Theory & Application

If you talk about . . . . . . that’s an example of . . . . . . so mention . . . You likely

learned
about
this in…*

Active Learning

Thinking and learning by doing. (Activities, Inquiry/Project Based Learning Dewey ELED
experiences) 3223

Discovery, hands-on, task-oriented, experiential, Constructivism: Montessori, Piaget, ELED

collaborative, and/or project-based learning (Self-directed learning that is innovative and creative in Dewey, Vygotsky, 3120
the creation of new Knowledge, Educator is a Bruner, and/or Kolb
mentor/facilitator of the process, Learning is an active,
social process that involves sharing and collaborating)

Group work, discussions, social interactions, Socio-Cultural Learning, discussions, questioning, Vygotsky ELED
relationships, cooperative learning social interactions, cooperative learning 3120

Class/small group discussion, think-pair-share, Active Learning: C. Bonwell

collaborative learning. (Responsibility of learning falls on the learners,
Students must do more than just listen, they must be
actively engaged in the process,
Students engage in higher-order thinking tasks such
as analysis, synthesis, and evaluation)

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* You may have learned slight variations on these theories or theorists, but course(s) should have covered something similar.
 Experiments, simulations, problem-based learning,
webquests
Discovery Learning: Inquiry-based learning Jerome Bruner EDUC
(constructivism), Students draw from past experiences 1100
and existing knowledge to solve problems, Students
Interact with the world and make their own discoveries.
Teacher is guide/facilitator. Scaffolding involves
instructional supports (ex. thinking aloud, graphic
organizers).

Hands-on activities, field work, learning-by-doing Experiential Learning Theory David Kolb ELED
(experiments, games, pretend), Outdoor/unstructured 3223
play

Modeling Social Cognitive Theory: Albert Bandura ELED

Modeling - Students learn by observing others. 3120
Distributed cognition - students learn more from others
when working in a group.

Student-led inquiry Follow the Child: Montessori believed that there Maria Montessori
were three learning stages: introduce topic, process
info and develop understanding, then show mastery of
learning.

Advanced organizers Suggested using techniques called the advance David Ausubel
organizer, which is introduced before learning begins
to help student’s link prior knowledge. Example: KWL
charts, concept maps, webs…etc.

Challenging Student Thinking

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* You may have learned slight variations on these theories or theorists, but course(s) should have covered something similar.
 Scaffolding instruction, helping students meet high Zone of proximal development Vygotsky ELED
expectations 3120
providing hints/prompts

Some of the Language Functions, specifically
knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis,
synthesis, and evaluation . .
Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning Domains: Three Bloom ELED
learning domains that impact educators’ lesson 3111
objectives, instructional activities and assessments:
cognitive (knowledge), psychomotor (skill
performance) and affective (attitude).

Encouraging students to challenge long-held Critical Pedagogy Paulo Freire ELED

assumptions. Considering multiple ways of knowing. 3292

Breaking concepts into smaller pieces, managing
cognitive load, practicing skills to develop automaticity first arrives at your sensory register. Information that
Information Processing Theory: Environmental input Information ELED
Processing Theory 3120
you attend to makes its way to working memory,
where you are able to process and manipulate
information, combining it with prior knowledge.
Complex cognitive processes like metacognition,
transfer, problem-solving, creativity, and critical
thinking take place in working memory. Through rote
learning, meaningful learning, or repeated practice,
information may move from working memory to long-
term memory. Information can be retrieved from long-
term memory.

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* You may have learned slight variations on these theories or theorists, but course(s) should have covered something similar.
 Encouraging students to revise cognitive schema Assimilation vs. accommodation, equilibration vs. Piaget ELED
disequilibration, cognitive schema 3120

Considering Students’ Developmental Stage

How a student’s stage of development impacts their
learning including development, self-initiated
activities, discovery learning, hands-on play,
classification, and discussion.
Stages of Cognitive Development: Sensorimotor Piaget ELED
(explore world through senses), preoperational (use 3120
symbols to represent objects), concrete operational
(reason logically through familiar situations – observe
and reverse operations), formal operational (reason in
hypothetical situation and use abstract thought).

