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Comparative Policing: Theory and Praxis
Cornelis Roelofse
University of Limpopo, South Africa

Abstract. This article propagates a  theoretical basis for performing comparative studies in  policing. Researchers, carrying
out comparative studies should be familiar with the  fundamental constructs that underpins policing philosophy, strategy
and  operations. The  fundamental constructs, namely political philosophy, culture and  religion, and  law underpins policing
philosophy and style while the contextual constructs, crime, economy and demography, are influenced by these fundamentals
and also, as a result of their reciprocal influence amongst themselves, inform policing strategy and operations. Policing agencies
fluctuate on a dichotomy of open and closed systems and the goal achievement system responds to all these influences and between
centralised and decentralised policing. This article focuses on some of the theoretical and practical issues in performing comparative
studies within and amongst police agencies. Comparisons need to be clearly demarcated, starting firstly with the topic. Theory
and  praxis should speak to  one another and  form the  foundation of  comparative studies in  policing. Without a  thorough
understanding of the constructs, comparative studies may lack depth and quality. Researchers, undertaking comparative studies
should be familiar with the fundamental constructs that underpin policing philosophy, strategy and operations. Furthermore
the contextual constructs, influenced both by the fundamental ones and also as a result of their reciprocal influence amongst
themselves, also lead to policing strategy and operations. Understanding the reciprocity amongst the different constructs is essential
for critical analyses as the basis for comparative studies.
DOI: 10.5604/20805268.1212127
http://dx.doi.org/10.5604/20805268.1212127

Keywords: comparative, policing, fundamental constructs, contextual constructs, religion, political, legal system

Introduction
The term “comparative policing” may at first glance seem very simplistic, simply
a compare-and-contrast exercise in which similarities and differences between
the selected cases or variables are analysed. Are comparative studies of policing
or its institutions an exercise that is purely at the discretion of the analyst or is there
a need for some grounded constructs on which comparisons can be made? Without
an understanding of the influences these constructs exert on policing, compar-
ative studies will be lacking philosophical and theoretical substance. Obviously,
the objectives will determine what will be compared but this article argues that
there are fundamental constructs that dictates the nature of policing and contex-
tual constructs that influence policing strategies and operations. “Comparative
Policing” implies similarities and contrasts. The question is, how do we go about
comparative analyses scientifically? As with all social sciences research and teach-
ing, theory should be our guiding principle.
There are many theories in social sciences and management, many analytical
tools and the world has 190 countries with Interpol membership, each having their
own political, economic and demographic variables as well as, global, regional
and national influences. In turn, each police organization has its own adopted policing
philosophy and strategic management approach. Furthermore there are a plethora
of other variables influencing policing in a country, area or precinct. This complicates
matters and alerts us to the fact that comparative policing studies are not a simple

Internal Security, July–December 2015 245

 Cornelis Roelofse

exercise. We need to carefully map the path along which we will travel to make com-
parisons and should not go about it in a haphazard way. This article develops a basic
methodology, grounded in selected theories and based on fundamental and con-
textual constructs that exert influence on policing, to serve as a basis for developing
a methodology for comparisons. It does not mean that this is the only method-
ological approach for such studies but the article focuses on fundamental aspects
and an approach that will direct comparative studies within a scientific footprint.

Background
Policing developed from a  basic need for social stability and  order within
communities. It  is  essentially a  law enforcement institution, necessitated by
the non-conforming behaviour1 of individuals who deviate from the generally held
and pursued norms within a given community. The proto-premise is that without
deviance there is no need for criminal justice. In fact there are millions of people
who never come into conflict with the law during their entire lives but on the other
hand there are millions who do. The normative system that existed in the ideal-typ-
ical community of old was the unwritten code of conduct enforced by the entire
community. Non-conforming behaviour was seen as  an  infringement that
threatened stability and as an act against the entire community. Collective action
against violators of the norms was taken and resulted in punishment like ostracism2
and corporal punishment, including the death penalty. As societies developed,
political philosophy and cultural perspectives, often inspired by religious views,
gave rise to specific state structures such as kingdoms, dictatorships, democracies,
theocracies and autocracies. To compare policing systems, it is necessary to reflect
on how religion, culture, politics and other factors determine the policing model
of a particular state, region or community. In fact, political philosophy is a funda-
mental construct of policing in a country.

Definition of Concepts
The concepts used in this article are defined hereunder.

Police
Police can be defined as an entity created by law, funded by government for
the specific purpose of maintaining social order and to enforce the law.

Policing
Policing refers to the actions taken by a police agency to fulfil a legal mandate
of which the end result is maintenance of order and keeping the peace.
1 
Roelofse C.J, The  challenges of  community policing?: A  management perspective.
Durban: LexisNexis, 2007.
2 
Pinninck A.P, Sierra C, Schorlemmer M, Distributed Norm Enforcement via Ostracism,
2015. Electronic source: http://groups.inf.ed.ac.uk/OK/Publications/Distributed%20norm%20
enforcement%20via%20ostracism.pdf, accessed: 10.06.2015.

246 Internal Security, July–December 2015

 Comparative Policing: Theory and Praxis

Comparison
In a social sciences context comparison refers to a specific methodology of ana-
lysing similarities and contrasts amongst selected entities and defined variables.

