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Ideas for Developing Critical Thinking at Primary

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2014
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 IDEAS FOR DEVELOPING CRITICAL
THINKING AT PRIMARY SCHOOL LEVEL
Abdur Rahman As’ari

Abstract​: Teaching to develop critical thinking skills is very

important for preparing students to live in global era. There is a
question whether there is a room in the 2013 curriculum framework
for teaching critical thinking. Having analyzed the importance, the
concept, and the characteristics of 2013, it can be concluded that
teaching critical thinking in the 2013 curriculum can be done by
various ideas: (1) keep asking students to thinks reasons and
implications, strengths and weaknesses of any claim or argument,
and (2) asking them to consider alternative ideas, (3) use
problem-based and/or project-based learning in the fourth week of
each theme, finally (4) modeling the critical thinker behavior by the
teacher.

Keywords​: 2013 curriculum, arguments, claims, critical

thinking, problem-based learning, project-based learning.

In the global era, where information about everything is available very close to
us, through internet, As’ari (2014b) stated that easy access to internet has
made the information available in the internet is unstructured and unorganized.
These conditions require each individual to categorize and select it carefully.
The mixture of valid and reliable information with hoax demands each individual
to critically examine it.

Reflective, critical, and creative thinking abilities are required to do it. Critical
thinking ability is required to evaluate the quality of information. Creative thinking
ability is required to produce another and required information. Reflective
thinking ability is required to come up with a correct and appropriate decision.

Today, we are going to focus our discussion about critical thinking only.
Therefore, the author will start the discussion about the importance of critical
thinking, the concept of critical thinking, the characteristics of teaching and
learning according to 2013 Curriculum, especially in the primary school level, the
possibilities to develop critical thinking at primary classroom, and several
examples of activities to develop critical thinking skills.
Paper presented at an International Seminar on Addressing Higher Order Thinking: Critical Thinking Issues in
Primary Education. Islamic University of Muhammadiyah Makasar, April 12—13, 2014 1
​
The Importance of Critical
Thinking

Ownership of critical thinking skills is very important, whether for continuing

study at higher level, or in developing peaceful daily life. We need to be a critical
thinker for study at higher level. We need to be a critical thinker to ensure that
we don’t make wrong and misleading judgment in our community. Critical
thinkers have so many advantages that make the study in the higher level easier
to accomplish and living in a more peaceful situation in community. This is in-line
with characteristics of critical thinkers according to Ruggiero (2012), who
identified critical thinkers as being:

1. ​Honest with themselves​. They acknowledge what they don’t know,

recognizing
their limitations, and being watchful of their own errors, 2. Regard problems
and controversial issues as ​exciting and challenging​, 3. ​Strive ​for
understanding, keep curiosity alive, remain patient with complexity,
and are ready to invest time to overcome confusion, 4. Base
judgments on ​evidence ​rather than personal preferences, deferring
judgment whenever evidence is insufficient, and revise judgment when new
evidence reveals error, 5. Are ​interested ​in other people’s ideas and so are
willing to read and listen
attentively, even when they tend to disagree with the other person, 6.
Recognize that ​extreme views ​(whether conservative or liberal) are ​seldom
correct,​ so they avoid them, practice fair-mindedness, and seek a balanced view,
7. Practice restraint, controlling their feelings rather than being controlled by
them,
and thinking before
acting.
Ennis (2011) identified several abilities possessed by critical thinkers. These
abilities were classified into: (1) basic clarification, (2) inference, (3)
advanced clarification, (4) supposition and integration abilities, and (5)
auxiliary abilities.

In the basic clarification, critical thinkers try to better understand to what is

claimed by others. It covers many abilities, including: identify conclusion, and
assumptions, premises, and logical structure and processes passed by to come
up to the conclusion. In the inference activity, the critical thinkers actively
challenge the claims and arguments by asking questions such as: why? What do
you mean by? What would be the example? What are the facts? Etc. In this
stage, the critical thinkers also judge the credibility of source used by the claimer.
The critical thinker see the expertise, reputation, objectiveness and other things
related to the quality of

Paper presented at an International Seminar on Addressing Higher Order Thinking: Critical Thinking Issues in
Primary Education. Islamic University of Muhammadiyah Makasar, April 12—13, 2014 2
​
data provided to develop a claim or an argument. The critical thinkers also
evaluate the inferences made by the claimer using valid logical procedure and
established criteria. Finally, the critical thinker develop a supportive or an
alternative point of view, and using their knowledge about feeling involved in a
discussion, presented their point of view in an appropriate manner and in
elegant rhetorical strategies.

