MODULE-2

Personaity:-
Personality is defind as the characterstics set of behaviours, congnitions and emotional patterns that evolve
from biological and envirnomental factros.
Or
Combinations of qualities or characterstic that form an individual distinctive character.

Shaping of personalities:-
Phychologists have come up with different stages in the developement of personality.

Important stages are:-

stages

Freduian stage Erikson’s stage john piaget stage chris argyris

Oral stage infancy sensorimeter maturity to
Anal stage earlychildhood pre operational immaturity
Phallic stage play age concrete operational
Latency period school age formal operational
Genital stage puberty and adolesence
Young adulthood
Middle adulthood
Late adulthood

FREUDIAN STAGES:-
1)ORAL STAGE:-
 0-1st year of the life.
 Intraction throught mouth.
 They achieve gratification throught feeding, thumb sucking, biling and eating.
2)ANAL STAGE:-
 This stage is span of 2nd-3rd year of life.
 Controlling
 Movement
 Bladder and bowl
 Coming to society’s control relating to toilet training.
3)PHALLIC STAGE:-
 This stage is span of 3rd-4th year of life.
 Interest in genitals
  Leading to identification with same sex parent.
4)LATENCY STAGE:-
 This stage is span of 4th-6th year of life.
 Attraction towards opposite sex
 Ego developement takes place
 Sexual behaviour is inactive
 Intrested in building peer relationship.
5)GENITAL STAGE:-
 Adolesence to childhood
 Developement of sexual intrest in childhood.

ERIKSON’S STAGES:-
 Erikson in 1959 proposed a psychoanalitic theory of psychosocial developement
comprising 8stages from infancy to adulthood.
 According to the theory successfull completion of each stage results in healthy personally
and aquisition of basic virtues.
 One of the strength of erikson’s theory is its able to tie together important phycholigical
developement accross the entier lifespan.
 Erikson stressed his work as a tool to think rather than factual analysis, so the theory
does not have universal machnism for Crisis resolution.

stage Phychosocial crisis Basic virtue Age

1 Trust vs mistrust Hope Infancy(0-1.5)yrs.

2 Autonomy vs shame Will Early childhood(1.5-3)yrs
3 Initative vs guilt Purpose Play age (3-5)yrs
4 Industry vs inferiority Compentency School age(5-12)yrs
5 Ego identy vs role confusion Fedelity Adolesence(12-18)yrs
6 Intimacy vs isolation Love Young adult(18-40)yrs
7 Generative vs stagnation Care Adulthood (40-65)yrs
8 Ego intigrity vs despair Wisdome Maturity(65+)yrs
ERIKSON’S STAGES:
◊ Eric Erickson in 1959 proposed a psychoanalytic theory of psychosocial
development comprising stages from infancy to adulthood.
◊ According to theory, successful completion of each stage results in a healthy
personally and aquisition of basic vertues.
◊ One of the strength of Erikson’s theory is its ability to be together in
psychosocial development across the enter lifespan.
◊ Erickson stressed his work as a tool to think rather than factual analysis, so
the theory does not have universal machinism of for crisis resolution.

JOHN piget STAGES ON COGNITIVE STAGES:

∞ John piaget a swiss psychologist is credited with the cognitive on conscious
stages of personality development.
∞ Piaget spent most of his life observing children in order to understand when
and how they develop their reasoning abilities.

ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR MODULE-2

∞ Sensorimoter stage: In this stage infant responds to stimule quite directly
with little in way of complex information processing.
∞ Pre-operational stage: The child learns to separate himself from the
environment and initially classifies objects through use of symbol and words
∞ The concrete operational stage: This stage is characterised by an intellectual
of the concept of conservation of a mass, irrespective of its shape.
∞ The final stage: {formal operation stage}

CONGNITIVE STAGES:
STAGES AGE
Sensorimoter 0-2
Pre-operational 2-7
Concrete Stage 7-11
Formal operation stage 11 and above

CHRIS ARGYRIS: [IMMATURITY TO MATURITY]

▪ Individuals tends to move from immaturity to maturity.
▪ According to Argyris such people will display the behaviour of maturity while
unhealthy people tend to demonstrate like child.
▪ The formal organization should allow for activity rather than passivity,
independence, rather than dependence, long term rather than short term
perspective occupation of a position higher than that of peers, expression of
deep, important abilities.
▪ The mature organisational participtant becomes frustrated and anxious is in
conflict with modern formal organisation.
▪ Argysis sees a basic incongruity between the need of the nature personality
and mature of formal organisation

DETERMINANTS OF PERSONALITY:

Determinants of personality can be grouped into 5

broad categories:

α HEREDITY
α ENVIRONMENTAL
α FAMILY
α SOCIAL
α SILUATIONAL

1] HEREDITY: a The role of heredity in the development of personality is an old

argument of personality theory.
b} Facial attractiveness, sex, muscles composition, energy leads and biological
rhythms are some of the characterstics that are generally considered to
be either completely or substantially from ones parents.
c} Ultimate explaination of an individuals personality is the molecular structure
of genes located in the chromosoms.
d} Each person normally contributes 23 chromosomes. Those chromosomes
contain 1000s of gems which sum to be tramsmission of traits, all children
of some parents donot have identical genetic makeups.
e} Only identical twins who develops from single fertilized ovum, posses some
patterns of genes but not always as reviled from evidence.
f} Animal scientists can conduct highly controlled breeding experiements but
genklies studying human heredity cannot.
g} A famous gynaechologist attributed the girls short height among other
factors, to the height of her parents, implies that had the parents height
being normal, the children would have aguirell the same trait.

The following classifications of characterstic is said to be inherited by all humans:

i] Physical structure
ii] Reflexes
iii] Innate driver
iv] Intelligence
v] Tempreature

2] ENVIRONMENT :a] However, personality development owes as much to

environment around it as it does to heredity.
b] Environment include such factors as culture which influence norms,
attitudes and values are passed along from one generation to another
generation and creates constencies over time.
c] Anthropologists have clearly demonstrated the important role culture plays
in development of human personality with growing, the child learns to
behave in ways expected by the culture of family into which he or she is
born.
d] Every culture has its own subculture, each with its own view about such
qualities and moral levels and standards, cleanliness, style of dress and
definition of success.
e] All boys are expected to show certain personality traits{ as compare to girls}
but a poor boy raised in slum is expected to behave differently in some
respects from a well-to-do raised in middle class.
f] Although culture has significant influence on personality development , a
linear relationship cannot be established between personality and given
culture for 2 reasons:
i} A culture impacts upon an individual are not uniform because they are
transmitted by certain people called parents and others who are not at all
alike in their values and practices.
ii} The individual has some experience that are unique. Each individual reacts in
his/her own way to social pressures , the different in behaviour being
caused by biological factors.
3] FAMILY: a] The family has considerable influence on personality
development, in early stage parents play an important role in identification
process which is important to an individuals early devolpment.
b] The parents of same sex as the child will serve as the model for childs
identification. The process can be examined from 3 different prospectives:
i} 1st identification can be viewed by the similarly of the behaviour {including
feelings and attributes} between child and model.
ii} 2nd identification can be looked upon as the childs motive or desire to be
likely the model.
iii} 3rd identification can be viewed as the process through which child actually
takes on the attributes of the model.
b] The overall home environment created by the parents, in its directly
influence on critical personality development.
c] First born are more prone to schigopherenic more suspectable to social and
more dependent than those born later.

4] SOCIALISATION PROCESS:a] Beside heredity, environmental and same

influence on personality there is are realisation that other relevant person
and organisation their plays a dual role in personality development this is
commonly called SP.
b] Socialism involved the process by which person acquires from wide range
behavioural potential that are open to him/her starting at both. Those
behaviour patterns that are costomary and acceptable on the standard of
initially. Family+ later the social group employing organisation.
c] The socialism starts with the initially contact between mother and infant,
after infancy, other members of the immedial family[ father, brother, sister,
close relatives or friends] followed by social group{ school friends and
members of working group}.
5] SITUATIONAL CONSIDERATION: a] Apart from heredity family and
environment situation plays an important role to personality development
which may predominate finally.
b} As a worker whose development history shaped a personality which
incorpraties a high need of power and achievement.
c} When placed in highly bureaucralised work situation, this individual may
become frustrated and behave apathetically and aggressively.
d} Thus on the surface, this worker appears to be lazy , infact development
history would predict the individual is very hardworkers, striving to get
ahead.
e} Situations will influence an individuals personality impact of various types of
situation as so far as eluded as.
f} It is clearly that personality is complex concept that reflects both within and
outside the individual.

PERSONALITY AND WORK:

◊ Personality plays an important role in working life and in the behaviour of
individuals at work.

◊ Considering the role of personality in working life, attention between two

people, on peoples contribution to team, groups on long work unit.
◊ Peoples performance or efficitiveness at work is one of the key.
◊ When considering the extent to which personality might influence work
performance, several types of variables are relavant.
◊ There are performance related variables such as productivity or overall job
performance , but they are variables to do with job and work attitudes such
as commitment to organisation or commitment to carrier, stress and general
life satisfication and adjustment.
◊ Although it does seem likely that personality development role to play in
occupational choice.