The Research Topic
The  methodology is  introduced in  both the  theoretical and  applicative
dimensions. In the article, both the theoretical constructs and practical aspects
of comparative methodology are introduced to explain the research approach.
Comparisons must be based on a research question. The research topic must set
clearly defined parameters enabling the selection of an appropriate methodology3
and should delineate the specific delimitations of the study such as spatial, time,
organisational, functional and other variables. The research questions should guide
the study in its demarcation, such as:
• Spatial (international, national, regional, local);
• Time (cross-sectional, longitudinal);
• Specify entities to be compared (South African police and another or South
African Metropolitan Police with the London Metropolitan police); and
• What should be compared, namely the selected variables for the study.
Examples of specific research areas could be like those mentioned hereunder:
• Compare Europol and  South African Regional Policing Coordinating
Committee’s intelligence driven policing models.
• Compare the pre- and post-1989 policing philosophy of the Polish Militia
with the new democratic police of Poland.
• Make a comparison between gender equality between Danish and Australian
police since 2000.
The research topic already demarcates and provides focus for the study so that
it remains within the set parameters.
Aspects such as the purpose and objectives of the study are the same as for any
other research project and hence not discussed here. However a major decision
is how we approach the study. Mostly comparative studies will make use of litera-
ture but can also collect data through interviews and questionnaires. The analyst
or researcher should decide on whether to use research questions or hypotheses.

Research Questions/Hypotheses
The  decision should be informed by the  nature of  the  study. If  one wants
to  understand the  perceived police role of  the  selected entities, interviews are
the best data collection technique. If one wants to compare corruption or torture,
questionnaires that ensure greater anonymity should be considered. Research ques-
tions and hypotheses should be generated as postulations of expected outcomes

3 
SAS Institute Inc. 2003. JMP Statistics and Graphics Guide. Cary, NC: SAS Institute Inc.
Electronic source: http://support.sas.com/publishing/pubcat/chaps/59814.pdf, pp.  3–5,
accessed: 10.06.2015.

Internal Security, July–December 2015 247

 Cornelis Roelofse

of  the  comparisons. “What are you interested in? What are you curious about?
This is a good place to start because your research should answer the question”.4
You have a question and now you need to turn it into a hypothesis. A hypothesis
is  an  educated prediction that provides an  explanation for an  observed event.
An observed event is a measurable result or condition. This means operationalising
a concept in such a way that it can be measured in the form of a quantifiable variable.

Theory
The  first observation in  comparisons is  that it  should be based on theory
and vested within a specific methodology. Walk (1998) writes, “To write a good
compare-and-contrast paper, you must take your raw data — the  similarities
and  differences you’ve observed — and  make them cohere into a  meaningful
argument”.5 One can perform a comparison at the inter-organisational level such
as between Poland and Belgium or at an intra-organisational level, meaning com-
paring variables within the same organisation within a country. For example how
does policing in Warsaw differ from policing in Gdansk? Analyses can also be made
by focusing on smaller areas or just one or more particular aspect such as budgets,
human resources, crime or strategies.
Walk6 provides five elements required for this process.
Frame of Reference.
“The  frame of  reference may consist of  an  idea, theme, question, problem,
or theory; a group of similar things from which you extract two for special attention;
biographical or historical information”.
Grounds for Comparison
The rationale behind your choice, the grounds for comparison, lets your reader
know why your choice is deliberate and meaningful, not random.
Thesis
A compare-and-contrast analysis depends on how the things you have chosen
to compare actually relate to one another. “Do they extend, corroborate, compli-
cate, contradict, correct, or debate one another”?7
Organizational Scheme
Walk8 states that there are two basic ways to organize such comparisons.
• In text-by-text, discussing all of A, then all of B.
• In point-by-point, alternating between points about A with comparable
points about B.
To discuss the comparable points one needs to link A and B.
4 
Kowalczyk D, Formulating the Research Hypothesis and Null Hypothesis, 2015. Electronic
source: http://study.com/academy/lesson/formulating-the-research-hypothesis-and-null-hy-
pothesis.html, accessed: 10.06.2015.
5 
Walk K, How to Write a  Comparative Analysis for the Writing Center at  Harvard Uni-
versity, 1998. Electronic source: http://writingcenter.fas.harvard.edu/pages/how-write-com​
parative-analysis.
6 
Ibid., pp. 1–2.
7 
Ibid., p. 2.
8 
Ibid.

248 Internal Security, July–December 2015

 Comparative Policing: Theory and Praxis

All argumentative analyses require you to  link each point in  the  argument
back to the thesis. Without such links, your reader will be unable to see how
new sections logically and systematically advance your argument. In a com-
pare-and-contrast, you also need to make links between A and B in the body
of your essay if you want your paper to hold together.
To make these links, he suggests that use should be made of transitional expres-
sions of comparison and contrast (similarly, moreover, likewise, on the contrary,
conversely, on the other hand) and contrastive vocabulary.
For instance during apartheid the  police in  South Africa… conversely after
1994… or the Militia in Poland focused on perceived enemies of the communist
regime, on the contrary, the new police unit in Poland focused on building a lasting
partnership with the Polish people.

What determines policing in societies?

A  particular policing philosophy or  strategy is  derived from superordinate
constructs emanating from the  major order components of  society such
as the politico-legal system. Diagram 1 below (designed by the author) indicates
the  main variables that determine the  type of  policing in  a  particular society.
In an analysis it is important to look at these aspects in a systematic manner. The way
to  understand the  diagram is  to  look at  the  fundamental constructs, namely
philosophy, culture, politico/legal variables. These are constituent variables which
are inter-dependent and inter-dynamic. They affect one another. Emanating from
each one of these variables is a number of sub-categories such as Politico/legal
that have a continuum of political ranging from liberal democracy to dictatorships
and the legal component that has common, civil, religious laws etc. Then there
are the contextual constructs that are influenced by the fundamental constructs.
These are crime, demography and economy. Equally these have sub-categories
such as capitalism, socialism and communistic economies.

