3.1.

Power MOSFETs
Discrete power MOSFETs employ semiconductor processing techniques those
are similar to those of today's VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration) circuits, although
the device geometry, voltage and current levels are significantly different from the
design used in VLSI devices. The metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor
(MOSFET) is based on the original field-effect transistor introduced in the 70s. The
invention of the power MOSFET was partly driven by the limitations of bipolar
power junction transistors (BJTs).
Although it is not possible to define absolutely the operating boundaries of a
power device, it will loosely refer to the power device as any device that can switch at
least 1A. The bipolar power transistor is a current controlled device. A large base
drive current as high as one-fifth of the collector current is required to keep the device
in the ON state. Also, higher reverse base drive currents are required to obtain fast
turn-off. Despite the very advanced state of manufacturability and lower costs of
BJTs, these limitations have made the base drive circuit design more complicated and
hence more expensive than the power MOSFET. [08Dan]
Fig 3.4 shows I/V characteristics for the n-channel enhancement-type
MOSFET. It is the fastest power switching device, with switching frequency >MHz,
and with voltage power ratings up to 600V and current rating as high as 40A. Regions
of operations for MOSFET will be studied.
 Figure 3.4. I/V Characteristic of Power MOSFET [08Dan]

3.1.1. On State Resistance of Power MOSFET

When the MOSFET is in the on-state (triode region), the channel of the device
behaves like a constant resistance RDS(on), that is linearly proportional to the change
between VDS and ID as given by the following relation:
v DS
R DS(on)  vGS  Constant (3.1)
i D
The total conduction (on-state) power loss for a given MOSFET with forward
current ID and on-resistance RDS (on) is given by

Pon,diss  ID2 R DS(on) (3.2)

The value of RDS(on) can be significant and varies between tens of milliohms
and a few ohms for low-voltage and high-voltage MOSFETS, respectively. The on-
state resistance is an important data sheet parameter, because it determines the
forward voltage drop across the device and its total power losses. Unlike the current-
controlled bipolar device, which requires base current to allow the current to flow in
the collector, the power MOSFET device is a voltage-controlled unipolar device and
requires only a small amount of input (gate) current. As a result, it requires less drive
power than the BJT.
 However, it is a non-latching current like the BJT, that is, a gate source
voltage must be maintained. Moreover, as only majority carriers contribute to the
current flow, MOSFETs surpass all other devices in switching speed, which switching
speeds can exceed a few megahertz. Comparing the BJT and the MOSFET, the BJT
has greater power handling capabilities and smaller switching speed, while the
MOSFET device has less power handling capabilities and relatively fast switching
speed. The MOSFET device has a higher on-state resistor than the bipolar transistor.
Another difference is that the BJT parameters are more sensitive to junction
temperature when compared to the MOSFET and, unlike the BJT, MOSFET devices
do not suffer from second breakdown voltages and sharing current in parallel devices
is possible.

3.1.2. Breakdown Voltage of Power MOSFET

Breakdown voltage, BVDSS, is the voltage at which the reverse-biased body-
drift diode breaks down and significant current starts to flow between the source and
drain by the avalanche multiplication process, while the gate and source are shorted
together. BVDSS is normally measured at 250mA drain current. For drain voltages
below BVDSS and with no bias on the gate, no channel is formed under the gate at the
surface and the drain voltage is entirely supported by the reverse-biased body-drift p-n
junction. Two related phenomena can occur in poorly designed and processed
devices: punch-through and reach-through. Punch-through is observed when the
depletion region on the source side of the body-drift p-n junction reaches the source
region at drain voltages below the rated avalanche voltage of the device. This
provides a current path between source and drain and causes soft breakdown
characteristics as shown in Fig. 3.5. The leakage current flowing between source and
drain is denoted by IDSS. There are tradeoffs to be made between RDS(on) that requires
shorter channel lengths and punch-through avoidance that requires longer channel
lengths.
 Figure 3.5. Power MOSFET Breakdown Characteristics [13Dil]

