Electric Charges and Fields

Q What is quantization of charge?

Ans :The electric charge is always an integral multiple of ‘e’ {charge of an electron}

Q State and explain couloumb’s law of electrostatistics.

Ans: The electrostatic force of attraction or repulsion between two point charges is directly proportional
to the product of the magnitude of charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them.
Explaination:
Consider two point charges q1 and q2 seperated through a distance r.

According to the law:

1
F =𝑞1 𝑞2 𝐹 ∝ 𝑟2

𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹∝
𝑟
𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹=𝑘
𝑟2
1
𝐾=
4𝜋𝜀0

1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2

𝜀0 = Permittivity of free space.

Q Write the properties of electric field lines.

Ans: Properties of electric field lines are,
(i) Electric field lines are geometrical representations of strength of electric field
(ii) Electric field lines originate from positive charge and terminate on the negative charge
(iii) Electric field lines are always perpendicular to the surface of the
conductorType equation here.
(iv) Electric field lines do not pass through the conductors
(v) Electric field lines do not intersect

ρ dipole moment of the electric dipole

E Strength of the uniform electric field
ϴ angle between the directions of ρ and E

Q. Mention three basic properties of electric charge?

Ans. a. Electric charge is conserved

b. Electric charge is quantized

c. Electric charge is additive

d. like charges repel and unlike charges attract each other

e. charges are not affected by motion

Q. What is an electric dipole?

And. An electric dipole is a set of two equal and opposite point charges separated by a small distance

Q. State Gauss’s law (Theorem)?

1
Ans. Gauss’s law states that ‘the electric flux passing out of a closed surface is equal to 8 0 times the charge.

Q Derive and expression for electric field due to a dipole along the axial point

Ans: Consider a dipole producing electric field E. Let ‘P’ be a point at distance ‘r’ from the centre of the dipole
at which electric field is calculated
1 𝑞
Electric field due to q Eq = 4𝜋𝜀 0 x 𝑟−𝑎 2

1 −𝑞
Electric field due to –q E-q = 4𝜋𝜀 0 𝑥 (𝑟+𝑎)2

∴Total electric field is E = Eq + E-q

1 x 𝑞 + 1 x −q
=
4𝜋𝜀 0 (𝑟−𝑎)2 4𝜋𝜀 0 (𝑟+𝑎)2

1 1 1
= 𝑥𝑞 −
4 π 𝜀0 𝑟−𝑎 2 𝑟+𝑎 2

1 𝑟+𝑎 2 − 𝑟−𝑎 2
= 𝑥𝑞
4 π 𝜀0 𝑟 −𝑎 2 𝑟+𝑎 2

𝑞 𝑟 2 + 𝑎 2 +2𝑎𝑟 − 𝑟 2 +𝑎 2 −2𝑎𝑟
= 𝑥𝑞
4 π 𝜀0 𝑟−𝑎 2 𝑟+𝑎 2

= 𝑞 𝑟 2 + 𝑎 2 +2𝑎𝑟 − 𝑟 2 − 𝑎 2 +2𝑎𝑟
4 π 𝜀0 𝑟2− 𝑎2 2

𝑞 4𝑟𝑎 𝑞 2 −2𝑎 𝑞×𝑟

= =
4 π 𝜀0 𝑟2− 𝑎2 2 4 π 𝜀0 𝑟2− 𝑎2 2

1 2 2𝑎 𝑞×𝑟
= ×
4 π 𝜀0 𝑟2− 𝑎2 2
 1 2𝑝𝑟
E = × [where (2a)q = p dipole moment]
4 π 𝜀0 𝑟2 −𝑎 2 2

1 2𝑝𝑟
Vector form E = 4 π 𝜀 𝑛where 𝑛is a unit vector along the dipole moment direction
0 𝑟 2 −𝑎 2 2

If r is very much greater than a i.e., r ≫ a then 𝑟 2 − 𝑎2 = 𝑟 2

1 2𝑝𝑟
𝐸= .𝑛
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 2

1 2𝑝𝑟
𝐸= × 4 .𝑛
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟

𝟏 𝟐𝒑
𝑬= × 𝟑 .𝒏
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓

Q . Derive an expression for electric field at a point on the equatorial line of the dipole

Ans: Consider a dipole producing electric field. Let ‘P’ be a point at distance ‘r’ from the centre of the
dipole as shown in the fig.