Paul & Elder (2008) identified several 8 dimensions of universal intellectual

standards, namely: (1) clarity, (2) accuracy, (3) precision, (4) relevance, (5)
depth, (6) breadth, (7) logic, and (8) fairness. Critical thinkers are interested to
see most of all of these dimensions since many of human being uses their
personal points of view to present their ideas. Critical thinkers always request
clear, accurate, precise, relevance, logical, and fair information. The depth and
breadth coverage of information would be their second level consideration.

According to Paul & Elder (2008) critical thinkers always try to: (1) raise vital
questions and problems, and formulate them clearly precisely, (2) gather and
assess relevant information, (3) come up with a very well-reasoned conclusion,
(4) open minded to any ideas, and (5) communicate effectively.
So, becoming a critical thinker is very important. Every teacher and educator is
called to provide educational experiences which enable students to become
critical thinkers.

What is Critical
Thinking?

Many experts have proposed definitions of critical thinking. Ennis (2011)

suggested that critical thinking is reasonable and reflective thinking focused on
deciding what to believe or do. This is similar to Ruggiero (2012) who suggested
that the main idea involved in critical thinking is evaluation. Ruggiero claimed
that critical thinking is a process by which we test claims and arguments and
determine which have merit and which do not. Therefore, to think critically
means to evaluate the correctness, the merit, and the validity of claims or
arguments.

The Open University (2008) proposed that critical thinking skills entail: (1)
actively seeking all sides of an argument, (2) testing the soundness of the claims
made, and (3) testing the soundness of the evidence used to support the claims.
A more detailed proposition about critical thinking processes was suggested by
Facione (2011) and Cottrell (2005). Facione (2011) expressed that there are
several cores of critical thinking skills, namely: (1) interpretation, (2) analysis, (3)
inference, (4)

Paper presented at an International Seminar on Addressing Higher Order Thinking: Critical Thinking Issues in
Primary Education. Islamic University of Muhammadiyah Makasar, April 12—13, 2014 3
​
evaluation, (5) explanation, and (6) self-regulation. Meanwhile, Cottrell (2005)
identified critical thinking is a complex process of deliberation which involves a
wide range of skills and attitudes, such as: (1) identifying other people’s positions,
arguments, and conclusions; (2) evaluating the evidence for alternative points of
view, (3) weighing up opposing arguments and evidence fairly; (4) being able to
read between the lines, seeing behind surfaces, and identifying false or unfair
assumptions; (5) recognizing techniques used to make certain positions more
appealing than others, and persuasive devices; (6) reflecting on issues in a
structured way, bringing logic and justifiable, based on good evidence and
sensible assumptions; (7) drawing conclusions about whether argument are valid
and justifiable, based on good evidence and sensible assumptions, (8) presenting
a point of view in a structured, clear, well-reasoned way that convinces others.

The above paragraphs express that critical thinking is a very complicated

process and comprises of several stages. Critical thinking is used to evaluate
the merit and correctness of any statements, claims, or arguments. Author
identified there are at least 7 stages involved in critical thinking.

Stage 1: ​Understanding other’ claims or arguments

objectively.

Stage 2: ​Understanding the assumptions

behind it.

Stage 3: ​Evaluating the validity relationships between claims and its

assumptions.

Stage 4: ​Examining the appropriateness of the assumptions used for

drawing conclusion.

Stage 5: ​Deciding the validity of other claims or

arguments,

Stage 6: ​Collecting evidences to support or to develop

alternatives.

Stage 7: Presenting supports or alternatives that convince others

elegantly.

Teaching Critical
Thinking

Having discussed the importance of critical thinking and the definition of

critical thinking, let us now discuss about ways to teach students to become
critical thinkers.