Diagram 1.  Constructs of Policing

Demography

Crime Economy Contextual constructs

POLICING

Political Fundamental constructs

Philosophy Law

Culture
and
religion

Internal Security, July–December 2015 249

 Cornelis Roelofse

The arrows in the diagram above indicate that, for instance, philosophy has

an  influence on the  political and  economic system and  also influences crime.
Oppressive political systems often have a  record of  human rights violations.
Deductive analysis9 is  necessary to  determine how a  particular fundamental
construct influences other fundamental ones and in turn how these affect con-
textual constructs. As  a  general rule one can assume that the  fundamental
constructs of policing will dictate the policing philosophy and strategy of a country
and the contextual constructs the operational aspects. Each of these constructs are
now unpacked and some examples are given of how they affect policing. It stands
to reason that an analyst should understand the implications of these constructs
in order to arrive at a conclusion as to why policing is what it is in a particular
country.

Fundamental Constructs of Policing

Understanding the fundamental constructs will enable the analyst to clearly
understand the motivational factors behind:
• Policing philosophy (community, intelligence driven, zero tolerance, etc.);
• Policing style (oppressive, participative, discretionary, etc.);
• Open or closed institution;
• Perceived police role.

Culture and religion
An analyst should be looking at the dominant culture in a society. Parenti10
asserts that “What we call ‘our culture’ is largely reflective of existing hegemonic
arrangements within the social order, strongly favouring some interests over oth-
ers”. He continues by raising a very fundamental aspect of culture:
A society built upon slave labor, for instance, swiftly develops a racist culture,
replete with its own peculiar laws, science, and mythology, along with mecha-
nisms of repression directed against both slaves and the critics of slavery. After
slavery is abolished, racism continues to fortify the inequitable social relations —
which is what Engels meant when he said that slavery leaves its “poisonous sting”
long after it passes into history.11
To  contextualize this, it  is  important to  note that slavery in  early England
and America12 was defended on religious and cultural grounds and the same applies
to  apartheid. Where culture is  racist, sexist and  ethnically based one is  bound
 9 
Nordquist R, Deduction, 2015. Electronic source: http://grammar.about.com/od/d/g/
deductionterm.htm, accessed: 10.06.2015.
10 
Parenti C, Monthly review Volume 50, Issue 09 (February) / Reflections on the Politics
of Culture, 1999. Electronic source: http://www.msn.com/en-za?pc=HPNTDF&OCID=HPDHP,
p. 1, accessed: 18.05.2015.
11 
Ibid., p. 1.
12 
Robinson B.A, A brief history of the “peculiar institution” of slavery 16th–18th centu-
ries, in North America & Britain, 2006. Electronic source: http://www.religioustolerance.org/
sla_hist.htm, p. 1, accessed: 10.06.2015.

250 Internal Security, July–December 2015

 Comparative Policing: Theory and Praxis

to find a political system based on these prejudices. Policing will be oppressive

and police ranks will have few female officers. Examples of such policing are found
in pre-1994 South Africa and still today in aboriginal communities in Canada, Amer-
ica and Australia. The perpetuation of culture comes through the entrenchment
within institutions. To this end Parenti13 asserts that:
We get our culture from a network of social relations involving other people:
primary groups such as family, peers, and other informal associations within
the community or, as is increasingly the case, from more formally articulated
and legally chartered institutions such as schools, media, churches, government
agencies, corporations, and the military.
Culture can direct politics and give rise to a particular style of policing. It often
takes the development of a contra-culture and conflict to change such societies.

Political Philosophy
Political philosophy culminates in  a  political ideology and  eventually into
political systems. The five most common political systems around the world are
described by Donavan:14
In a comparative study one should be fully conversant with the types of political
systems in force in the country/countries involved in the analysis.

1. Democracy
Representative Democracy: These democracies have regular elections where
citizens elect representatives who then become the law makers and put together
a government. The policing system in such democracies tends to be decentralized
such as in America and Great Britain. Metropolitan and municipal police agencies
are often responsible to the mayor or a committee. Partnership policing, community
policing, problem orientated policing and the rule of law (particularly constitutional
law)15 are fundamental components of policing.

2. Republic
Republics are obviously democracies and have constitutions. These are referred
to  as  constitutional democracies. It  is  however important to  note that some
countries calling themselves republics do not qualify as  such. Republics imply
accountability to the electorate through candidates nominated by competing par-
ties and that regular free and fair elections are held. The People’s Republic of China
is an example where there are no opposition parties. Some of the types of republics
that you might see include:
• Federal (the United States is often referred to as a federal republic) — decen-
tralised policing
13 
Parenti C, op. cit., p. 2.
14 
Donavan P, The Five Most Common Political Systems Around The World, 2011. Electronic
source: http://politicalcommunicationdivisions.blogspot.com/2011/08/five-most-common​
-political-systems.html).
15 
Meares T.A, Law of  Community Policing and  Public Order Policing. Encyclopaedia
of  Criminology and  Criminal Justice, 2014. Electronic source: http://link.springer.com/refer​
enceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-1-4614-5690-2_543, pp.  2823–2827, accessed: 10.06.2015.

Internal Security, July–December 2015 251

 Cornelis Roelofse

• Parliamentary Republics (South Africa and Poland — centralised policing).

In South Africa the provinces are not federal territories. Such territories have
much more power in federal systems. So the power of federalism can clearly
be seen in the USA some states have the death penalty in force, but others
not. Each federal state has the power to decide on certain matters.

3. Monarchy
There are distinctions between ceremonial monarchies, such as  Belgium
and the Netherlands and absolute monarchies like Brunei, Andorra (in the Pyrenees
mountains separating France and Spain), UAE and Swaziland. In these monarchies,
the king has the final say. There is a variant on this, called constitutional monar-
chies16 where the constitution limits the powers of the monarch. Denmark, Kuwait,
Sweden, Belgium and others are examples.