Electric field at P due to +q is

1 𝑞
𝐸1 = × 𝐴𝑝 2
4𝜋𝜀 0

1 𝑞
𝐸1 = × 𝐴𝑝 2
4𝜋𝜀 0

From the fig. in right angled triangle AÔP A𝑃2 = A𝑂2 + P𝑂2

A𝑃2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑟 2

Similarly B𝑃2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑟 2

Electric field at P due to –q,

 1 𝑞
𝐸𝑞 = 4𝜋𝜀 × 𝐵𝑝 2
0

1 𝑞
𝐸𝑞 = 4𝜋𝜀 ×
0 𝑎2 + 𝑟2 2

Electric field 𝐸1 and 𝐸2 can be resolved into two rectangular components, E sin 𝜃and E cos 𝜃from the figure
𝐸1 sin 𝜃 and 𝐸2 sin 𝜃 are acting along the same line but in opposite direction and are equal therefore they cancel
out. Whereas 𝐸1 cos 𝜃 and 𝐸2 cos 𝜃act along same line and in same direction, therefore they get added up.

∴ E = 𝐸1 cos 𝜃 and 𝐸2 cos 𝜃

E = 𝐸1 + 𝐸2 cos 𝜃
1 𝑞 1 𝑞 𝑎
E= × + × 1
4𝜋𝜀 0 𝑎2 + 𝑟2 2 4𝜋𝜀 0 𝑎2 + 𝑟2 2
𝑎2 + 𝑟2 2

1 𝑞 𝑎
E=2 . 1
4𝜋𝜀 0 𝑎2 + 𝑟2 2
𝑎2 + 𝑟2 2

2𝑞𝑎
E= 2+1
4𝜋𝜀 0 𝑎 2 + 𝑟 2 2

𝑞(2𝑎)
E= 3
4𝜋𝜀 0 𝑎 2 + 𝑟 2 2

But 𝑞(2𝑎)= ρ dipole moment

𝑝
∴E = 3
4𝜋𝜀 0 𝑎 2 + 𝑟 2 2

𝑝 𝑝
If a ≪ 𝑟 then a+ r = r E= 3 = 6
4𝜋𝜀 0 𝑟 2 2 4𝜋𝜀 0 𝑟 2

𝑝
E= 4𝜋𝜀 0 𝑟 3

Q .Derive an expressionfor electric field due to straight, infinity long charged wire.

Ans: Consider a straight long, infinite conductor containing positive charges.

Let ‘P’ be the point at which electric field is calculated. Construct an imaginary cylinder around the wire within
which electric field is present.

d∅ = 𝐸 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝑠
𝜃 = 0, cos 𝜃 = 1

∴d∅ = Eds

For the entire surface,

∅ = E 𝑑𝑠

∅ = E𝑆

Where S is the surface area = 2πrl

∴= E2πrl……………………………..(i)
1
But, ∅ = 𝜀 𝑞………………………..(ii)
0

From (1) and (2)

∅ = E2πrl
1
𝑞 = E2πrl
𝜀0

1.𝑞
=E
𝜀 0 .2𝜋𝑟𝑙

According to linear charge density

𝑞
𝜆=
𝑙

q = 𝜆𝑙
𝜆𝑙
E =𝜀
0 .2𝜋𝑟 𝑙

𝜆
∴ E =𝜀
0 .2𝜋𝑟

Q Derive an expression for electric density due to a charged spherical conductor when the point is
outside the conductor

Ans: Consider a charge spherical conductor of radius R. Let q be the quantity of charge. Let P be a point at
which electric field is to be calculated. Construct a sphere passing through the point P of radius ‘r’.

Let it be divided into small parts, each of area ds.

For the small part AB of area ds; electric flux, d∅ = 𝐸 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝑠

d∅ = 𝐸 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝑠

𝜃 = 0, cos 𝜃 = 1

d∅ = 𝐸 𝑑𝑠

∴∅ = ES where S is the surface area = 4𝜋𝑟 2

∅ = E4𝜋𝑟 2 …………..(i)

But according to Gauss theorem,

1
∅=𝜀 𝑞 …………..(ii)
0

∴from (i) and (ii)

1
E4𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝜀 𝑞
0

1
E = 4𝜋𝑟 2 𝜀 𝑞
0

1 𝑞
V=
4𝜋𝜀 0 𝑟

Potential due to system of charge:

1 𝑛 𝑞1
V = 4𝜋𝜀 𝑖=1 𝑟
0 1

Electric potential is a scalar quantity.

Q Vann De Graff generator

Principle: It works on the principle that charges flow from an higher potential region to a lower potential
region.