SELF CONCEPT

Meaning and Definition of Self-Concept

Self is the core of ones conscious existence. A wareness of self is referred to as ones self-concept.
Self concept
existence. Self definition is cluster of characteristics used to describe one-self
Self can also refer to the individual's experience of himself or herself (the person as object of
introspection), in
a general sense (a sense of self) as well as in a specified sense (e.g, ones perceived self, ones
remembered self).
These concepts refer to the individual's mental representations of himself or herself. An individual can
have
different self-concepts in different situations/'roles, e.g., as a father, as a husband, as an employee at
work, etc
The evaluative aspect of ones self-concept(s) is often referred to as self esteem, e.g, how does one
value
oneself as a sportsman, positive or negative? Self is also used in combination with organisation,
denoting the
organisation (or structuring) of self. In the "Concise Oxford Dictionary" self is defined as
s how you know and understand yourself. It is the mental and conceptual understanding that you hold
for your
1) The persons own individuality or essence, and
2) The person as object of introspection or reflective actior.
According to James, "A persons self is the sum-total of all that be can call his"
According to Shavelson et al., "Self-concept is a person's self perceptions
and interpretations of one's environment"
Aecording to Sociologist Viktor Gecas, "Self-concept is the concept; the individual has of himself as a
physical, social, and spiritual or moral being
. Kinds of Self-Concept
James has given following categories of self-concept
1) Basic Self-Concept: The basic self-concept corresponds to James's concept of the "real self"; it is
the person's concept of what he really is. It includes his perception of his appearance, his recognition
of his
abilities and disabilities and of his role and status in life, and his values, beliefs, and aspirations
2) Transitory Self-Concept: In addition tora basic self. Concept, a person has a transitory self-concept.
James first suggested this when he referred to the "self he hopes he now is" and the "self he fears he
now is". This means that a person has a self-concept which be holds for a time and then relinquishes
3) Social Self-Concept: The social self-concept is based on the way the individual believes others
perceive
4) Ideal Self-Concept: The ideal self-concept is made up of perceptions of what a person aspires to be
an l self-image
him, depending on their speech and actions. It is usually referred to as a mirror image"
what he believes he thought to be. it may be related to the physical self-image, the
or both, It may be realistic in the sense that, it is within or it may be so unrealistic
that it can never be achieved in real life.
the reach of the person,

Development of Self-Concept
Several factors contribute towards development of self-concept, which are as follows
1) Self-Agency: This means that babies recognise that their own actions can result in the predictable
reaction
af other peopte nnd objects. Self-agency begins fairly early in the baby's life. The first signs of this is
whe
the baby smiles or cries and the mother acts accordingly (i.e., smiles back at baby or tries to alleviate it
discomfort); or when the baby touches a toy and it moves.
2) Self-Awareness: The development of object permanence and the ability to differentiate between
famili
and unfamiliar persons and objects are also important steps towards the development of self-awarenes
Babies' recognition of objects and persons as stable and permanent entities implies that the
awareness c
themselves as separate entities is also developing
3) Self-Reeognition: This refers to the ability to recognise oneself in a photo or in a mirror. Research b
Lewis and Brooks-Gunn indicates that babies start to recognise themselves in a mirror at about 15-1
months. Being able to recognise themselves implies that babies can distinguish themselves from
others.

PRECEPTION

Acording to Kolasn, "Perception is selection and organisation of material whigh stema from the outside
environment at one time or the other to provide the meaningful entity we experience

Nature of Perception:-
Nature of perception is as follows:
1) Intellectual Process: It is the intellectual process through which a person selects the data from the
environment, organises it, and obtains meaning from it
2) Cognitive or Psychological Process: Perception is a basic cognitive or psychological process. The
manner
in which a person perceives the environment affects his behaviour. Thus, people's actions, emotions
thoughts, or feelings are triggered by the perception of their surroundings.
3) Subjective Process: Perception is a subjective process and different people may perceive the same
environmental event differently based on what particular aspects of the situation they choose to
absorb, how
they organise this information, and the manner in which they interpret it to obtain the understanding of
the
situation
4) Lens Providing Worldview: The central role that perception plays is determining actions, because it
is
5) Socially Co-Created: Individual needs interpretation because the reality of any person is constantly
6) Culturally Influenced: Cultural values and beliefs shape people's worldviews. They come to influence
through perception that one should interpret our environments, and its reality
evolving and is filled with parallel streams of equivocal cues
actions oven through subtle means like the language that people speak.
7) Self-Fulfilling: Both the pereeiver and the target are persons in case of person perception. This
makes the
perceptions more complex. One feature of this complexity is the self-fulfilling nature of expectations
shaping the perceiver's prediction of a target's behaviour
This prediction affects the perceiver's behaviour towards the target

Perceptual Process
Perception is a process consists of several sub-processes. One can take an input-throughput-output
approach to understand the dynamics of the perceptual process. Thiš approach emphasises that there
is
input, which is processed and gives output. The stimuli in the environment - subjects, events, or people
can be considered as the perceptual inputs. The actual transformation of these inputs through the
perceptual mechanisms of selection, organisation, and interpretation can be treated as the
throughputs, and the resultant opinions, feelings, attitudes, etc, which ultimately influence qur
behaviour, can be viewed as the perceptual outputs .
One type of input is physical stimuli from the outside environment; the other type of input is provided by
individuals themselves in the form of certain pre-dispositions (expectations, motives, and learning)
based on previous experience.