3.1.3. Transconductance of Power MOSFET

Transconductance, is a measure of the sensitivity of drain current to changes
in gate-source bias. This parameter is normally quoted for a VGS that gives a drain
current equal to about one half of the maximum current rating value and for a VDS that
ensures operation in the constant current region. Transconductance is influenced by
gate width, which increases in proportion to the active area as cell density increases.
Cell density has increased over the years from around half a million per square
inch in 1980 to around eight million for planar MOSFETs and around 12 million for
the trench technology. The limiting factor for even higher cell densities is the
photolithography process control and resolution that allows contacts to be made to the
source metallization in the center of the cells. Channel length also affects
transconductance. The lower limit of this length is set by the ability to control the
double-diffusion process and is around 1-2mm today.

3.1.4. Threshold Voltage

Threshold voltage, Vth, is defined as the minimum gate electrode bias required

to strongly invert the surface under the poly and forms a conducting channel between
the source and the drain regions. Vth is usually measured at a drain-source current of

250mA. Common values are 2-4V for high voltage devices with thicker gate oxides,
and 1-2V for lower voltage, logic-compatible devices with thinner gate oxides. With
power MOSFETs finding increasing use in portable electronics and wireless
communications where battery power is at a premium, the trend is toward lower
values of RDS(on) and Vth.

3.1.5. The Diode Forward Voltage

The diode forward voltage, VF, is the guaranteed maximum forward drop of
the body-drain diode at a specified value of source current. P channel devices have a
higher VF due to the higher contact resistance between metal and p-silicon compared
with n-type silicon. Maximum values of 1.6V for high voltage devices (>100V) and
1.0V for low voltage devices (<100V) are common. The value of VSD is significant
and must be low in applications where the source-drain voltage may extend into the
negative range, causing forward biasing the body-drain diode.

3.1.6. Power Dissipation

The maximum allowable power dissipation that will raise the die temperature
to the maximum allowable when the case temperature is held at 250˚C is important. It
is given by Pd where:

Tjmax  25
Pd  (3.3)
R th JC

Tjmax = Maximum allowable temperature of the p-n junction in the device

RthJC = Junction-to-case thermal impedance of the device

Because a MOSFET's power dissipation depends greatly on its on-resistance

(RDS(ON)), calculating RDS(ON) seems a good place to start. But a MOSFET's on-
resistance depends on the junction temperature (TJ). In turn, TJ depends on the power
dissipated in the MOSFET and the thermal resistance of the MOSFET (TJA).

3.2. Design Calculation of Air-core Coil

It was simple to build and, most importantly, it was a current oscillator and not
a voltage oscillator. As current through an inductor was what generates the magnetic
field, this was what will drive both coils. A coil was taken to make it resonate at a
particular frequency using a capacitor and then it was placed near a similarly tuned
coil and use the oscillating magnetic field of the first to cause the second to resonate.
The inductance and capacitance for both resonating coils were the same. The
inductance was determined by the combination of number of number of turns and
diameter. Air-core coil pattern was shown in Fig 3.6.

Figure 3.6. Air-core Coil Pattern

The coil design was important in wireless power transfer to get the better
efficiency. Many shapes of coil such as circular, rectangular, spiral and square coils
were mostly used in wireless power transfer. The circular coil shape was chosen
because it had less losses and better efficiency than other coil shapes. Air-Core coil
design was chosen in this thesis because the air core had less weight than other core
coil and it was used at high frequencies because they were free from energy losses
called core losses that occur in ferromagnetic cores, which increase with frequency.
To calculate the size of the air-core coil, the distance between the transmitter
and receiver was assumed 3cm. To calculate the radius of the air core coil,

a  2z (3.4)
Where,
Distance, z = 3cm
Radius of the coil, a = 4.24cm
In this system, the diameter of the coil was chosen 3.175cm.