Building confidence, providing specific praise, Psychosocial Development Stages Erik Erikson ELED
involving students in decision making, providing (8 stages of identity and psychosocial development: 3120
choices, encouraging multiple approaches to Infancy-trust vs. mistrust, Toddler-autonomy vs.
problem-solving, incorporating life skills shame,
Preschooler- initiative vs. guilt, School age (6-12)
industry vs. inferiority,
Adolescent (12-18) role confusion vs. identity.

Considering Students’ Personal, Cultural, and Community Assets

Encouraging students to challenge long-held Critical Pedagogy Paulo Freire ELED

assumptions. Considering multiple ways of knowing. 3292
Considering student backgrounds when deciding how
to deliver lessons/content.

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* You may have learned slight variations on these theories or theorists, but course(s) should have covered something similar.
 Learning through social interaction; child development Bioecological Systems Theory
is influenced by interactions with environments that
are both immediate and more distal
Bronfenbrenner ELED
Proximal processes - we learn through interactions. 3120
Chronosystem: Transitions and shifts in all of the
layers over the lifespan
Macrosystem: Cultural patterns/values,
political/economic systems, social patterns in your
country
Exosystem: People and institutions that indirectly
affect child
Mesosystem: Interactions among microsystems
Microsystems: Contexts that directly influence child
Child: Individual characteristics

Culture is both visible and invisible Levels of culture - Nitza Hidalgo ELED
Concrete: most visible and tangible culture: includes 3292;
surface-level aspects such as clothing, music, ELED
food…etc. 3120
Behavioral: social roles, language, and approaches to
nonverbal communication – gender roles, family
structure…etc.
Symbolic: values and beliefs – key to how one defines
himself, example: religion, culture, morals…etc.

All students have something to contribute. Funds of Knowledge: View that multicultural families Luis Moll ELED
have funds of knowledge that can be great resource to 3292;
schools. Moll urges teachers to seek out these funds ELED
of knowledge 3120

Considering Students’ Needs, Mindsets, and Motivation

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* You may have learned slight variations on these theories or theorists, but course(s) should have covered something similar.
 Safe, secure classroom environment, Lighthearted,
fun class, interaction and discussion-based activities,
avoid questions that could cause embarrassment,
respond to bullying behaviors, consider
exceptionalities with lessons and activities, providing
praise and encouragement, student high
expectations, real-world applicable activities
Hierarchy of Needs (Lower needs must be satisfied Maslow ELED
before higher needs can be achieved): 3120
Physiological needs (air, water, food, sleep); safety
needs (secure home and family); love and
belongingness (church, clubs, family…etc.); esteem
needs (attention and recognition received from others);
self-actualization (peace).

Providing attainable challenges. Giving opportunities Growth mindset Dweck ELED

to face obstacles. Teaching and modeling good 3120
attitudes. Teaching how to accept constructive
criticism. Viewing failure as learning FAIL=First
Attempt In Learning. Providing group learning
opportunities. Celebrate Successes and Minimize
Failures. Providing opportunities to celebrate the
success of others. Teaching perseverance

Students’ resilience, determination, and perseverance Grit Angela Duckworth ELED

when faced with difficult tasks. 3120
Ongoing revision and reflection as a part of the
learning process.

See originals at https://sites.google.com/vols.utk.edu/high-leverage-practices/scaffolded-theorists-puzzle?authuser=0;