4. Communism
There is a difference between Western European and Eastern and Asian com-
munism. Communism is based on Marxist/Leninist philosophy and in its basic form
is undemocratic and exercise strict control over citizens. The state is dominated
by the communist party and there are no free and fair elections with competing
political parties. The economy is controlled and strict controls are exercised on who
is leaving and entering the country. Part of police work is to control and spy on
citizens and visitors.
This violates the  trias politica where there should be a  separation between
the different arms of government. For example in North Korea, the police force
is under the control of the Communist Party17 and is a repressive force, exercising
complete control over citizens. Free social media, freedom of speech, and peaceful
assembly is out of the question

Dictatorship
Another authoritarian form of government is the dictatorship. Dictators are not
restricted by constitutions or parliaments. Elections are often held with one candi-
date only or with high level intimidation of opposition candidates and supporters.
Currently, the rulers of Eritrea, Syria, Sudan, Zimbabwe and a few others are
considered as dictators. The police in dictatorships are loyal to the dictator and are
used as a force to protect and ensure that opposition to the dictator is quenched.
Violation of human rights is the order of the day.
In Dictatorships, the position is that the military forces and the police operate
in  conjunction or  often the  police are subject to  the  military. This is  the  case
for instance in  Egypt where a  military junta is  in  power following the  ousting
16 
British monarchist league Constitutional Monarchy, 2014. Electronic source: http://
www.monarchist.org.uk/constitutional-monarchy.html, accessed: 10.06.2015.
17 
Gause K.E, Coercion, Control, Surveillance, and  Punishment: An  Examination
of  the  North Korean Police State. Electronic source: http://www.hrnk.org/2E832CA2-F422
-4BBF-B984-C06FC14EDBE0/FinalDownload/DownloadId-A3DE66372AF3A0526935675418B
F41EC/2E832CA2-F422-4BBF-B984-C06FC14EDBE0/uploads/pdfs/HRNK_Ken-Gause_Web.pdf,
p. 26, accessed: 10.06.2015.

252 Internal Security, July–December 2015

 Comparative Policing: Theory and Praxis

of Mubarak. Also in Eritrea,18 the military has effectively taken over the police role
with military units stationed at each police station. Citizens are harassed and the rule
of law does not apply. Police have vast powers of arrest and detention. Warrants are
not always sought and visits to detainees are highly regulated and often refused.
Torture to extract confessions is standard practice.
While authoritarian political systems have the advantage of quick decisions
being made, many citizens prefer other forms of government — those that allow
them greater participation in the political process.

Hybrid systems
The Vatican, ruled by the Pope of the Roman Catholic Church, is an independent
city state. It is a religious monarchy. One of the remarkable aspects of policing
and security is that Swiss guards (thus from a foreign state) are deployed in the Vati-
can.19 Another religious democracy is Iran. It has a supreme religious leader assisted
by advisers. The supreme leader is assisted by an elected parliament.

Legal systems
Another fundamental construct influencing policing is  the  legal system
of a country. A variety of legal systems exist in the world. The main issue here is that
law, linked to politics, will determine the police mandate. To compare policing
agencies one should understand on what legal basis they operate.
In the analysis establish which legal system (s) forms the basis for policing.

Common law
The nations that use this form of law are those that developed from the Brit-
ish colonies and  can be considered as  having Anglo-American Justice. Former
British Colonies such as  Australia, New Zealand, India, America, Nigeria, South
Africa and India were all influenced by the Peelian doctrine of policing. In many
of these countries the police are decentralized in line with the democratic prin-
ciple of devolution of power. There are over 4000 policing agencies in the USA
and a total of between 16,000–18,000 state and local law enforcement agencies.20
These include local (town/city police and county policing such as the New York
Police Department (NYPD) the Drug Enforcement Administration, game rangers
etc. There are federal agencies that co-ordinate particular aspects of policing such
as the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and the Central Intelligence Agency
(CIA). The common law tradition is that judgment is made by precedent and rests
on the principle of evidence presented within an independent judicial system.

18 
Events monitor 2005. In Eritrea, the military has effectively taken over the police role
with military units stationed at each police station. Electronic source: http://www.ehrea.org/
Terroolice.htm, p. 1, accessed: 10.06.2015.
19 
Pattke J, Vatican — Swiss Guard (Part I), 2015. Electronic source: http://www.crwflags​
.com/fotw/flags/va-swiss.html, p. 1, accessed: 10.06.2015.
20 
Bier D, By the Numbers: How Many Cops Are There In the USA?, 2014. Electronic source:
http://blog.skepticallibertarian.com/2014/08/26/by-the-numbers-how-many-cops-are-there​
-in-the-usa/, accessed: 10.06.2015.

Internal Security, July–December 2015 253

 Cornelis Roelofse

Police under this kind of system are required to respect the law, adhere to the rule
of law, human rights and, for the most part, also have a community policing phi-
losophy.

Civil law
Civil law is practiced in about 48% of the countries of the world. It is also known
as  Roman-Germanic justice or  Continental Justice and  most of  the  European
countries as well as Japan and some South American countries adhere to civil law.
It is inquisitorial and judges play a more active role in trials than under common
law. Koci21 writes that there are fewer rights for the accused and the law is taken
very literally with little room for interpretation. The police are equally professional
but less pre-occupied by partnership orientation. They maintain an air of formality
and are generally not as close to communities as in common law systems.

Socialist systems
These systems are characterized by positive law, meaning that it is a progressive
instrument to  move the  state and  mankind to  perfection in  the  utopian state.
Unlike in common law, judges are not allowed to make laws (precedent judgments
resulting in  the  development of  common law). Administrative law is  practiced
where non-legal officials make most decisions. It is in essence a repressive system
where the individual is supposed to adhere to all state dictates and is therefore
often submitted to surveillance, arbitrary arrests, interrogation, detention without
trial and other human rights violations. The police are centralised, focused on intel-
ligence gathering, serve the communist party and are feared by the people. They
are a closed institution with little incentive to involve the general public apart from
spying on one another.