3.2.1. Calculation of the Gauge of Copper Wire Coil

Skin Depth is a measure of how closely electric current flows along the
surface of a material. The skin depth determines the effective current carrying area of
the coil and is a function of frequency and permeability and conductivity of the
medium. The skin depth decreases with higher frequency.
The skin depth,
1
δ (3.5)
πfμσ

Where,

 = conductivity of the material (5.8  10 7 for Copper)

δ = skin depth

μ = permeability of material (4 π  10 7 )

μ = permeability (F/m) = μ 0μ r

μ 0 = Permeability of air = (4 π  10 7 ) (h/m)

μ r = 1 for Copper, Aluminum, Gold, etc.

From the equation (3.4),
1
δ (3.6)
π  122.6  10 7  4π  10 7  5.8  10 7
= 0.188cm = 0.0188cm
The diameter of electrical wire is expressed as the American Wire Gauge
AWG
number. The gauge number is inversely proportional to the diameter of the coil.
1
AWG  (3.7)
2  0.0188
= 26.4
In theoretical result, the gauge of the copper wire was 26.4 Gauge. Therefore,
26-gauge wire was chosen in this thesis.

3.2.2. Calculation of Coil Inductance

In this thesis, supply voltage, V = 12V and supply current, I = 3A.
V = IR (Ohm’s Law) (3.8)
V
XL = R = ,
I

XL = 4Ω
XL = ωL (3.9)
XL =2πfL
XL
L= 2πf

Where, f = 100kHz,
f = 500kHz,
f = 1000kHz
Substituting these frequencies into Equation ()
Therefore, L = 6.36µH, L = 1.27µH and L = 0.636µH are obtained.
So, the minimum value of inductance value is 0.636µH at frequency 1000kHz and
the maximum value is 6.36 µH at 1000 kHz.

3.2.3. Calculation of Number of Turns

The number of turns of the air-core inductive coil could be calculated by using
the Equation (3.10).

Figure 3.7. Air-Core Coil with Multilayer[10All]

0.31(𝑎𝑁)2
L= (µ𝐻) (3.10)
6𝑎+4ℎ+10𝑏

Where , a = average radius of coil (cm),

b = winding thickness (cm),
h = winding height (cm)
 N=number of turns,
L=inductance
Substituting the values of inductance, L = 6.36µH, L = 1.27µH and L = 0.636µH
For 𝐿 = 6.36 µH, N = 6.64 turns~ 7 turns
For 𝐿 = 1.27 µH, N = 2.96 turns~ 3 turns
For 𝐿 = 0.64 µH, N = 0.78 turns~ 1 turns
So, the number of turns in secondary coil was chosen 𝑁1 = 6 turns.
And then, substituting the 𝑁1 = 6 turns in Equation (3.9).Therefore, the value of
inductance 𝐿1 = 5.19µ𝐻 was obtained.
Note: Choosing the lower number of turns will lead to the short circuit.
The supply voltage for primary coil 6 turns was 12V. If the efficiency was
100%, all supply voltage 12V will induced. But, according to Literature Review, in
wireless power transfer the efficiency for 100% is not possible. Only 10% to 50% is
possible. Therefore, the number of turns in secondary coil is increased to get greater
inductance. The number of turns in secondary coil 𝑁2 is assumed 12 turns.
Substituting 𝑁2 = 12 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 in Equation (3.9).
Therefore, the value of inductance in secondary coil, 𝐿2 = 20.76 µ𝐻 is obtained.

3.2.4. Calculation of Selective Frequency

The frequency of the transmitter coil could be calculated by using the
Equation (3.11).
𝑋𝐿 = ωL
𝑋𝐿 =2𝜋𝑓𝐿 (3.11)
𝑋𝐿
𝑓=
2𝜋𝐿
where, Number of turns N = 6 turns
inductance of primary coil L = 5.19µ𝐻
reactance of inductor 𝑋𝐿 = 4 Ω
Therefore, f = 122.6 kHz

3.2.5. Calculation of Magnetic Field created at Transmitter Coil

Electromagnetic force was made up of electric and magnetic fields. Stagnant
current pro-duce electric fields, however when current flows through a wire, magnetic
field was created. The Biot-Savart Law was an equation that describes the magnetic
field created by a cur-rent-carrying wire, and allowed to calculate its strength at
various points. Biot-Savart law gave out the magnetic flux density generated by the
flow of charges.
μ
B = 4π0 ∫ Idl × er/r2 (3.12)