The combination of these two very different kinds of inputs produces for each human
being a very private very personal picture of the world. Because each person is a unique individual,
with unique experiences, needs, desires and expectations, it follows that each individual's perceptions
are also unique. This explains why no two people see the world in precisely the same way.

The steps in the perceptual process

1) Perceptual Selectivity/Selection: There are a variety and a multitude of stimuli confronting us
everyday affecting all our senses. Out of all these stimuli, people select only some. Perceptual
selectivity refers to the tendency to select certain objects from the environment for gaining attention
such that these objects an
consistent with our existing beliefs, values and needs.
Without this ability of selection, the individuals will not be able to consider all available information
necessary to initiate behaviour. This selectivity is enhanced by two related processes
a) Sensory Activation: First process, known as, "sensory activation" assumes that senses our activated
only by a certain type of stimuli so that some stimuli may go unnoticed if these are not strong bright or
loud enough to activate our senses
b) Sensory Adaptation: Second process, known as, "sansory adaptation" relates to our ability to tune
out certain stimuli to which people have been continuously exposed Thus, many objects or stimuli are
stopped from entering our perceptual system by the above two processes.
All the remaining stimuli must compete for attention. Various external and internal factors influence
process of stimuli selection.
2) Pereptual Organisation: Perceptual organisation emphasiscs on the subsequent activities that take
place
in the perceptual process after a stimulus is received. A person rarely perceives the extent of colour,
light or
sound associated with objects. Instead he perceives organised patterns, stimuli and identifiable whol
objects. Faciors affecting perceptual organisation are as follows:
D Figure and Ground: Figure-Ground principle is generally considered to be the most basic form of
organisation. This principle simply implies that the perceived object or person or eventperceptiual
stands out distinct from its background and occupies the cognitive space of the individenl
iD Pereptual Grouping: Grouping is the tendency to curb individual stimuli into meaningful patterns.
ng: Grouping is the tendency to curb individual stimuli into meaningful pattens.
Some of the factors underlying his grouping are
a) Similarity: According to this principle, when objects and things are similar they are perceived as in
the same group. For example, workers wearing same uniform tend to be perceived as one although
they have their own different personalities
b) Proximity: The principle of proximity or neamess states that a group of stimuli that are close
togrther will te pareived as a whole pattern of parts belonging together. Employees often perceive other
employees working together in a department as a team or unit because of their physic
c) Closure: The principle of closure relates to the tendencies of the people to perceive objects whols,
even when some parts of the object are missing. The person's perceptual process win ole pops that
are unfilled from sensory input. For example, a manager perceives severel sgreénert of his workers on
a given project, when, in fact, there was opposition trom ives comp

Learning

Learning is acquiring new or modifying existing knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, or

preferences and may involve synthesizing different types of information. The ability to learn is
possessed by humans, animals and some machines. Progress over time tends to follow learning
curves.

Play has been approached by several theorists as the first form of learning. Children play,
experiment with the world, learn the rules, and learn to interact. Vygotsky agrees that play is
pivotal for children's development, since they make meaning of their environment through play.

Nature of Learning

 Learning is Growth
 Learning is Adjustment
 Learning is Organising Experience
 Learning involves Acquiring of Knowledge and Skills
 Learning involves Change
 Learning is Transferable
Characteristics of learning: - Learning has the following characteristics.

1. Learning involves change: - As indicated earlier, people acquire

new information which is processed in their condition. This process
produces new knowledge. This knowledge brings changes in their
existing pattern of behavior.
2. Change must be relatively permanent: - When the information
acquired is converted into knowledge and wisdom, people change
their behviour more or less permanently.
3. Behavioural issues: - The change in the knowledge and wisdom
should produce different attitudes and values. These new attitudes
and values should change the behavior. Then only it is called
learning. In other words, the new attitudes and values not
accompanied by change in behavior is not called learning.
4. Experience- based: - learning is based on experience. Experience
may be direct or indirect, personal or through observation or through
reading.
Theories of learning

Theories of Learning

Planning is Goal-Oriented Planning is a Primary Function

Planning is Persuasive Planning is Flexible

Principles of learning

Individual learning in organizations has to be shaped and managed

based on behavioural requirements in an organization as. Individual
learning is managed with the help of reinforcement and punishment.

1. Law of effect
2. Reinforcement
3. Positive and negative reinforces
4. Punishment