Potential due to a bigger sphere of radius R is 𝑉𝐴

 1 𝑄
𝑉𝐴 = 4𝜋𝜀 . 𝑅
0

Potential due to smaller sphere of radius r is 𝑉𝐵

1 𝑞
𝑉𝐵 = 4𝜋𝜀 . 𝑟
0

Total potential on the bigger sphere is 𝑉1

𝑉1 = 𝑉2 + 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 of the smaller sphere acting on the bigger sphere of radius R

1 𝑄 1 𝑞
𝑉1 = 4𝜋𝜀 . 𝑅 + .
0 4𝜋𝜀 0 𝑟

Total potential of the smaller sphere is 𝑉2

𝑉1 = 𝑉2 + 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 of the bigger sphere acting on the smaller sphere of radius r

1 𝑞 1 𝑄
𝑉2 = 4𝜋𝜀 . 𝑟 + .𝑅
0 4𝜋𝜀 0

∴ Total potential difference between the 2 spheres is = V

V = 𝑉2 − 𝑉1
1 𝑞 1 𝑄 1 𝑄 1 𝑞
V = 4𝜋𝜀 . 𝑟 + .𝑅 − .𝑅 + .𝑟
0 4𝜋𝜀 0 4𝜋𝜀 0 4𝜋𝜀 0

1 𝑞 1 𝑄 1 𝑄 1 𝑞 1 𝑞
= 4𝜋𝜀 . 𝑟 + . − 4𝜋𝜀 . 𝑅 + . - 4𝜋𝜀 . 𝑅
0 4𝜋𝜀 0 𝑅 0 4𝜋𝜀 0 𝑟 0

1 𝑞 1 𝑞
= 4𝜋𝜀 . 𝑟 - 4𝜋𝜀 . 𝑅
0 0

1 1 1
V = 4𝜋𝜀 . q −
0 𝑟 𝑅

Since r < R

1 1
>
𝑟 𝑅
V is always positive

A hollow metallic sphere is mounted on an insulating pillar as shown in figure. A pulley ‘B’ is mounted at the
centre of the sphere. The pulley C is continuously driven with the help of electric motor. Two combed shaped
conductors D and E are mounted near the pulleys. The comb D is maintained at a positive potential, due to
friction the bell acquires positive charges and transfers them to the outer sphere A. Thus the machine
continuously transfers positive charges to the sphere.

This high voltage produced in this generator can be used to accelerate positive charges to perform nuclear
reaction.

Q. What is the SI unit of electric potential?

Ans SI unit of electric field and electric potential is JC-1 =volt (V)

Q. How does the electric field and electric potential vary with distance from a point charge?

1 𝑄 1
Ans The electric field E=4𝜋Ɛ r ⟹ E∝ 𝑟 2
0 𝑟2

1 𝑄 1
The electric potential V= ⟹ V∝
4𝜋Ɛ0 𝑟 𝑟

Q. What is an equipotential surface? Give an Example?

Ans The surface on which the potential remains the same at very point on the conductor Example: The
surface of a charged conductor.

*****************

Electrostatic Potential and Capacitance

𝒅𝑽
9. Show that E = − 𝒅𝒙 or derive the relation between electric field and potential

Ans : Potential difference = V + dV-V

= dV

∴ Work done = potential difference

Force × displacement = potential difference

F × −𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑉

‘-‘ sign Indicates the work is done against electric field

𝐹
E=𝑞

q=1∴E=F

E (-dx) = dV
−𝑑𝑣
E= 𝑑𝑥

Q. Derive an expression for the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor

Ans: The parallel plate capacitor consists of two parallel metal plates X and Y each of area A separated by a
distance d, having surface charge density 𝜎. The medium between the plates is air. A charge + q is given to the
plate X. It indicates a charge – q on the upper surface of earthed plate Y. when the plates are very close to each
other, the field is confined to the region between them. The electric lines of force starting from plate X and
ending at the plate Y are parallel to each other and perpendicular to the plates. By the application of Gauss’s
law, electric field at a point between the two plates is,

Potential difference between the plates X and Y is given by

𝜎𝑑
V=E ×d=𝜀 ………………….(i)
1 𝜀0

Where 𝜀1 dielectric constant of the medium

By definition capacitance is given by

𝑄
C= 𝑉

Substitute (1) and (2)

𝑄 𝜀1 𝜀0 𝑄
C= 𝜎𝑑 = 𝜎𝑑
𝜀1 𝜀0

But Q = 𝜎𝐴
𝜀1 𝜀0 𝜎 𝐴
∴C= 𝜎𝑑

𝜀1 𝜀0 𝐴
∴C= 𝑑

Capacitance of a parallel place capacitor can be increased by

1. Increasing the area of the plates

2. Decreasing the separation between the plates
 3. Placing a suitable dielectric material in the gap between the plates

Q . Derive the expressions for effective capacitance of two capacitors connected in parallel.