Where;
r = the full displacement vector from wire element to the point
er = the unit vector of r
Idl= linear-current-element in the wire
µ0 = the magnetic constant
For a circular coil, the generated magnetic flux density B at the point x in Fig. 6 can
be expressed by:
μ0 NIa2
𝐵𝑥 = 3 ex (3.13)
2(a2 +x2 )2

The magnetic field generated by a circular coil was shown in Fig 3.8.

Figure 3.8. Magnetic Field Generated by a Circular Coil [09H.Kam]

Here, B is in tesla if
µ0 = 4πx10−7 is the vacuum permeability
N= the number of turns,
I= the current in each of the individual turn, in amperes
a= the radius of the circular coil, in meters
x =the distance from the center of the coil to the point x, in meters
𝑒𝑥 = the unit vector of distant between point a and x.
With a varying transmitter current I, the generated magnetic flux density Bx would
also change over time,
where,
µ0 = 4πx10−7
N = 6 turns
a = 1.25 inches = 3.175 cm =31.75 x 10−3 m
I = 2.1A (from practical measured)
x = 5cm = 5 x 10−2m
Therefore, the magnitude of the magnetic field of the circular coil is 3.817x10−5T.

3.2.6. Calculation for induced voltage considering from the load Side
In this thesis, the required voltage of phone charging was 5V. Therefore, the
maximum voltage of the receiver coil was,
2Vm Vdc π
𝑉dc = , 𝑉m = (3.14)
π 2
Where, Vdc = 5V, therefore Vm = 7.853V
Since the receiver coil received the induced AC power from the transmitter coil, then
RMS value of the receiver coil voltage was,
Vm
Vdc = = 5.52V
√2

Therefore, the induced voltage at receiver coil should be about 5.52V. From the
practical measurement, the induced voltage at receiver coil is 3.7 V.

3.2.7. Calculation for Magnetic Flux

The magnetic field through a loop could be changed either by changing the
magnitude of the field or charging the area of the loop. Magnetic flux was defined as:
ϕ = BAcosθ (3.15)
Where, ϕ is in tesla if
𝜃 = the angle between B and the direction perpendicular to the plane of the loop
B = the magnetic field, in tesla
A = the area of the coil, in 𝑚2

3.2.8.Strength of Magnetic Flux

 The strength of magnetic flux mainly depends on the distance and the position
of the receiver coil. The three different positions of the receiver coil were shown in
Fig 3.10.

𝜃 = 90 degree 𝜃 = 45 degree 𝜃 = 0 degree

1
ϕ=0 ϕ= BA ϕ = BA
√2

Figure 3.9. Three different Positions of the Receiver Coil

Magnetic flux,
ϕ = BAcosθ (the coil contains N turns)
At 𝜃 = 90 degree position,
ϕ = NBA cosθ, ϕ = 0
At 𝜃 = 45 degree position,
1
ϕ= NBA, 𝜙 = 1.29 x10−6 T𝑚2
√2

At 𝜃 = 0 degree position,
ϕ = NBA , ϕ = 1.82 x10−6 T𝑚2
Where,
B = 9.61 x10−5T
N = 6 turns
r = 31.75 x 10−3 m
A = πr 2 = 3.166 x 10−3 𝑚2
3.2.9. Calculation of Magnetic Linking in Different Position and Distance
From the calculation result, the magnetic field and magnetic field are directly
proportional, the more increase in strength of the magnetic field, the more magnetic
flux will get. The closer the distance between the transmitter and receiver coil, the
more magnetic field would be linked. But the magnetic flux also depends upon
position and distance of the transmitter and receiver coil. There was no linking of
magnetic flux when the transmitter and receiver coil are in perpendicular position.
The strength of the magnetic flux was at maximum when the transmitter and receiver
coil are in face-to-face position. Calculations of magnetic field and magnetic flux
were shown in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1. Calculations of Magnetic Field and Magnetic Flux