Snyder & Snyder (2008) suggested that critical thinking is a learnable skill.
They suggested that critical skills should be developed, practiced, and
continually

Paper presented at an International Seminar on Addressing Higher Order Thinking: Critical Thinking Issues in
Primary Education. Islamic University of Muhammadiyah Makasar, April 12—13, 2014 4
​
integrated into the curriculum. They also mentioned that developing critical
thinking required active learning situations. They also suggested that
instruction should focus on the application of content rather than the content
itself.

However, Snyder & Snyder (2008) also stated that teaching critical thinking is
not an easy one. Simple engagement in learning is not necessarily helping
students to become critical thinkers. Based on several studies they reviewed,
they consider the use of Heuristic teaching methods in which students are
encouraged to “learn, discover, understand, or solve problem on [their] own, as
by experimenting, evaluating possible answers or solutions, or by trial and error”
as one of an alternative to teaching critical thinking. The use of problem-based
learning is also under their consideration. However, Snyder & Snyder (2008)
also suggested that students need a model (from their teacher) on how to think
critically since students typically don’t know how to do it. Students are not
directly born as critical thinker, and their previous experiences did not always
request them to think critically.

In addition, Snyder & Snyder (2008) proposed the existence of four elements to
make the teaching critical thinking take place and successfully implemented.
These four elements are: (1) ill structured problems, (2) criteria for assessing
thinking, (3) student assessment of thinking, and (4) improvement of thinking.

Ill structured problem which do not have a definite right or wrong answers will
enable students to questioning others’ assumptions, information, and strategies
used to solve the problem. This will enable students to think critically. The
existence of criteria for assessing thinking will provide a chance for the students
to observe, experience, evaluate, judge, and reflect on their own thinking and
also their teammates. It will provide a framework for them to identify whether
he/she and their friends have applied a critical thinking or not. If this assessment
is modeled and encouraged in the teaching and learning activities, students will
eventually implement the critical thinking, and finally improve students thinking.
Brown & Kelley (1986) in a very old book entitled “​Asking the right question: A
guide to think critically”​ proposed that type of questions will determine whether
the students will develop critical thinking or not. They provided several examples
of, according to them, right questions to promote critical thinking, namely: (1) why
do you think about this?, (2) why do you think that?, (3) what is your knowledge
based upon?, (4) what does it imply and presuppose?, (5) what explains it,
connects to it, leads from it?, (6) how are you viewing it, and (7) should it be
viewed differently?.

Paper presented at an International Seminar on Addressing Higher Order Thinking: Critical Thinking Issues in
Primary Education. Islamic University of Muhammadiyah Makasar, April 12—13, 2014 5
​
They claimed that these types of questions require students to evaluate the
clarity and the accuracy of their thinking, including the depth and the breath of
their thinking.

Facione (2011) proposed what so called as IDEAS strategy to promote critical

thinking. The term IDEAS is an abbreviation of 5 steps: I = Identify the problem,
set priorities, D= Deepen understanding and gather relevant information, E =
Enumerate options and anticipate consequences, A = assess situation and make
a preliminary decision, and S = scrutinize the process and self-correct as
needed. This strategy is an improvement of previous strategy, called IDEALS
(Facione, 2007) which consists of: I = Identify the problem: what is the real
question we are facing?, D = Define the context: what are the facts that frame
this problem?, E = Enumerate the choices: what are the plausible options, A =
Analyze options: what is the best course of action?, L = List Reason Explicitly:
why is this the best course of action, S = Self Correct: Look at again ...what did
we miss?

All of those ideas need to be put into practical activities. Schneider (2002)
suggested several ideas, such as: (1) do not readily find solutions for the
students, (2) always seek opportunity for brainstorming, (3) compare and contrast
everything and anything, (4) categorize, (5) encourage creativity, (6) teach
students to think critically across the curriculum.

Whenever the students are facing with a problem (even a very simple one, for
example finding an empty chair to sit), rather than giving them a needed chair,
better for us to ask them to think on how to resolve the problem. Encourage
brainstorming to help students better realize the problem, and developing ideas
to find the solution. During the brainstorming activities, ask the students to
compare and contrast any emerged choices, categorize them, and encourage
students to find other alternatives creatively. The use of this strategy in every
subject matter, enable students to see the model and apply the critical thinking
continuously and become a good habit.