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* You may have learned slight variations on these theories or theorists, but course(s) should have covered something similar.
 Building confidence, providing specific praise,
involving students in decision making, providing
choices, encouraging multiple approaches to
problem-solving, incorporating life skills
Students’ needs for autonomy, relatedness,
competence
Creating Safe and Supportive Environment
Rules and consequences
Opportunities for choice
See originals at https://sites.google.com/vols.utk.edu/high-leverage-practices/scaffolded-theorists-puzzle?authuser=0;
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* You may have learned slight variations on these theories or theorists, but course(s) should have covered something similar.
Psychosocial Development Stages Erik Erikson ELED
(8 stages of identity and psychosocial development: 3120
Infancy-trust vs. mistrust, Toddler-autonomy vs.
shame,
Preschooler- initiative vs. guilt, School age (6-12)
industry vs. inferiority,
Adolescent (12-18) role confusion vs. identity.
Self-Determination Theory: Intrinsic motivation may be Ryan & Deci ELED
supported when the following student needs are met: 3120
Competence - a need to believe they can deal
effectively with their environment.
Autonomy- a desire for choice and self-direction
regarding things students do and courses their lives
take.
Relatedness- the need to feel socially connected and
to secure the love and respect of others.
Assertive Discipline: Teachers communicate Lee Canter ELED
expectations and class rules and follow through with 4122
them. Students have a choice to follow class rules or
face consequences. Students will have consequences
to actions.
Choice (Control) Theory: Use class meetings to William Glasser ELED
change behavior in the classroom. Students who have 4122
a say in rules, curriculum, and environment will take
ownership of their learning. Glasser’s theory
emphasizes creating a safe environment for all
learners.
 Teacher awareness With-it-ness: Teacher awareness of students’ behavior Jacob Kounin ELED
and needs. Pacing lessons appropriately and creating 3120
smooth transitions between activities.

Using rewards Operant conditioning: When a stimulus-response is Skinner ELED

reinforced (rewarded), the individual becomes 3120
conditioned to respond. For example, positive
reinforcement: use praise and give candy; negative
reinforcement: take away homework.

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* You may have learned slight variations on these theories or theorists, but course(s) should have covered something similar.
 Student associate various stimuli with positive or
negative experiences
Classical conditioning: Example: overall tone of Ivan Pavlov ELED
teacher can determine whether students will enjoy 3120
class and attend.
Different than operant conditioning in that it does not
use punishments or rewards. Classical creates an
association of experiences in the class.

Appendix:
Annotated Theorists and Citations (In APA Style)

Boushey, G., & Moser, J. (2006). The daily 5: Fostering literacy independence in the elementary grades. Portland,
ME: Stenhouse Publishers.

Notes: A commonly used text in school districts throughout North Carolina. Teachers who implement the Daily 5 do
so in order to integrate literacy throughout the school day. The Daily 5 is an integrated reading and writing method,
which includes the following five components that can be taught daily: 1) read to self, 2) read to someone, 3) listen
to reading, 4) word work, and 5) work on writing.

Bruner, J.S. (1960). The process of education. Boston, MA: Harvard University Press.

See originals at https://sites.google.com/vols.utk.edu/high-leverage-practices/scaffolded-theorists-puzzle?authuser=0;

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* You may have learned slight variations on these theories or theorists, but course(s) should have covered something similar.
Notes:This is a classic text by Jerome Bruner. In this text, Bruner explains his theory of constructivism, which
asserts that learning is an active process where students build and construct new ideas or concepts based upon
their prior knowledge. From Bruner’s perspective, teachers should try and encourage students to discover principles
by themselves. Additionally, teachers should “scaffold” the content in such a way that students can engage in
dialogue about the content and make discovery of the concepts. Curriculum should also be “spiraled” so that the
students build upon (i.e., construct) what they have already learned.

Bloom, B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives. New York: David McKay Company.

Notes: Benjamin Bloom uses this text to outline his taxonomy of educational objectives and questioning. Teachers
still use Bloom’s Taxonomy of questioning/objectives to design their discussion prompts and questions from
knowledge base questions (the lowest level of questioning) to evaluation questions (the highest level of
questioning).

Bloom, B. S. (1981). All our children learning: A primer for parents, teachers, and other educators. New York:
McGraw-Hill Companies.

In this text, Benjamin Bloom outlines his theory of “mastery learning.” The theory holds that students should be
given as many opportunities to master a concept as long as they have the desire to master that concept.

Echevarria, J., Vogt, M., & Short, D. (2004). Making content comprehensible for English learners: The SIOP model.
Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Notes: This text is about the Sheltered Instruction Observation Protocol (SIOP) for teaching English Language
Learners. Sheltered Instruction Observation Protocol (SIOP) Model is a research-based and validated instructional
model that has proven effective in addressing the academic needs of English learners throughout the United
States.The SIOP Model consists of eight interrelated components: 1) Lesson Preparation; 2) Building Background;
See originals at https://sites.google.com/vols.utk.edu/high-leverage-practices/scaffolded-theorists-puzzle?authuser=0;
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* You may have learned slight variations on these theories or theorists, but course(s) should have covered something similar.
3) Comprehensible Input; 4) Strategies; 5) Interaction; 6) Practice/Application; 7) Lesson Delivery; and 8) Review &
Assessment
Dewey, J. (1944). Democracy and education: An introduction to the philosophy of education. New York: The Free
Press.