Ans :Consider two capacitors of capacitance 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 connected in parallel

In parallel combination potential V is same across each capacitor whereas charges are different

But Q = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2
𝑄1
𝐶1 = ⟹ 𝑄1 = V𝐶1 similarity 𝑄2 = V𝐶2
𝑉

If 𝐶𝑃 is the effective capacitance of the parallel combination, then

𝑄
𝐶𝑃 = 𝑉 ⟹Q = V 𝐶𝑃

Therefore V 𝐶𝑃 = V 𝐶1 + V 𝐶2

𝐶𝑃 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2

Equivalent capacitance (𝐶𝑟 )

It is that capacitance which produces the same effect as the other two capacitors in parallel

Q. Derive the expression for effective capacitance of two capacitors connected in series

Ans: Consider two capacitors of capacitance 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 are connected in series

In series combination charge Q remains the same, whereas potential V is different.

𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2
𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
But 𝐶1 = 𝑉 ⟹ 𝑉1 =𝐶 similarly 𝑉2 = 𝐶
1 1 2

𝑄 𝑄
𝑉= 𝐶 + 𝐶
1 2

If 𝐶𝑆 is the effective capacitance of the series combination, then

𝑄 𝑄
𝐶𝑆 = 𝑉 ⟹ 𝑉 = 𝐶
𝑠

𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
Therefore = 𝐶 =𝐶
𝐶𝑠 1 2

1 1 1 1 𝑐2 +𝐶1 𝐶 𝐶
Or =𝐶 +𝐶 ⟹𝐶= ⟹ 𝐶𝑆 = 𝐶 1 𝐶2
𝐶𝑠 1 2 𝑠 𝐶1 𝐶2 1+ 2

Equivalent capacitance (𝑪𝒔 )

It is that capacitance which produces the same effect as the other two capacitors in series

********************

Current Electricity

Q. Distinguish between terminal potential difference and emf of a cell

Sl. Terminal potential difference Emf

No
1 It is the potential difference between the electrodes of
It is the potential difference between the
a cell in a chord circuit (when current is drawn from
electrodes of a cell when no current is drawn
the cell). Represented by V from the cell. Represented by E
2 It cannot be greater than emf It is always greater than terminal potential
difference
Q. Derive the relation between current density and conductivity of a conductor.

Ans: Consider a conductor of length l carrying a current I with area of cross – section ‘A’.

According to Ohm’s law:

𝑉
I=𝑅

𝑃𝑙
R=
𝐴

𝑉 𝑉𝐴
∴I = 𝑝𝑙
= 𝑝𝑙
𝐴

𝐼 𝑉
= 𝑝𝑙
𝐴

𝑙
But = J→ current density
𝐴

𝑉
= E → electric field
𝐼

1 1
∴ J = 𝑝 E where 𝑝 = 𝜎

J = 𝜎𝐸 𝜎 = conductivity

Q . Derive an expression to prove Ohm’s law

Ans:Consider a conductor of length ‘L’ maintained at a potential difference ‘V’ carrying a current ‘l’

I = neA𝑣𝑙
𝑒𝐸
but 𝑣𝑙 = 𝑙
𝑚

𝑒𝐸 𝑛 𝑒2 𝐴 𝐸
l = neA 𝑙= 𝑙 ……. i
𝑚 𝑚

from relation between E and V

𝑉
E= ……………… ii
𝐿

Use (2) in (1)

𝑛 𝑒2 𝐴 𝑉 𝑛 𝑒2 𝐴 𝑙
L= 𝑙= 𝑉
𝑚𝐿 𝑚 𝐿

𝑚𝐿
I .𝑛𝑒 2 𝐴 𝑙 = V
 𝑚𝐿
V = I. 𝑛𝑒 2 𝐴 𝑙 = R …………….. iii

R → Resistance

V = IR

V∝I

From electro statics

𝑉
E=𝐿 …………. iv

Use (4) in (3)

𝑛 𝑒2 𝐴 𝑉
I= l
𝑚𝐿

𝑚𝐿
I .𝑛 𝑒 2 𝐴 𝑙 = V

𝑚𝐿
V = 𝑛 𝑒2 𝐴 𝑙

𝑚𝐿
R = 𝑛 𝑒2 𝐴 𝑙

𝑝𝐿
R= 𝐴

𝑚𝐿 𝑝𝐿
=
𝑛 𝑒2 𝐴 𝑙 𝐴

𝑚
=p
𝑛 𝑒2 𝑙

𝑚
p= 𝑛 𝑒2 𝑙

1
but 𝜎 = 𝑝

1
𝑚
𝜎=
𝑛 𝑒2 𝑙

𝑛 𝑒2 𝑙
𝜎=
𝑚

Q Derive an expression for effective resistance when two resistors are connected in series
Ans: Consider two resistors 𝑅1 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑅2 to be connected in series

Resistors are said to be in series when their connected end to end

When reistors are in series , current remains the same where as potential difference are different.

𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2

According to Ohm’s law

V = IR

𝑉1 = I 𝑅1

𝑉2 = I 𝑅2

𝑉𝑠 = I 𝑅1 + I 𝑅2

𝑉𝑠 = I 𝑅1 + 𝑅2

In the above resistors are replaced with an equivalent resistor of resistance 𝑅𝑠

Then 𝑉1 = I 𝑅1

𝐼𝑅𝑠 = I 𝑅1 + 𝑅2

𝑅𝑠 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2

𝑅𝑠 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + ⋯ … … … + 𝑅𝑛

Equivalent resistance 𝑅𝑠 is defined as that resistor which produces the same effect as the other two
resistors connected in series.

Q. Derive an expression for effective resistances when resistors are connected in parallel
Ans:

Consider two reistors𝑅1 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑅2 to be connected in parallel

Resistors are said to be in parallel if their respective ends are connected to common terminal. When
resistors are in parallel current is different, potential differences are same.

𝐼𝑝 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2

According to Ohm’s law

V = IR
𝑉
I=𝑅

𝑉
𝐼1 =
𝑅1

𝑉
𝐼2 =
𝑅2
𝑉 𝑉
𝐼𝑝 =𝑅 +𝑅
1 2

1 1
𝐼𝑝 =V +𝑅
𝑅1 2

The above circuit if resistors are replaced with an equivalent circuit of resistance 𝑅𝑝 then

𝑉
𝐼𝑝 =
𝑅𝑝

𝑉 1 1
=V +𝑅
𝑅𝑝 𝑅1 2
 1 1 1
= 𝑅 +𝑅
𝑅𝑝 1 2

1 𝑅 𝑅
= 𝑅 1+𝑅2
𝑅𝑝 1 2

For n resistors
1 1 1 1 1
= 𝑅 +𝑅 + 𝑅 …………..+𝑅
𝑅𝑝 1 2 3 𝑛

Equivalent resistance 𝑅𝑝 is defined as that resistor which produces the same effect as the other two
resistors connected in parallel

Q. Derive the expression for balance condition for Wheat stones network

Ans: At A

𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 …………1

At B

𝐼1 = 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 …………….2

At D

𝐼2 + 𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼1 …………….3

Apply KVL to the mesh ADBA

𝐼1 𝑅1 + 𝐼𝑔 𝐺 − 𝐼2 𝑅2 = 0 …………….4

Apply KVL to the mesh ABDA

𝐼3 𝑅3 + 𝐼4 𝑅4 − 𝐼𝑔 𝐺 = 0 ………………5
Let 𝐼𝑔 = 0

Eq (2) becomes

𝐼1 = 𝐼3 …………6

Eq (3) becomes

𝐼2 = 𝐼4 …………….7

Eq (4) becomes

𝐼1 𝑅1 − 𝐼2 𝑅2 = 0

𝐼1 𝑅1 = 𝐼2 𝑅2 ………………………8

Eq (5) becomes

𝐼3 𝑅3 − 𝐼4 𝑅4 = 0

𝐼3 𝑅3 = 𝐼4 𝑅4 ……………………….9

8 ÷9

𝐼1 𝑅1 𝐼2 𝑅2
=
𝐼3 𝑅3 𝐼4 𝑅4

From 6 and 7

𝑅1 𝑅2
=
𝑅3 𝑅4

𝑅1 𝑅2
=
𝑅2 𝑅2

Q. Write the relation between current and velocity

Ans I = neAvd

Where, I → current

n → number of free electrons

e → charge of the electrons

A → area of cross-section

Vd → drift velocity

Q. State Ohm’s law and explain

Ans It states that the potential differences across the ends of the conductor is directly proportional to current
flowing in the conductor provided temperature and other physical conditions remains constant
Consider a conductor of length (l) maintained at a potential differences (V) carrying a current (I) V∝1

Q. State Kirchhoff’s current law (KCI)

Ans It states that the algebraic sum of currents at a node is equal to zero

Explanation:

I1 + I2 + (-I3) + (-I4) = 0

I1 + I2 – I3 – I4 = 0

I1 + I2 = I3 + I4

:- sum of current entering the node is equal to sum of current leaving the node

The significance of Kirchhoff’s current law is that it explains the law of conservation of charges

Q. State Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL)

Ans It states that the algebraic sum of IR products is equal to algebraic sum of KMF present in the various
branches of a closed circuit

Explanation:

Apply KVL to the mesh ABCA

+I1R1+I2R2 – I3R3=E1+E2 - E3

The significance of Kirchhoff’s voltage law is it explains the law of conservation of energy

*******************************8
 Moving Charges and Magnetism

Q . State and explain ampere circuital law

Ans :It states that the integral value of the magnetic field over a closed conductor is equal to 𝜇0 times the
net current in the conductor.