This is in line with the recommendations proposed by The Critical

Thinking Consortium (2013):

1. Help students feel safe to express opinions in class and at home, 2. Regularly
ask students to express opinions (informally in individual and in small
group situations more than as part of whole class
lessons),

Paper presented at an International Seminar on Addressing Higher Order Thinking: Critical Thinking Issues in
Primary Education. Islamic University of Muhammadiyah Makasar, April 12—13, 2014 6
​
3. Encourage students to offer a reason /explain their thinking, and 4. When
appropriate, turn student request back to them (answer student question
with question – but what do you think? Do you think it would be better to do X
or Y?)

Expected Teaching and Learning at Primary School by Curriculum

2013

According to 2013 Curriculum (As’ari a., 2014; As’ari b, 2014), teaching and
learning at primary school level are characterized by the followings:

1. ​Students are positioned as active, not passive

learner,​
Teaching and learning in the curriculum 2013 is expected to be more student-
centered than teacher-centered. Students are not expected to have any
knowledge through lecturing models of teaching. Students are encouraged to
search, and explore knowledge by themselves. 2. ​Contents from several
subjects are integrated using themes.​
 Contents from several subjects are tied together by themes. By studying the
themes for example occupation, students learn mathematics, social studies,
science, and other subjects. Students are not taught any subjects separately.
3. ​Students’ learning should follow a scientific approach ​(observing,
questioning,
exploring, associating, and communicating) Students’ learning is directed to use
scientific approach. Students are encouraged to observe, questioning, explore,
associate, and communicate. They have to observe phenomena accurately
(based on the theme being used that day), raising investigative questions which
will lead to an exploration and investigation, collecting and exploring additional
information, using their thinking and reasoning skills to come up with
hypothesis/guess/conjecture, and sharing their ideas to the class. ​4. Developing
creativity by encouraging teachers to use open-ended problems
Students are encouraged to be creative. They are given freedom to use their
own creativity to produce any ideas or products. The questions given to the
students are mostly open-ended which allow the students to give different
correct solutions. The students are also given a chance to present their
product according to their preferences.

Paper presented at an International Seminar on Addressing Higher Order Thinking: Critical Thinking Issues in
Primary Education. Islamic University of Muhammadiyah Makasar, April 12—13, 2014 7
​
5. Promoting the use of multiple learning
resources,
Teacher is not considered as the only learning resource. Students may use
other resources to learn. They may use books, magazines, internets,
environments, newspaper, and other things as the source for learning. 6.
Encouraging the development of more applicative rather than textual skills,​
Knowledge developed through teaching and learning is expected to be more
applicative in nature. Students are not expected to memorize, and understand
the knowledge. Students have to know how the knowledge are implemented
and used in real life.
Possibility for Developing Critical
Thinking

The characteristics of teaching and learning in 2013 curriculum above, gives us

insights that developing critical thinking is very possible. Snyder & Snyder
(2008) required the active learning as the prerequisite for developing critical
thinking. Since active learning is the first principle of teaching and learning in
the 2013 curriculum, the development of critical thinking at primary school in the
context of 2013 curriculum is very possible.

Snyder & Snyder (2008) also indicated the need to use ill structured problems to
develop critical thinking. In the 2013 curriculum, especially in the grade 4 and 5,
there is no definite students’ activity in fourth week of each theme. The primary
school teacher is, then, given a freedom to develop their own learning materials
to be learned by students. This week is intentionally aimed to give a chance to
teacher to implement problem-based learning and/or project-based learning
model for their students. Since ill structured problem is one of the characteristics
of problems used in problem-based learning, so 2013 curriculum actually has
enabled the possibility of teaching and learning to develop critical thinking.

The use of scientific approach also provides a chance for the teacher to develop
critical thinking. According to As’ari (2014 a, and 2014b), there are five activities
that students should do, i.e. observing, questioning, exploring, associating, and
communicating. Observing activity will lead students to have a perception that
everything should be based on objective data collected from careful observation.
Questioning activity will make the students tend to curious. They will not accept
any information that is unclear and not convincing.

Paper presented at an International Seminar on Addressing Higher Order Thinking: Critical Thinking Issues in
Primary Education. Islamic University of Muhammadiyah Makasar, April 12—13, 2014 8
​
Exploring activity is developed based on the need of additional data to make a
more powerful conclusion. Students who are customized to find additional
information to draw a conclusion, will believe that appropriate and adequate
supporting data is required to make a good conclusion. Once they doubt the
truth of a claim, automatically they will explore additional information.