Islamic and religious systems

It  is  simply divine law as  it  is  recorded in  the  Koran. Islamic law is  natural-
istic and considers crime as behaviour that offends moral or religious tradition.
It means that in a sense these countries are theocracies where legal and religious
law runs parallel. They are intrinsically linked and inseparable. Sharia law is fun-
damentalist and deviation from it is not tolerated. Policing is centralised in most
instances and may have a branch for religious affairs. For instance in Saudi Arabia,
the Committee for the Promotion of Virtue and Prevention of Vice,22 is responsible
for enforcing Sharia (the path to follow). It enforces Sharia, often accompanied by
volunteers, and will enforce social rules particularly discriminating against women
and often also against foreigners.23 Laws against alcohol consumption, dietary laws
21 
Koci A, Legitimization and culturalism. Towards policing change in the post-socialist
European countries, [in:] Pagon M (Ed.), Policing in Central and Eastern Europe: Comparing
First Hand Knowledge with the West. Ljubljana: College of police and Security Studies, 1996.
22 
Hilleary C, Saudi Religious Police Work to Improve Image, 2013. Electronic source: http://
www.voanews.com/content/saudi-religious-police-polishing-their-image/1629922.html,
accessed: 10.06.2015.
23 
Americans for Democracy and Human Rights in Bahrain, 2015. Commission for the Pro-
motion of Virtue and the Prevention of Vice. Electronic source: http://adhrb.org/wp-content/
uploads/2015/04/2015.03.31_Ch.-1-CPVPV.pdf, accessed: 10.06.2015.

254 Internal Security, July–December 2015

 Comparative Policing: Theory and Praxis

and the like are enforced. It is clear from the above exposition that the fundamental

constructs have a direct bearing on the type of policing in a country. In compar-
ing policing in different countries it is essential to determine the fundamental
constructs present in a country in order to understand the policing philosophy
and strategies and even the organisational design.

Analytical Theories for Comparisons

Systems theory and Reciprocal Moral Dualism
Policing is  delivered within a  particular context based on the  influences
of  the  fundamental constructs. Hence the  police are structured and  staffed
in a particular way and operate within a specific philosophy. They interact with
the environment around them and also internally within and amongst their units.
French and Bell24 opine that goal achievement comes via the integrated use of sub-
systems within an organization. This is depicted in Diagram 2 below.

Diagram 2.  Subsystems that influence organisational

Technological
Task subsystem
subsystem
- Tasks
- Subtasks - Tools
- Machines
- Procedures
- Technical
GOAL
knowledge
SUBSYSTEM
Super ordinate
goals
Subunit goals
Human-social
Structural subsystem
subsystem
Skills & abilities
- Organisational Leadership/Philosophy
Subdivision
- Rules Formal Informal
- Authority Rewards Staffing
- Co-ordination Appraisal Norms &
- Control Bargaining values
- Decision-making Justice Status
Interaction
Influence

Source: French W.L, Bell C.H, Organisation Development…, op. cit., p. 41

24 
French W.L, Bell C.H, Organisation Development, 2nd Ed. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall
Inc., 1978.

Internal Security, July–December 2015 255

 Cornelis Roelofse

This speaks for the system’s theory (input, process and output) that is widely
used in the public and private sectors as analytical tool. Comparative studies will do
well to use this diagram to select variables for comparisons. For example the goal
sub-system, derived from strategic planning, directs the  organisation towards
its achievement. The fundamental constructs in turn inform strategic planning.
It influences the entire agency. It aligns its structure, staffing, budgets and opera-
tions and sets the scene for the management of the agency. In the diagram below
some of the goal achievement approaches that agencies can follow are depicted.
These range from centralisation to delegation and decentralisation. This relates
to the dichotomy contained in diagram where closed systems are normally cen-
tralised in their decision making and management and open systems tend to be
more decentralised and to delegate authority to lower echelons.

Diagram 3.  Goal achievement

Centralisation Authority
Policy
Goal Formalisation
achievement
Delegation
Operationalisation
rules &
regulations

Discretion and
decentralisation

Source: (Roelofse, 2007)

In  addition, Reciprocal Moral Dualism relates how the  interaction between
the three constituent components of policing in an open social system, namely,
society, the police organisation and the individual officer, takes place. The two the-
ories enable analyses of the higher order systems of the external environment such
as demography, politico-legal and economic components and how these influence
the organisation and society as well as the individual police officer.
The following procedure should be used to analyse a system:25
(a) DEFINE A CONCEPTUAL BOUNDARY
The boundary of the system is defined to reduce the scope of the problem
and  to  ensure that the  correct focus is  attained in  the  analysis. The  definition
of the boundary is discretionary. If it is defined too broadly the analysis will become
too cumbersome to handle. On the other hand, if it is defined too narrowly, it will
result in a localised and ineffective analysis.
The definition of the boundary is often guided by the scope of the problem.
The police may include in their boundary a forensic laboratory that may be far

25 
Prekel T, Management and the Environment. Unpublished guide. School of Business
Leadership. Pretoria: Unisa, 1986, pp. 11–16.