Explaination : Consider a conductor carrying a current l, let an amperian loop of radius r be constructed

ten according to the law

𝐵𝑑𝑘 = 𝜇0 𝐼

Q. How to convert galvanometer into voltmeter?

Ans: Galvanometer is converted into a voltmeter by connecting a high resistance in series with
galvanometer. The high resistance R is connected in series with the Galvanometer. The value of R to be
connected in series with galvanometer depends on the p.d to be measured. If V is the p.d. to be measured
𝐼𝑔 is the current for which the galvanometer gives full scale deflection, and G is the galvanometer
resistance.

𝑉
V = 𝐼𝑠 (𝐺 + 𝑅)∴ G + R = 𝐼
𝑠

𝑉
∴ R = 𝐼 – G where 𝐼𝑠 is the current for full scale deflection.
𝑠

Q How to convert galvanometer into ammeter?

Ans: A galvanometer can be converted into an ammeter by connecting a low resistance in parallel.

Low resistance called shunt resistance S is connected in parallel with the galvanometer.

The above modified version of the galvanometer is called ammeter. The value of ‘S’ to be connected
across the galvanometer depends on the current to be measured. If I is the current to be measured and 𝐼𝑔
is the current for which the galvanometer gives full scale deflection, and G is the galvanometer resistance
then,
By Ohm’s law

𝐼𝑔 𝐺 = (𝐼 − 𝐼𝑔 )S
𝐼𝑔 𝐺
∴ S = 𝐼−𝐼
𝑔

Q. TO derive an expression for force acting between two straight infinitely long parallel conductor. And
hence define one ampere.

Ans: Consider two straight infinitely long parallel conductor carrying currents 𝐼1 and 𝐼2 producing
magnetic field. Force on MN due the magnetic field produced by the conductor M’N’ is

𝐹1 = 𝐵2 𝐼1 𝑙 sin 𝜃

𝜃= 900 , sin 90 = 1

𝐹1 = 𝐵2 𝐼1 𝑙

Magnetic Field due to a straight conductor

𝜇 𝐼
𝐵2 =2𝜋0 . 𝑑2

𝜇 𝐼
𝐹1 = 2𝜋0 . 𝑑2 .𝐼2 .l

𝐹1 𝜇 𝐼
= 2𝜋0 . 𝑑2 .𝐼1
𝑙

𝐹1 𝜇 0 𝐼2 𝐼1
= .
𝑙 2𝜋 𝑑

𝐹1
= force l unit length = F
𝑙

𝜇 𝐼2 𝐼1
𝐹= 2𝜋0 . 𝑑

One ampere is that current which flows through two straight infinitely long parallel conductors
experiencing a force of attraction or repulsion of 2 × 10−2 N𝑚−1 , when separated through the distance of
1m, placed in free space.
Q . Derive an expression for magnitude of the magnetic field at a point along the axis of the circular
conductor carrying current.

Ans: Consider a circular conductor of radius ‘r’ carrying a current ‘I’. let P be a point at the distance x from
the centre of the circular conductor along the axis

Magnetic field at P due to current element is

𝜇 𝐼𝑑𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
dB =4𝜋0 . 𝑎2

𝜃= 900 , 𝑠𝑖𝑛900 = 1
𝜇 𝐼𝑑𝑙
dB = 4𝜋0 . 𝑎2

The magnetic field dB is resolved into two components as shown in figure. The components dB cos ∅ and
dB cos ∅ act in same line but in opposite direction, hence they cancel. Whereas the components dB sin ∅
and dB sin ∅ act in same line in same direction hence they get added up.

For the entire conductor:

B = dB sin ∅
𝜇 0 𝐼𝑑𝑙
B= . sin ∅
4𝜋 𝑎2

𝜇 𝐼𝑑𝑙
B = 𝜋0 . sin ∅ 𝑑𝑙
𝑎

𝑑𝑙 – Circumferences

𝑑𝑙 – 2𝜋𝑟
𝜇 𝐼𝑑𝑙
B = 𝜋0 . sin ∅. 2𝜋𝑟
𝑎

From the figure

In ∆le OAP

𝑎2 = 𝑟 2 + 𝑥 2

a = 𝑟2 + 𝑥2
 1
a = 𝑟2 + 𝑥2 2

𝑟
sin ∅=
𝑎

𝑟
sin ∅= 1
𝑟 2 +𝑥 2 2

𝜇0 𝐼 𝑟
∴B= . 1 . 1 . 2𝜋𝑟
𝜋 𝑟 2 +𝑥 2 2 𝑟 2 +𝑥 2 2

𝜇0 2𝜋𝑙 𝑟 2
B= . 1+1
𝜋 𝑟 2 +𝑥 2 2

𝜇0 2𝜋𝑙 𝑟 2
B= . 3
𝜋 𝑟 2 +𝑥 2 2

N – turns
𝜇0 2𝜋𝑁𝑙 𝑟 2
B= . 3
𝜋 𝑟 2 +𝑥 2 2

Magnitude of the magnetic field at a point the centre of the circular conductor (solid)