Associating activity is another important experience for developing critical

thinking. Deciding whether a claim or an argument is valid and justifiable is
based on students’ ability to associate ideas.

Finally, communication activity provides a room for students to listen and

express ideas in a fair-minded form. They will learn to listen carefully, examine
their assumptions, assess their logic, identify the weaknesses, and propose a
better alternative politely.

So, the use of scientific approach is a very important tool to develop critical
thinking skills.

Open-ended problems that have multiple solutions enable students to see that
the truth is not singular. The truth is closely linked to its basic assumptions, and
how the information are processed. The truth is multidimensional. Therefore, if
we train our students using open-ended problems, they will be customized to
think from several perspectives. They will be easier to develop alternatives
which in turn will help them to become more critical thinker.

The use of multiple learning resources also enables students to have much
more insights. This will provide a chance for students to be more critical in
examine the correctness of a claim. They have a lot of resources that can be
used to reason and identify the correctness of the claims.

Finally, knowledge acquired in the 2013 curriculum context is not merely in

textual mode. It is already related to the context. So, students’ understanding
about something is much more meaningful. They know the concept and in
addition they also know its application.

Paper presented at an International Seminar on Addressing Higher Order Thinking: Critical Thinking Issues in
Primary Education. Islamic University of Muhammadiyah Makasar, April 12—13, 2014 9
​
Examples of Developing Critical Thinking
Skills

Finally, here are examples on how to develop critical thinking

skills.

Example 1.
Project

Consider the sub theme ‘​Energi bagi Kehidupan’​ which is given in the fourth
week of theme ‘​Selalu Berhemat Energi’​ . Authors of the book give us freedom
to develop teaching and learning activities they want. Authors just give a very
broad guidance that the students may observe wind, water, and electricity.

To promote critical thinking actually teachers can ask the students to work of
the following project:

The principal of elementary school A wants reduce the amount of money the
school spent each month to 50% off the regular spending. The students may
consider the use of water, winds, and electricity to reduce it. Develop a poster
from which the principal of school A may determine which alternative he/she
may choose to fulfill his/her expectation.

To solve this problem, students should work on what aspects of the school that
require school spending money. They should also recognize the function of each
tool in the school and its relation to the use of wind, water, and electricity.

Once they complete all of these activities, they have to plan the possible
solutions, compare the cost of each solution, and deciding the best solution.

However, since there will be some assumptions related to the solution,

students’ choice for solution will be vary and this will enable students to
compare and contrast their solutions (assumptions, processes, and results).
The development of critical thinking is possible through this activity.

Example 2.
Problem
 ​ hich is given in
Consider the sub theme ‘​Makhluk Hidup di Sekitar Kita’ w
the fourth week of theme ‘​Peduli terhadap Mahkluk Hidup’.​

To promote critical thinking, teacher may raise a following

problem:

Paper presented at an International Seminar on Addressing Higher Order Thinking: Critical Thinking Issues in
Primary Education. Islamic University of Muhammadiyah Makasar, April 12—13, 2014 1
​ 0
School B wants to buy animals and flowers to make the school look more
beautiful. The budget for the school to buy animals and flowers is limited to
Rp5.000.000,- What should we buy and where should we set them in the school
yard?

The answer of one student (group of students) to this problem could be different
from the other students. This will enable students to discuss and review their
points of view, examine their solutions and develop their critical thinking.

Following the suggestions from the Critical Thinking Consortium (2013), once
the students completed the task, teacher may ask challenge question such as:
“would a peg ... make a better school yard?”. To answer this question, students
should do several things required to develop critical thinking.

Final
Remarks

Two examples given above are examples the use of project-based learning and
problem-based learning to promote critical thinking skills. However, it does not
mean that teachers should use problem-based learning and project-based
learning.

Teachers can use daily situations to promote their students’ critical thinking skills.
Preventing from easily give the solutions, and ask the students to think of the
problem, teachers will develop critical thinking skills. Probing and asking students
to provide justification during observing, questioning, exploring, and associating
activities, enabling students to develop their critical thinking skills. So, in addition
to the use of project-based learning and problem-based learning, teachers should
also very sensitive to any situations in their daily teaching and learning activities.
Teachers should utilize any chance to help their students develop critical thinking
skills.