256 Internal Security, July–December 2015

 Comparative Policing: Theory and Praxis

removed from the  precinct. Similarly a  court, or  a  supplier that supplies vital
equipment, may be outside the  precinct boundary. If  the  forensic laboratory
experiences staff shortages, the analyses needed by the police may be delayed
and  the  throughput rate as  well as  convictions may be affected. In  addition,
social media, political leadership and ideological mentors may even be situated
in another country.
The relationship, influence, supplies and so forth between the entities being
compared may be vastly different, depending on their conceptual boundaries.
(b) IDENTIFY THE PARTS OF THE SYSTEM
The parts of the system inside the boundary must now be identified. The parts
of the system are entities or elements of the system and their definition depends on
the level of detail required for the analysis. We can identify divisions, departments,
sections, but also functions such as training, investigations, logistical practices,
budgeting and such like.
(c) IDENTIFY THE PARTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT
It is seldom sufficient to treat the environment as an undifferentiated amorphous
entity within which the system interacts. Generally certain parts of the system will
have more specific interactions with specific parts of the environment than others.
Whenever this occurs it  may make the  analysis more realistic to  consider such
an external part as a sub-system in the environment. As indicated above, the envi-
ronment consists of a number of major order systems within which the entities
operate. For example the political environment of the police in North and South
Korea differs greatly while the economic conditions in African countries such as Mali
(poverty) and Botswana (economic prosperity). Police numbers and equipment
in proportion to population and GDP may be more influenced by economic condi-
tions that the crime rate.
(d) DETERMINE THE  INTERACTION BETWEEN THE  PARTS OF  THE  SYSTEM
THEMSELVES AND BETWEEN PARTS OF THE SYSTEM AND THE ENVIRONMENT
The  interaction between the  parts of  the  system themselves and  the  envi-
ronment can be identified in  terms of  flow of  goods, materials, staff, vehicles,
information and  communications, equipment, to  name just a  few. Whenever
it is possible an attempt must be made to quantify the relationship, that is, attempt
to establish a mathematical relationship for the variables e.g. number of crimes
reported to  number of  crimes solved. Comparisons can be made between
the number of reported crimes, number of police vehicles and kilometres travelled
in relation to the square kilometres (size) of entities being compared.
(e) ANALYSE AND COMPARE TRENDS IN THE VARIABLES
Only at  this stage is  it  appropriate to  start analysing the  problem. Through
analysis and research, knowledge and insight are gained which can be used for
the purpose of comparison. Roelofse (2012; 2013) developed the theory of Recip-
rocal Moral Dualism indicating how society, the police and the individual officer
interact. Organisations and agencies find themselves somewhere on a continuum
between open and closed systems. This determines how they view their mandate,
develop strategies, engage the public, deal with crime and corruption within their
own ranks and how they execute their duties. This is demonstrated by a simple
diagram below:

Internal Security, July–December 2015 257

 Cornelis Roelofse

Diagram 4.  The individual and police within society: open social system

police
organization

officer

society

It was Whisenand (1976) that referred to the police in an open social system

context. Hart (1996:1) also refers to the police in this manner when he asserts that,
“…it can be shown that police organisations may be considered as open systems
and the concept of their ‘degree of openness’ might be introduced. It is suggested
that that the greater the amount of information shared by a policing system with
its environment, the greater the degree of openness.” The diagram above shows
society as the component that encompasses the organisation and the individual.
The borders between the organization and the individual are porous demonstrat-
ing an open social system with flow of goods, humans and information in an ideal
setting. The individual has a dual location as being the mode of transport between
the organisation and society in a reciprocal way. The police officer brings societal
values and  culture into the  organization and  again exports organisational cul-
ture and service to society. The porosity of the organization and the individual
indicates a reciprocal influence potential through socialization and association.
Similarly, the porosity between society and the organisation contributes to recipro-
cal influences. In developing policing philosophy, approaches and strategies, these
influences shape the nature of policing. For example the politico-legal environment
may differ from country to country and has a definite bearing on policing. In com-
paring countries or regions, these influences need to be analysed.

Diagram 5.  Individual and police within society-closed system

officer
police
organization

society

Source: (Roelofse, 2011)

258 Internal Security, July–December 2015

 Comparative Policing: Theory and Praxis

Diagram 5 portrays an organisation that is closed and an individual that fully

identifies with the police and has become alienated from society. The bound-
aries are solid which represents, secrecy, alienation and poor communication
with society. Closed systems have relatively rigid and impenetrable boundaries
(Zainbooks.com, 2013:1) One should take into account that society, as repre-
sented by the  larger circle, may have diverse local content in  the  context
of  the  police. The  police in  one community that is  very homogenous may
largely conform but in heterogenic “communities” there will be diverse opin-
ions. This can be substantiated by the  posits of  Bartle (2008:8) who states
that: “[s]hared community standards are important in community and personal
identity; who one  is, is very much a  matter of  what values one believes in.
The degree to which community or organisational members share values, and/
or respect each others’ values, is… important…” The consequence is simple
in that corrupt societies produce corrupt police officers. Bartle (2008:8) further
contends that: “[v]alues tend to change as the community grows more complex,
more heterogeneous, more connected to the world”. Societies and individuals
thus have reciprocal impacts on value systems. Organisations, like humans,
have identity, can grow, develop stress and even die. Hence the RMD theory
sees organisations as humanoids.

The continuum of open/closed systems

In practice one cannot state that police organizations are situated at the extreme
ends of a continuum with various degrees of interaction with the environment.
They must at least rely on society for input of some sorts. See Diagram 6 below.
Oppressive societies’ police will be more to  the  closed end of  the  continuum
while democratic ones will be further to the other end. Movement as indicated
by the arrows is possible such as have been experienced in Eastern Europe as well
as South Africa where the police became more involved in partnership policing
and interactive with society.

Diagram 6.  Continuum of open/closed systems

officer police
organization
police
organization
Negative officer
society change Positive
change society

Source: (Roelofse, 2011)

Internal Security, July–December 2015 259

 Cornelis Roelofse

From this theory we can thus compare police organisations on the continuum

of open and closed systems. One would argue that in societies, stemming from
the  systems theory and  reciprocal moral dualism, forces emanate that deter-
mine the direction of policing. In analysing police organisations for comparative
purposes, the fundamental constructs as depicted in Diagram 4 will determine
the philosophical approach of policing as well as the position the organisation
holds on the continuum (Diagram 6).

