LESSON 5 – PERFORM MENSURATION AND CALCULATION

INFORMATION SHEET 1.1 - ELECTRONICS

Electronics - is a branch of technology that deals with many applications in most of our day-to-day
technology. Audio electronics, video electronics, digital, medical up to weapons and banking (ATM for
example) are covered by the influence of electronics.

Ohm's Law defines the relationships between (P) power, (E) voltage, (I) current, and (R) resistance.
One amp flowing through one ohm produces one volt.

(I) Current is what flows on a wire or conductor like water water through a pipe. Current (electrons) flow
from negative to positive through a conductor. Current is measured in (A) amperes or amps.

A coulomb is a quantity measurement of electrons. One coulomb equals 6,250,000,000,000,000,000

electrons. The definition of one amp (A) is one coulomb per second passing a point. The letter I, stands
for intensity of current flow, or A, which stands for amps, are often used in Ohm's Law formulas.

(E) Voltage is the difference in electrical potential between two points in a circuit. It's the push or
pressure behind current flow through a circuit, and is measured in (V) volts.

Voltage is the potential energy of an electrical supply stored in the form of an electrical charge, and the
greater the voltage the greater is its ability to produce an electrical current flowing through a conductor.

This energy has the ability to do work. Voltage is sometimes called Electromotive Force, (EMF) with
the circuit symbol V, although E is mostly used today.

(R) Resistance (electrical friction) determines how much current will flow through a component.
Resistors are used to control voltage and current levels. Resistance is measured in Ohms, using the
Greek symbol Omega. (Looks like
an upside-down horseshoe.)

An ohm is a measurement of resistance (R) in an electric circuit. The letter R is used to represent Ohm's
Law formula.

The watt (W) is a measurement of power in an electrical circuit. The letter P represents power in Ohm's
Law formula while Watts is the unit of measurement. (P) Power is the amount of current times the
voltage.

Common Electronics Terminologies:

Ampere - basic unit of current
Current - the flow of electrons moving in a given direction
Electronic measuring instrument – a portable instrument used to measure electrical quantities such
as current, voltage, and resistance
Ohmmeter - an electronic instrument used to measure resistance of a component or the entire circuit
Ohmmeter scale - section of the ohmmeter where the value of the resistance is being indicated
Range multiplier - a portion in the ohmmeter where the actual reading is multiplied by the range value
Resistance - the opposition to the flow of electrons
Resistor - an electronic component that is used to offer opposition to current in an electrical circuit
Resistor color coding - a scheme to determine the value of resistors by color bands printed on their
bodies as code
Test Probes - connectors connected to terminals of the VOM and component’s terminals or test points
in a circuit to be tested. They are oftentimes red and black in color
Tolerance - the fourth color in the 4-band color coding that indicates the percentage of deviation from
its color coded value
Volt - basic unit of voltage
Voltage - an electrical pressure that pushes current to flow within a load through a conductor
Zero-ohm adjuster - part of the ohmmeter that is used in adjusting the pointer of the ohmmeter to zero
before resistance measurements or continuity tests are made.

INFORMATION SHEET 1.2 – OHMS LAW

Ohms Law
The relationship between Voltage, Current and Resistance in any DC electrical circuit was firstly
discovered by the German physicist Georg Ohm. Ohm found that, at a constant temperature, the
electrical current flowing through a fixed linear resistance is directly proportional to the voltage applied
across it, and also inversely proportional to the resistance. This relationship between
the Voltage, Current and Resistance forms the bases of Ohms Law and is shown below.

Ohms Law Relationship

By knowing any two values of the Voltage, Current or Resistance quantities we can use Ohms Law to
find the third missing value. Ohms Law is used extensively in electronics formulas and calculations so
it is “very important to understand and accurately remember these formulas”.

To find the Voltage, ( V )

[V=IxR] V (volts) = I (amps) x R (Ω)

To find the Current, ( I )

[I=V÷R] I (amps) = V (volts) ÷ R (Ω)
To find the Resistance, ( R )
[R=V÷I] R (Ω) = V (volts) ÷ I (amps)

Ohms Law Triangle

Example:
1. An alarm clock draws 0.5 A of current when connected to a 120 volt
circuit. Calculate its resistance.