What about the teaching of

mathematics?

In the context of 2013 curriculum, mathematics is not taught separately.

Thematic Integrative approach that is applied for teaching at primary school has
made the learning mathematics is developed through an agreed theme.
However, there is something in mathematics that has a potential to support the
development of critical thinking. Among 8 dimensions of universal intellectual
standards (Paul & Elder, 2008), 5 of them, namely: clarity, accuracy, precision,
logic, and fairness are some of important focus in mathematics learning.
Therefore, when a primary school teacher realizes that they are now teaching
mathematics (although this is done in a

Paper presented at an International Seminar on Addressing Higher Order Thinking: Critical Thinking Issues in
Primary Education. Islamic University of Muhammadiyah Makasar, April 12—13, 2014 1
​ 1
hidden thematic approach), the teacher should promptly use this opportunity to
teach critical thinking. The teacher should consistently encourage students to
seek clarity, accuracy, precision,, logic, and fairness every claims and
statements.

Finally, it seems that the teacher must model the application of critical thinking
skills in their daily life. Keep asking the students to provide reasons on why the
decide to do or not to do something, what will happen with that decisions, what
other alternatives that may existence, what strengths and weaknesses of their
claims, will promote students to develop critical thinking skills. This will help
students to see the pattern they can follow. So, there are many ways for the
teachers to develop critical thinking skills.

Referenc
es
As’ari, A.R. 2014a. ​Mewujudkan Pendekatan Saintifik dalam Kelas
Matematika.
Makalah disampaikan dalam Seminar Jurusan Matematika, Fakultas
Matematika dan Ilmu Pengetahuan Alam, Universitas Negeri Malang,
Rabu 5 Maret 2014.

As’ari, A.R. 2014b. ​Perspektif Global tentang Kurikulum 2013 Secara

Umum dan
Pembelajaran Matematika secara Khusus. M ​ akalah disampaikan dalam
Seminar Internasonal ‘Curiculum 2013 in Global Perspective’, Universitas
Muhammadiyah Ponorogo, Sabtu 8 Maret 2014.

Brown, M.N. & Kelley, S.M. 1986. ​Asking the right questions: A guide to
critical
thinking, 7​th ​ed. E
​ nglewood, NJ: Prentice
Hall.

Cottrell, S. 2005. ​Critical Thinking Skills: Developing Effective Analysis and

Argument.
New York, NY: Palgrave
MacMillan.

Ennis, R.H. 2011. ​The Nature of Critical Thinking: An Outline of Critical

Thinking
​ he revised version of a presentation at
Dispositions and Abilities. T
the Sixth International Conference on Thinking at MIT, Cambridge,
MA, July 1994.

Facione, P.F. 2007. ​Ctitical Thinking: What it is and Why it

Counts.

Facione, P.F. 2011. ​Ctitical Thinking: What it is and Why it Counts.

Millbrae, CA:
Measured Reasons and The California Academic
Press.
Paul, R. & Elder, L. 2008. ​The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking:
Concepts and
Tools​. Fifth Edition. Dillon Beach, CA: Foundation for Critical Thinking
Press.

Paper presented at an International Seminar on Addressing Higher Order Thinking: Critical Thinking Issues in
Primary Education. Islamic University of Muhammadiyah Makasar, April 12—13, 2014 1
​ 2
Ruggiero, V.P. 2012. ​Beyond Feelings: A Guide to Critical Thinking. ​New
York, NY:
McGraw-Hill Companies
Inc.

Schneider, V., 2002. ​Critical Thinking in the Elementary Classroom:

Problems and
Solutions.​ EPS UPDATE Electronic
Newsletter

Snyder, L.G. & Snyder, M.J. 2008. Teaching Critical Thinking and Problem
Solving
Skills. ​The Delta Pi Epsilon Journal, Vol. 1 No 2. pp. 90
– 99.​

The Critical Thinking Consortium. 2013. ​Critical Thinking With Early Primary
Students: Tips
for Teachers.​ TC​2​:
California

The Open University, 2008.​Thinking Critically​. Walton Hall, Milton Keynes MK7
6AA.
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Primary Education. Islamic University of Muhammadiyah Makasar, April 12—13, 2014 1
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