The police role
The police role is inextricably bound to the constructs set out in diagram 1 above.
In terms of the selected theories, the role is performed by individual officers, within
an organizational culture that interacts within the dichotomy of open and closed
systems. How the role is perceived and executed give a clear indication of what
type of policing agency one is dealing with. In diagrams 4 and 5 the individual
police officers are depicted within the open or closed system. Larger society (public
and private) impose cultural, religious and political views on the officer and police
agency. There is an import export relationship amongst the three entities that
shapes the execution of the perceived role. Some indicators of open and closed
systems are listed in Table 1 below.

Table 1.  Indicators of open and closed systems

Open systems Closed systems

Long-term strategy Short-term results
Maintenance of order Law enforcement
Persuasive policing Coercive policing
Police service Police authority
Selective policing Oppressive policing
Passive policing Extensive policing
Discretion Rigidity
Guardian style Legalistic style

Additional Constructs
It has been alluded to above that the fundamental constructs and the concep-
tual constructs have a multi-lateral reciprocal relationship. This is demonstrated
through Diagram 7 below. Not only do these inter-relationships impact one another
with the fundamental constructs being the drivers, they also influence policing.
However in comparative studies it is essential to note that crime and law; demog-
raphy, culture and religion; and economy and politics and philosophy have a more
direct bearing on one another.

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 Comparative Policing: Theory and Praxis

Diagram 7.  Inter-relational influences of constructs

Demography

Crime Economy Contextual constructs

POLICING

Political Fundamental constructs

Legal
Philosophy

Culture
and
religion

Crime
Crime, and particularly an increase in serious and violent crimes, is mostly used
as motivation to increase police numbers. The cliché that more police will lead
to less crime is often used by police managers and politicians alike. Comparing
crime rates between countries is  not a  simple matter as  the  causative factors
invariably will differ. For example see the argument of the author hereunder about
poverty and crime.

Economy
The economic system (free-market, socialist or mixed) in counties of comparison
should be taken into account, especially when variables such as salaries, resourcing,
bribery and corruption amongst police officers and crime in general are compared.
Aspects to consider are explained by means of an example of crime against busi-
nesses in cities A and B. Some factors to consider are:
• Numbers and types of businesses in the cities
• Actual reported crime rates against business;
• Unreported crime
• Crime reported for insurance purposes only
• Security costs and measures applied by each business;
• Annual losses as a result of crime against businesses; and
• Inflation.
Needless to say, more comprehensive comparisons would need more variables
to be considered but purely stating that city A had 212 burglaries and City B, only
121 may look totally different when one comes to know that city B has 9231 and
City B, 2345 businesses. The ratio between the two cities is quite different. City A

Internal Security, July–December 2015 261

 Cornelis Roelofse

has a ratio of 1:43.5 and City B 1:19.4, meaning that only one in 43 business have
been burgled in city A as opposed to 1 in 19 in City B.
One of the economic indicators most frequently used to express the effects
of inflation on the spending power of the consumer is the consumer price index
(CPI). Simplistically it can be stated that when an increase in demand for a product
and a decrease in supply occur at the same time there will be a pronounced increase
in  price. This can lead to  an  inflationary spiral and  a  general rise in  the  prices
of  goods. The  upward trend in  prices can be absorbed by middle and  higher
income groups but breadline income groups, the aged and unemployed may have
to resort to alternatives to survive. One such an alternative is crime. Crimes such
as shoplifting, common theft, housebreaking, dealing in drugs and prostitution are
commonly known as crimes of “income.” Inflation erodes available cash and also
effects employees in the business which can lead to pilfering and fraud.

Demographics
Police organisations operate within a larger demography and also have demo-
graphic characteristics themselves. Demographic variables such as  population
distribution, per capita income, urbanisation and the like are essential aspects
of the society within which police agencies function. Demography can be used by
analysing the environment within which a particular agency operates and compar-
isons with the demography of other agencies can be made. Specific variables for
comparison in the country or area’s demography are for example:
• Age distribution of population in the area;
• Percentage of economically active people;
• Percentage of unemployed people;
• Lobbying groups such as green groups;
• Ethnic groups as a percentage of total population; and
• the Human Development Index.
Within the  police, rank, age and  gender distribution, ethnic composition
and  qualifications can be compared. Income distribution, average time spent
in a specific rank (for instance by gender and qualification), arrests made per offi-
cer by gender and rank and length of service are just a few variables that can be
compared. Multi-variable comparisons, using cross-correlations are able to present
insights that are worth researching. Some of the variables that can be selected for
comparison are:
• Type of ranks, civil or military.
• Ratios of ranks and span of control.
• Depth of structure.
• Number of male and female officers per rank.
• Number of detectives.
• Number of dockets per detective; etc.
• Police management, assess aspects like:
— Reporting to a particular ministry;
— Oversight structures (including investigations into corruption allegations,
deaths in police action and custody).
• Total land per square kilometres and police officers per square kilometre.

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 Comparative Policing: Theory and Praxis

• Number of police vehicles per 100,000 or 10,000 km of roads.

• Total population and police officers per 100,000 of the population.
• Number of  crimes reported per 100,000 of  population/Specific crimes
and victim profiles.
• Rural vs urban populations and police distribution within urban and rural
areas.
• Crimes going to court and conviction rates.
• Number of investigation dockets handled by one detective.
• Fluctuation in annual crime rates and movement in police staff numbers
in a longitudinal analysis.
Suffice to say that these are only a few variables and that researchers can add
many more.

Conclusion
This article focuses on some of the theoretical and practical issues in performing
comparative studies within and amongst police agencies. Comparisons need to be
clearly demarcated, starting firstly with the topic. Theory and praxis should speak
to one another and form the foundation of comparative studies in policing. Without
a thorough understanding of the constructs, comparative studies may lack depth
and quality. Researchers, undertaking comparative studies should be familiar with
the fundamental constructs that underpin policing philosophy, strategy and opera-
tions. Furthermore the contextual constructs, influenced both by the fundamental
ones and also as a result of their reciprocal influence amongst themselves, also lead
to policing strategy and operations. Understanding the reciprocity amongst the dif-
ferent constructs is essential for critical analyses as the basis for comparative studies.

