL-1a) and Carcass characteristics of emus are presented in
tumor necrosis factor-a (TNF-a), that are often desig- Table 8. Internal (abdominal) and external (breast and
nated as proinflammatory cytokines, were significantly back) fat were removed together with the skin, and not
reduced by emu oil application in mice treated similarly included in carcass weight. Different definitions of
to the above (Yoganathan et al., 2003). In rats with carcass weight complicate comparisons between
adjuvant-induced polyarthritis, significant reductions in species. The distribution of meat production among
paw swelling (up to 84%) and arthritis score (up to the different muscles of the pelvic limb is indicated in
70%) were found after exposure to emu oil (Snowden Table 9.
The emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae): a review of its biology and commercial products 11
Table 11 Influence of muscle and cooking on chemical composition of emu meat (Daniel et al., 2000)
Nutrient M. gastrocnemius pars interna M. iliotibialis lateralis
encephalitis (Tully et al., 1992; Brown et al., 1993; Emu leather is not characterised by the huge quill
Veasey et al., 1994; Day and Stark, 1996), Western marks of ostrich leather that are preferred by the
equine encephalitis (Ayers et al., 1994), and St. Louis already established ostrich leather market. A potential
encephalitis (Day and Stark, 1996; 1998) have all been market has to be exploited specifically for emu leather,
reported in emu flocks in the USA. Emus can detached from ostrich leather.
apparently tolerate a small number of the lungworm The emu industry has been characterised in all
Cyathostoma variegatum without obvious adverse countries where it is practiced by a ‘breeder’ phase,
effects. However, at high loads or in combination when demand exceeded supply. This resulted in extre-
with other stressors this nematode causes morbidity mely high priced ‘breeder’ birds, and lots of invest-
and mortality (Rickard et al., 1997). ment. However, within a few years ‘slaughter’ birds
were available, with no market outlets. Prices dropped
to almost nothing, as there was no return for production
7. CONCLUSIONS costs, and most investors lost interest.
Seeing the high production costs, it is doubtful that
The benefit of the emu as a production animal is the the emu industry would ever get to the extent of, for
large variety of products than can be obtained from it. example, the poultry or beef industries. The aim should
Furthermore, the emu is adaptable to a wide range of be to concentrate on the diversity of products, especially
environmental conditions. Compared to the ostrich and products with high price in exclusive markets.
rhea, emus are more docile, and easier to handle. Consumer education, product development and stan-
However, development of the emu industry is dardisation of products should be the key factors in
hampered by a lack of knowledge about emu products creation of the emu industry. However, to develop and
by the general public, created through insufficient promote a product, the raw material has to be available.
marketing and promotion. The emu industry is centered Thus, establishment of bird numbers should not be
on the value of the oil rendered from fat, especially forgotten, and the latter will not be possible without
seen from the several patents that are disclosed on it. sound scientific research on production parameters.
However, very few of the anecdotal claims regarding Parameters on incubation and growth of emus under
the value of the oil, from treating of arthritis to captive conditions are limited, and warrant investiga-
preventing heat, friction and wear between metal tion. Digestibility values of feed ingredients are absent,
surfaces, are supported by scientific clinical trials. No and the use of fibre in the emu diet is controversial. Too
‘active’ components responsible for the therapeutic much is relied on diets formulated for ostriches, a
claims of emu oil could yet be identified. The question species with a total different digestive system than the
arises if the fat from the emu was used many years ago emu. The finding that feed availability has an influence
by the Aboriginals of Australia because it was easy to on behaviour of emus need further research for possible
obtain? Furthermore, if there are ‘active components’ incorporation into feed management strategies.
in emu fat, how will it be influenced by husbandry
practices, and then especially feeding of artificial diets,
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