If the point P is at the centre x = 0

𝜇0 2𝜋𝑙 𝑟 2
B= . 3
𝜋 𝑟 2 +02 2

𝜇 0 2𝜋𝑙 𝑟 2
B= .
𝜋 𝑟3

Q . Derive an expression for magnetic dipole moment of the electron revolving in an hydrogen atom.

Ans: Consider an electron revolving around an hydrogen nucleus in circular path with the velocity ‘v’ and
radius ‘f’ and angular momentum ‘L’

By definition magnetic moment is given by

M =IA

M = I 𝜋𝑟 2 …………1

∴ Angular momentum = L
L = mvr
𝐿
= vr …….2
𝑚

We know that current,

To find r (time)
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Velocity = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

𝑠
v =𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 2𝜋𝑟

2𝜋𝑟
v= 𝑡

2𝜋𝑟
t= 𝑣

substituting for v
−𝑒
I= 2𝜋𝑟
𝑣

−𝑒𝑣
I = 2𝜋𝑟 …….3

Use (3) in (1)

−𝑒𝑣
M = 2𝜋𝑟 . 𝜋𝑟 2

−𝑒𝑣𝑟
M= ………4
2

Use (2) in (4)

−𝑒 𝐿
M= .𝑚 …..5
2

According to Bohr’s Atomic model

𝑛𝑕
Angular momentum L = 2𝜋

Use (6) in (5)

−𝑒 𝑛𝑕
M = 2𝑚 . 2𝜋

−𝑒𝑛 𝑕
M= 4𝜋𝑚

***************************
 Magnetism and Matter

Q . Define magnetic susceptibility 𝝋𝒎 ?

Ans: It is defined as the ratio of intensity of magnetism induced in the magnetic material to the external
𝐼
magnetic field.𝜑𝑚 = 𝐻 where I is intensity of magnetization, H is magnetizing field.

26. Mention the properties of Diamagnetic materials.

Ans: (i) Diagmagnetic materials are those substances which move from a strong magnetic field to a weak
magnetic field

(ii) The permeability of a diamagnetic substance is always less than one

(iii) The susceptibility of a diamagnetic substance is always negative

(iv) The magnetic properties do not change with respect to temperature

Example : Bismuth

Q . Mention the Properties of Paramagnetic materials

Ans: (i) Ferromagnetic materials are those substances which move from a weak magnetic field to a strong
magnetic field

(ii) The permeability of a paramagnetic substance is slightly greater than one

(iii) The susceptibility of a paramagnetic substance is always positive

(iv) The magnetic properties of paramagnetic substances are inversely proportional to temperature

Example :Aluminium

Q Mention the Properties of Ferro magnetic materials

Ans: (i) Ferromagnetic materials are those substances which move from a weak magnetic field to a strong
magnetic field

(ii) The permeability of a paramagnetic substance is slightly greater than one

(iii) The susceptibility of a paramagnetic substance is always positive

(iv) The magnetic properties of paramagnetic substances are inversely proportional to temperature

Example : Iron

Q . What is Hysteresis’s curve? Discuss magnetic hysteresis.

Ans: the resulting curve obtained when a Ferro magnetic material is taken through a cycle of
magnetization is called Hysteresis curve.
The complete cycle of magnetization of ferromagnetic materials give one cycle of hysteresis curve

Consider a Ferro magnetic material to be taken for the cycle of magnetization. Initially H = 0, I = 0, as H
increases, gradually I also increases and becomes maximum at A

As H decreases and becomes zero, intensity of magnetism I decreases but does not become equal to zero
and reaches the point B. OB is called residual magnetism

I becomes zero when the magnetic field is reverses its direction and becomes H. on further increasing the
magnetic field in positive direction, H and I increases and reach the point D.

The magnetic field lost during this process is called Hysteresis lost.

******************

Electromagnetic Induction

Q State the laws of electromagnetic induction.

Ans: I Law- In a coil emf is induced due to change in the magnetic flux linked with it. This emf will last as
long as the change in the flux density exists.

II Law- The induced emf in a coil is directly proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux linked with
it.

If e is the induced emf and d∅ is the change in magnetic flux

𝑑∅
Then e ∝ 𝑑𝑡

Note:

The induced emf depends on

No. of turns in the coil.