Distance Magnetic Magnetic Flux Magnetic Flux Magnetic
(m) Field (θ = (θ = 45 Flux
x (Tesla) 90 degree) degree) (θ =
μ0 NIa2 (Tm2 ) (Tm2 ) 0 degree)
B= 3
2(a2 +x2 )2
Φ = NBAcosθ Φ = NBAcosθ (Tm2 )
Φ =
NBAcosθ

1cm 2.1x10−4 0 2.8x10−6 3.9x10−6

2cm 1.5x10−4 0 2.0x10−6 2.84x10−6

3cm 9.61x10−5 0 1.29x10−6 1.82x10−6

3.2.10. Calculation for Voltage Divider circuit
By using Ohm’s Law
V = IR
Req = R1 + R2, Req = 6kΩ
Let Vin= 12V
V
The current in the circuit, I =
R
12
I= = 0.002A
6x103
The current flow is equal in both resistors R1 and R2,
Vout= 0.002x1000= 2V (not more than 5V because the pins of Arduino can withstand
up to 5V maximum)

3.2.11. MOSFET Gate Resistor Design

There are two types of resistors connection for the gate of MOSFET. They are

1. Pull-up resistor for P-channel

2. Pull-down resistor for N-channel

For impedance matching output 5V and mA range, killos ohms range of resistor value
is required.

In this project, the MOSFET used is N-channel and therefore pull-down

resistor is selected.

Figure 3.10. MOSFET Gate Resistor

The operation of pull-down resistor is to maintain the digital state in driving

the MOSFET. If not, the MOSFET will become false trigger.
 5V
R= = 1kΩ
5mA
The increase in value of resistor will lead to better result.

Normally, 1kΩ ,10k Ω and 100k Ω resistors are used.

3.3. Software Implementation

For software implementation, Arduino IDE based software environment was
used. A program written with the Arduino IDE is called a sketch. Sketches are saved
on the development computer as text files with the file extension .ino. Arduino
Software (IDE) pre-1.0 saved sketches with the extension .pde. Software
implementation is the second main part of the system. Fig 3.11. shows the logo of
Arduino IDE.

Figure 3.11. Arduino IDE

A minimal Arduino C/C++ program consists of only two functions:

 setup(): This function is called once when a sketch starts after power-up or
reset. It is used to initialize variables, input and output pin modes, and other
libraries needed in the sketch.
 loop(): After setup() function exits (ends), the loop() function is executed
repeatedly in the main program. It controls the board until the board is
powered off or is reset.

3.3.1. Program Flowchart

The language used for the design and implementation of the software C++
programming language that is used in Arduino Integrated Development Environment
(IDE). At transmitter circuit, pin 9 is defined as PWM (pulse width modulation)
output and duty cycle is kept with 50 % duty cycle for maximum power transfer
although inductor current draw calculation showed different TON period. In this
situation Ton and Toff are same. The I2C LCD is initialized using a 0x27 I2C
address. In the loop of the program, ADC value is read from potentiometer which
converts ADC to 100:1000 ratio, which is then multiplied by 1000 for get the
desired frequency range. These frequency values are recorder to output to display
value on LCD continuously. The loop will be repeated until the program is ended.
Analog voltage from A1 is also read for the voltage sensing of the system.
START

Set pin9 as PWM output 50% duty

cycle
(Initialize I2C LCD)

Read Analog
Inputs

Convert 0-1023 to 100-1000

Generate
Frequency

Record the supply

voltage

Display generated
frequency and input
voltage

Exit?
No

Yes

END

Figure 3.12. Flowchart for Generating Frequency (Transmitter Section)

3.4. Summary
This chapter had two sections. The first was the Hardware Design and the
second was the Software Implementation. In Hardware Design, the block diagrams,
circuit diagrams and their operations were explained. The design calculations of the
system also included. In Software Implementation, the flowchart of the program and
its operation was explained.