2. Given that a particular basic circuit has a voltage of 6.0 volts and a
current of 2.0 amps, what is the resistance in this basic circuit? Using
the Ohms law triangle, we could determine that the formula to get the
resistance is R=V/I. (= 3volts)
3. (1.2A) 4. (50V) 5. (24Ω)

6. (0.5Ω) 7. (0.05A) 8. (150V)

9. If a toaster produces 12 ohms of resistance in a 120-volt circuit, what is the amount of current in the
circuit?
10. A circuit contains a 1.5 volt battery and a bulb with a resistance of 3 ohms. Calculate the current.
11. An electric heater works by passing a current of 100 A through a coiled metal wire, making it red
hot. If the resistance of the wire is 1.1 ohms, what voltage must be applied to it?
12. A walkman uses a standard 1.5 V battery. How much resistance is in the circuit if it uses a current
of 0.01A?
Graded Exercises:
1. Find the current through a 12-ohm resistive circuit when 24 volts is applied.
2. Find the resistance of a circuit that draws 0.06 amperes with 12 volts applied.
3. Find the applied voltage of a circuit that draws 0.2 amperes through a 4800-ohm resistance.
4. A 20-volt relay has a coil resistance of 200 ohms. How much current does it draw?
5. A series circuit has 1200-ohms of total resistance with 12 V as the power supply. What is the
total current of this circuit?
6. Find the applied voltage of a telephone circuit that draws 0.017amperes through a resistance of
15,000 ohms.
7. What is the increase of current when 15 V is applied to 10000-ohm. rheostat, which is adjusted
to 1000-ohm value?
8. A transformer is connected to 120 volts. Find the current if the resistance is 480-ohms?
9. A resistive load of 600-ohms is connected to a 24 V power supply. Find the current through the
resistor.
10. A circuit consists of a 12 V battery connected across a single resistor. If the current in the circuit
is 3 A, calculate the size of the resistor.

INFORMATION SHEET 1.3 – JOULES LAW for POWER

Electrical Power in Circuits
Electrical Power, (P) in a circuit is the amount of energy that is absorbed or produced within the circuit.
A source of energy such as a voltage will produce or deliver power while the connected load absorbs
it. Light bulbs and heaters for example, absorb power and convert it into heat or light and the higher
their value or rating in watts the more power they will consume.
The quantity symbol for power is P and is the product of voltage multiplied by the current with the unit
of measurement being the Watt (W)
Then by using Ohm’s law and substituting for V, I and R the formula for electrical power can be found
as:
To find the Power (P)
[P=VxI] P (watts) = V (volts) x I (amps)
Also,
[ P = V2 ÷ R ] P (watts) = V2 (volts) ÷ R (Ω)
Also,
[ P = I2 x R ] P (watts) = I2 (amps) x R (Ω)

Again, the three quantities have been superimposed into a triangle this time
called the Power Triangle with power at the top and current and voltage at
the bottom. Again, this arrangement represents the actual position of each
quantity in the Ohms law power formulas.
The Power Triangle

Example:
1. A toaster oven is plugged into an outlet that provides a voltage difference
of 120 V. What power does the oven use if the current is 10A?
Answer: 1200 watts
2. A VCR that is not playing still uses 10.0 W of power. What is the current if the VCR is plugged into
a 220 V electric outlet?
Answer: 0.045 Amps
3. If a small appliance is rated at a current of 20 amps and a voltage of 120 volts, the power rating
would be ______ Watts. (P = I V )
Answer: 2400 watts
4. If a blender is plugged into a 110 V outlet that supplies 2.7 A of current, what amount of power is
used by the blender?
Answer: 297 watts
5. If a clock expends 2 W of power from a 1.5 V battery, what amount of current does the battery is
supplying the clock?
Answer: 1.33 amps

Graded Exercises:
1. An incandescent lamp is put into a socket that is connected to a 120 volt supply. With a 1.5 amps of
current flows through it. How many watts does the lamp have?
2. What are the watts in a piece of wire whose resistance is 12 ohms, when carrying 20 amps on a 240-
volt circuit?
3. Coby has a 1200 watt blender plugged into a 120 volt circuit. What is the current flow within this
circuit when the toaster is turned on?
4. A toaster oven is plugged into an outlet that provides a voltage difference of 120 V. What power
does the oven use if the current is 10A?
5. A VCR that is not playing still uses 10.0 W of power. What is the current if the VCR is plugged into
a 120 V electric outlet?
6. Tommy runs his juicer every morning. The juicer uses 90 W of Power and the current supplied is 4.5
A. How many volts are necessary to run the juicer?
7. Tommy runs his juicer every morning. The juicer uses 90 W of Power and the current supplied is 4.5
A. How many volts are necessary to run the juicer?
8. Amanda’s hair dryer requires 11A of current from a 110 V outlet. How much power does it use?
9. A DC electric motor transforms 1.50 kW of electrical power into mechanical form. If the
motor's operating voltage is 300 volts, how much current does it "draw" when operating at full
load (full power output)?
Information sheet 1.4 - RESISTOR COLOR CODE GUIDE