Notes: John Dewey is the “father of education in the United States.” Many of our theories and ideas about the
purposes of education can be directly linked to John Dewey’s writings. His book, Democracy and Education, is one
of the most important texts. In the book, he discusses that education should be about discovery. Dewey argues
against dualism/division of child vs. curriculum – and argues to get rid of this notion that there is a gap between a
child’s experience and the various forms of subject-matter. Rather, child and curriculum are two parts of a single
process of learning. John Dewey was a big proponent of experiential learning.

Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York: Continuum.

Freire, P. (1998). Teachers as cultural workers. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Notes: Both of these books by Paulo Freire should be on every teacher’s bookshelf. Freire discusses how the true
purpose of education should be emancipation rather than the banking model of education, which is just about
depositing information in a child’s brain. Emancipation means an education that is liberating and allows for
independent thoughts and ideas.

Gardner, H. (1993). Multiple intelligences: The theory in practice. New York: Basic Books.

This is Howard Gardner’s classic theoretical text about Multiple Intelligence theory. In the book, Gardner discusses
how there are eight different kinds of intelligences or ways of being smart: 1) words (linguistic intelligence); 2)
numbers or logic (logical-mathematical intelligence); 3) pictures (spatial intelligence); 4) music (musical intelligence);

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* You may have learned slight variations on these theories or theorists, but course(s) should have covered something similar.
5) self-reflection (intrapersonal intelligence); 6) a physical experience (bodily-kinesthetic intelligence); 7) a social
experience (interpersonal intelligence), and 8) nature experience (science smart).

Gay, G. (2002). Preparing for culturally responsive teaching. Journal of Teacher Education, 53(2), 106-116.

Notes:This is a classic article about culturally responsiveness. In this article, Gay makes the case for improving the
school success of ethnically diverse students through culturally responsive teaching and for preparing teachers in
preservice education programs with the knowledge, attitudes, and skills needed to do this.

Ladson-Billings, G. (1995). But that's just good teaching! The case for culturally relevant pedagogy. Theory into
Practice, 34(3), 159-165.

Notes:Another classic article about culturally relevant pedagogy. Ladson-Billings defines the what culturally relevant
pedagogy means and explains the connections between culture and being responsive to the needs of students. She
makes connections to literacy throughout this article.

Lave, J & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning theory: Legitimate peripheral participation. New York: Cambridge
University Press.
Situated Learning Theory (which is what this book by Lave & Wenger is about) asserts “that learning is an integral
and inseparable aspect of social practice” (p.31). Also, learning “involves the whole person. It implies not only a
relation to specific activities, but a relation to social communities. It implies becoming a full participant, a member, a
kind of person (p. 53).

Paris, D. (2012). Culturally sustaining pedagogy a needed change in stance, terminology, and practice. Educational
Researcher, 41(3), 93-97.

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* You may have learned slight variations on these theories or theorists, but course(s) should have covered something similar.
Notes: Django Paris is an emerging star scholar in the field of education. In this article, he discusses a new
framework called "Culturally Sustaining Pedagogy" for being responsive to the cultural assets that children bring
with them to the class.

Vygotsky, L. (1962). Thought and language. Boston, MA: MIT Press.

Notes: In this classic text, Lev Vygotsky discussed how language is a social activity. The development of language
and literacy can be supported when students are in social groups and communicating the language in a social way.
This text is often used to support group work in schools.

Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in society. Boston, MA: Harvard University Press.

This is Vygotsky’s classic text where he discusses the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), which is the difference
in levels between what a learner is able to do and what the learners has the potential to do with help. The ZPD is a
theory that can be used to see the learning growth in learners over time as well as show the important role that
teachers play in guide students to their potential. ZPD is also used to support group work and collaboration among
learners.

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* You may have learned slight variations on these theories or theorists, but course(s) should have covered something similar.