References
1. Donavan P, The Five Most Common Political Systems Around The World, 2011.
Electronic source: http://politicalcommunicationdivisions.blogspot.com/​
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tice-Hall Inc., 1978.
3. Gause K.E, Coercion, Control, Surveillance, and  Punishment: An  Examina-
tion of the North Korean Police State. Electronic source: http://www.hrnk.org/​
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E0/uploads/pdfs/HRNK_Ken-Gause_Web.pdf, p. 26, accessed: 10.06.2015.
4. Koci A, Legitimization and culturalism. Towards policing change in the post-so-
cialist European countries, [in:] Pagon M (Ed.), Policing in Central and Eastern
Europe: Comparing First Hand Knowledge with the West. Ljubljana: College
of police and Security Studies, 1996.
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6. Parenti C, Monthly review Volume 50, Issue 09 (February) / Reflections on

the Politics of Culture, 1999. Electronic source: http://www.msn.com/en-za?pc=​
HPNTDF&OCID=HPDHP, p. 1, accessed: 18.05.2015.
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ness Leadership. Pretoria: Unisa, 1986.
8. Roelofse C.J, Acta Criminologica Crimsa Conference 2012. Theoretical reflections
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logica. Special Edition No. 2 of 2012. (pp. 135–154). Pretoria: Crimsa, 2012.
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About the author

Cornelis J. Roelofse, PhD, is a professor at the Department of Criminology and Criminal Justice

of the University of Limpopo. His main fields of scientific interests are criminology, criminal justice
and  community policing. Correspondence: University of  Limpopo, Faculty of  Humanities,
Department of Criminology and Criminal Justice, Private Bag X1106, Republic of South Africa.
E-mail: Cornelis.roelofse@ul.a2.za

Streszczenie. W artykule przedstawiono podstawy teorii stosowane podczas przeprowadzania badań porównawczych systemów
policyjnych. Naukowcy realizujący badania porównawcze powinni zapoznać się z podstawami, na których opiera się filozofia, strategia
oraz działania policji. Fundamentalne podstawy (filozofia polityczna, kultura, religia i prawo) są bazą dla policyjnej filozofii i stylu, gdy
konstrukcja kontekstualna (przestępczość, ekonomia i demografia) pozostają pod wpływem wymienionych pozycji fundamentalnych,
a rezultaty ich wzajemnych wpływów składają się na strategię i działalność policji. Zmiany w strukturach policji pochodzą z opozycji
systemów zamkniętych i otwartych, system osiągania celów znajduje się zaś zarówno pod wpływem wszystkich wymienionych
wyżej systemów, jak i systemu centralizacji/decentralizacji struktur policji. W artykule autor skupia się na wybranych teoretycznych
i praktycznych zagadnieniach prowadzenia badań porównawczych wewnątrz lub pomiędzy strukturami policji. Wszystkie badania
powinny być ściśle rozgraniczone, od tematyki rozpoczynając, teoria i praktyka — stać się natomiast elementami współgrającymi,
tworząc dobrą podstawę do badań porównawczych systemów policji. Bez pełnego uświadomienia sobie pełnej konstrukcji oraz
wzajemnego oddziaływania na siebie systemów, badanie może być pozbawione głębi i jakości. Naukowcy przystępujący do badań
porównawczych powinni mieć gruntowną wiedzę o fundamentach, na których opiera się filozofia, strategia i działalność policji.
Ponadto, konstrukcja kontekstualna, doświadczająca z jednej strony oddziaływania bazy fundamentalnej, z drugiej zaś wzajemnego
oddziaływania na siebie elementów zalicza się do podstaw strategii i działań policji. Zrozumienie współdziałania różnych systemów
lub ich części składowych jest niezbędne do przeprowadzenia analizy krytycznej, jako jednej z podstaw badań porównawczych.

Резюме. В данной статье предлагается теоретическая база для проведения сравнительных исследований поли-
цейских систем. Ученые, проводящие сравнительные исследования, должны быть знакомы с основоположениями,
на  которых держатся полицейские философия, стратегия и  деятельность. Эта фундаментальная база (поли-
тическая философия, культура и  религия, право) являются основой для полицейской философии и  стиля, в  то
время как контекстуальная надстройка (преступность, экономика и демография) находится под влиянием этой
фундаментальной базы, а результат их взаимного влияния выливается в формирование полицейской стратегии

264 Internal Security, July–December 2015

 Comparative Policing: Theory and Praxis

и деятельности. Изменения в полицейских структурах построены на противопоставлении открытых и закрытых

систем, а система достижения целей подвергается влиянию как всех выше перечисленных систем, так и системе
централизованности/децентрализованности полицейских структур. В данной статье обращается внимание на
избранные теоретические и практические вопросы при проведении сравнительных исследований внутри или между
полицейскими структурами. Сравнения должны быть строго разграничены, начиная с тематики. Теория и практика
должны гармонировать между собой, предоставляя основу для сравнительных исследований полицейских систем.
Без полного понимания конструкции и взаимодействия систем, такому исследованию может недоставать глубины
и качества. Исследователи, предпринимающие попытку сравнительных исследований, должны знать фундаменталь-
ную базу, на которой держатся полицейская философия, стратегия и деятельность. К тому же, контекстуальная
надстройка, находящаяся с одной стороны под влиянием фундаментальной базы, а с другой в результате их взаимного
влияния друг на друга, также является одной из важных основ полицейской стратегии и деятельности. Понимание
взаимодействия между различными системами или их составляющими является необходимым для проведения
критического анализа, как одной из основ сравнительных исследований.

Internal Security, July–December 2015 265

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permission.

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