Resistor Basics
Resistors are electronic components which have a specific, never-changing electrical resistance. The
resistor’s resistance limits the flow of electrons through a circuit.
They are passive components, meaning they only consume power (and can’t generate it). Resistors
are usually added to circuits where they complement active components like op-amps,
microcontrollers, and other integrated circuits.
Commonly resistors are used to limit current, divide voltages, and pull-up I/O lines.

Resistor units
The electrical resistance of a resistor is measured in ohms. The symbol for an ohm is the greek capital-
omega: Ω. The (somewhat roundabout) definition of 1Ω is the resistance between two points where 1
volt (1V) of applied potential energy will push 1 ampere (1A) of current.
As SI units go, larger or smaller values of ohms can be matched with a prefix like kilo-, mega-, or giga-
, to make large values easier to read. It’s very common to see resistors in the kilohm (kΩ) and megaohm
(MΩ) range (much less common to see miliohm (mΩ) resistors). For example, a 4,700Ω resistor is
equivalent to a 4.7kΩ resistor, and a 5,600,000Ω resistor can be written as 5,600kΩ or (more commonly
as) 5.6MΩ.

Schematic symbol
All resistors have two terminals, one connection on each
end of the resistor. When modeled on a schematic, a resistor
will show up as one of these two symbols:

COLOR CODE AND COLOR VALUE

Example:
Color code is: Red, Orange, Brown, Brown
2 3 x10 1%
23x10= 230 ohm ±1%
230x 0.01= 2.3

MAX = 230+2.3 = 232.3 ohm

MIN = 230-2.3 = 227.7 ohm

Example: Calculate for the missing value

Color code Value& MAX MIN
Tolerance

Information sheet 2.7 - CAPACITOR CODE GUIDE

Capacitor
 Capacitors are one of the four fundamental types of passive electronic components; the other
three are the inductor, theresistor, and the memristor. The basic unit of capacitance is the Farad
(F).
 Do not use the property of magnetism like inductors do!
 Capacitors store energy in an electrostatic field instead
 The number of electrons it can store in this field determines its capacitance size
 The units of Capacitance are measured in Farads [F] and the symbol for Capacitance is C.
 Capacitors act like springs
 Opposes DC but passes high frequency AC
 Easy to flow during change but is open when DC
 Some capacitors are polarity sensitive (For DC circuits) Signal to ground
 Current doesn’t actually flow through a capacitor, rather it accumulates charge.
 Capacitor values are usually standardized--.10, .22, .33, and .47 and so on.
 However, you might occasionally find an unusual value such as 0.15 or 0.27.
 You can generally substitute one of these for a single cap in a given circuit.
 Marked codes are generally found on ceramic (little round discs) and Mylar (chicklet) capacitors,
which are not polarized, that is, there are no positive and negative leads.
  Usually the first two digits of the code represent part of the value; the third digit corresponds to
the number of zeros to be added to the first two digits. This is the value in pf. Some values are
usually given in uF, especially those used in BEAM applications, so I have given these as a
separate column where appropriate.

Common Terminologies Associated with Capacitors

 Capacitance – the property of a dielectric to store electric charge.
 Dielectric – an insulator used to store electric charge in a capacitor
 Electrode - A collector or emitter of electric charge (not necessarily metallic)
 A capacitor is made up of 2 electrodes and a dielectric.
 Permittivity - how well a dielectric material can establish electrostatic lines of force. (Like
permeability but for capacitors)

Capacitor Schematic Symbol

CAPACITOR CODE MARKINGS: CODED THREE DIGIT MARKINGS

Many capacitors use a coded marking system, this marked consist with a three digit code such as "103"
or "104" and some others have a three digit code plus a letter on the end such as "101K" or "102K".
This can lead to a bit of 'head scratching' before construction of our exciting project can begin! Once
we can familiarize ourselves with these codes or have a chart at hand then progress to the all-important
construction stage will be much swifter.

How To Read Code

Example: 104, 10 plus four zeros = 100,000 then basically the unit will be picoFarad after adding the
zeros
=100,000 pico Farad
Then, to convert it to the next higher value then we divided pico by 1000 to get the nano Farad
=100,000 / 1000
 =100 nano Fard
Then Finally to get the microfarad value, we divided nano value by 1000
=100 / 1000 = 0.1 micro Farad
Information sheet 2.4 – BASICS OF ANALOG MULTIMETER
The Multi-tester or multi-meter is sometimes called the VOM (voltmeter, ohmmeter, milli-ammeter). It
is the best instrument that can measure voltage, resistance and current. It is generally made of two
types: the analog and the digital.

Parts of a MULTIMETER

1. Scale
2. Infinite zero Adjustment screw
3. Direct Current Voltage Range
4. Range Selector Switch
5. DC Current meter(Ammeter)
6. Needle/Pointer
7. Zero Ohm Adjustment
8. Alternating Current Volt Range
9. Ohmmeter Range

Range and CalibrationDCV RANGE AND Calibration OHMS RANGE AND Calibration
1000V - 20V 0-1 - .2Ω
250V - 5V 1-2 - .2Ω
50V - 1V 2-5 - .5Ω
10V - .2 5-10 - .5Ω
.5V - .01V 10-20 - 1Ω
.25V - .005 20-30 - 2Ω
30-50 - 2Ω
50-100 - 5Ω
100-200 - 20Ω
200-300 - 50Ω
300-500 - 100Ω
500-1k - 500Ω
1k-2k - 1KΩ

A. USING ANALOG MULTIMETER

 -like any instrument an analog or analogue multi-meter will perform to its best if it is used the right way.
 -although digital multi meters are far more common now a days, using an analogue test meter can still produce
readings that are more than accurate enough for all but the most exact.
  Advantages:
 Analogue movement - the meter needle gives a continuous movement from which it is very easy to gain a fast
idea of the order of the gain of magnitude or of trends for slowly moving changes.
 Availability – analogue test meters may well be available when digital ones are not.
 Disadvantages:
 Multi meter Scales – Any multi meter will have a number of different scales and these can cause confusion,
they were often a cause of error.
 Lower input resistance –using analogue technology, analogue meters did not provide such high input
impedance as a digital one.

Understanding when this may be an issue is a key element of knowing how to use an analogue multimeter.A

B. Proper care and maintenance of the multi tester

1. Read manual of instructions on how to operate the multi-tester.
2. In reading the amount of voltage, always start with the highest range to avoid reading voltage higher than the tester
setting.
3. Be sure that the tester is set to the correct range setting: resistance range when measuring the ohm, voltage range
when measuring voltage and ammeter range when measuring the value of electric current.
4. Always check the condition of its battery. Worn out batteries will damage the internal setting of the tester.
5. When the tester is not in used or will be stored, set the selector switch to OFF position.
6. Never drop the tester.

Additional Multimeter Precautions

1. Do not test voltage on ACV circuits higher than 1000 volts.
2. Do not test voltage on DCV circuits higher than 1000 volts.
3. Do not test current on circuits higher than 250 amps.

C. Reading a Value on a Scale

A general procedure for reading a value on an analog multi-meter scale consist of the following steps.
1. Select the proper scale for the specific multi-meter function and range.
2. If the pointer is not resting directly on a number; identify the two numbers that the pointer is between.
3. Calculate the value of the divisions between the two numbers.
Starting with the lower of the two numbers, count, using the value of the divisions, until the pointer is reach. (If the pointer
is between two division marks, estimate its position as a fraction of a division.)

D. Opeation
WARNING: ELECTRICAL SHOCK CAN CAUSE DEATH OR INJURY. AVOID TOUCHING
EXPOSED CONDUCTORS OF ELECTRICITY.
Information sheet 2.5 – BASICS OF DIGITAL MULTIMETER
The Digital Multimeter (DMMs) feature a digital or liquid crystal display (LCD). Measurement readings
are displayed as numerical values on the LCD Display. The
display also alerts you to any pertinent symbols and warnings.

Tech Note: Digital Multimeters and ClampMeters use different techniques internally, to measure AC,
DC voltage, Resistance and Amperes. An advantage of a digital multimeter is their accuracy and input
protection. Their input resistance or impedance is very high, in the range of 1,000,000 to 10,000,000
ohms, so there is little effect on the measurement. On good quality meters, their inputs are also
protected from faults and misuse. Test instruments today devote a good deal of architecture to overload
protection.

There are Two Styles of Digital Multimeter

Common DMM’s Symbol