Nature of the medium

Proximity between the magnet and the coil

Magnetic field strength

The induced emf does not depend on the resistance of the coil whereas induced current depends on the
resistance.

The strength of induced emf is more if iron core is inserted into the coil

Q. State Lenz Law

Ans: The induced current in a coil flows always, in such a direction as to oppose the cause which
produces it.

Explanation:

In the fig North pole of a bar magnet is approaching the coil. As a result of this, induced current starts
flowing in theanti clock wise direction. Due to this face A behaves as north pole and hence the magnet is
repelled. As the magnet is moved away from the coil, induced current reverses its direction and hence
face A acts as south pole. The magnet is now attracted by the coil. This way the bar magnet motion (both
to and fro motion) is opposed by the coil.

Significance: Lenz’s law verifies the law of conservation of energy

Faraday’s 2nd law can be written as

−𝑛𝑑 ∅
e=
𝑑𝑡

here n= no. of turns in the coil

Negative sign signifies the Lenz law

𝑑∅
Note: e = 𝑑𝑡 is called “Neumann relation”

(This law gives the direction of induced current. The direction of the induced energy is such that it
opposes the cause which produces it)

************************

Alternating Current

Q Explain different sources of energy losses in transformer and how to minimize?

Ans: Copper loss: When current flows in primary and secondary coils, hear is released due to joule
heating effect. This is due to the finite resistance of the wire. This is called copper loss. It can be
minimized by using thick copper wire.

Flux Leakage: Some flux leaks into the air between primary and secondary. Due to this there will be no
complete flux linkage between primary and secondary. This is called leakage loss. It can be minimized by
winding two coils one over the other.

Eddy current loss: When transformer is placed in non uniform magnetic field eddy currents are set up.
The heating effect produced by these currents is called eddy current loss. It can be minimized by using
laminated cores.

Hysteresis loss: Due to repeated magnetization and demagnetization of core during the operation, heat is
liberated. This is called hysteresis loss. It can be minimized by using materials of low hysteresis loss.

Q. Mention the expression for resonant frequency

Ans :At resonance the inductive reactance and the capacitance reactance are equal.

𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶

1
𝑓0 =
2𝜋 𝐿𝐶
1
𝑓0 2𝜋 =
𝐿𝐶
1
𝜔0 =
𝐿𝐶

This is the expression for resonant frequency

The variation 𝐼𝑟𝑒𝑠 with frequency f is as shown in the resonance curve.

At resonance
The importance is minimum and it is only due to resistor

The current through the circuit is maximum

The current can be controlled by resistor only

Both voltage and current are in phase

Power factor is maximum and equal to unity

LCR circuit at resonance accepts only selected frequency. Hence it is called as acceptor circuit.

Q What isSharpnes of resonance and Q –factor?

Ans: The maximum value of the current decreases with the increase of resistance R. The width and the
height of the curve depends on the value of the resistance R. In other words the resistance R, determines
the sharpness of the resonance curve. Lesser the value of the resistance sharper the curve.

The sharpness of the resonance curve is determined by a quantity called quality factor (Q) of the circuit.

Quality factor (Q)

Quality factor of a series LCR circuit is defined as “the ratio of voltage across the inductor or capacitor at
resonance to the applied voltage”.

Since at resonance the applied voltage is the voltage across the resistor R
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝐿 𝑜𝑟 𝐶
Q=
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑅

𝑉 𝑉 1 𝐿
Q = 𝑉 𝐿 = 𝑉 𝐶 or Q = 𝑅
𝑅 𝑅 𝐶

The value of Q normally varies between 10 to 100.

It is also given by

1 𝐿
Q=𝑅 𝐶

1
i.e. Q ∝
𝑅

as R increases quality factor and hence sharpness of resonance decreases

If the voltage across the secondary is more than that of primary then it is called as step up transformer. If
the voltage across secondary is less than that of primary then it is called as step down transformer.

For step up transformer T >1: 𝑉1 > 𝑉𝑃 and 𝑁1 > 𝑁𝑃

For step down transformer T <1: 𝑉1 < 𝑉𝑃 and 𝑁1 < 𝑁𝑃

Though transformer is able to increase or decrease the voltage its working still obeys the law of
conservation of energy.
For an ideal transformer

Input power = output power

𝑉𝑃 𝐼𝑃 = 𝑉𝑆 𝐼𝑆
𝑉 𝑁 𝐼 1
In general 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑁𝑠 = 𝐼 𝑠 or V ∝ 𝑁 ∝
𝑝 𝑝 𝑝 𝑙

But no transformer is 100% efficient due to many losses in the energy

∴ 𝑉𝑆 𝐼𝑆 =𝜂𝑉𝑃 𝐼𝑃
𝑉𝐼 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝜂= 𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑠 =
𝑝 𝑝 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

Where 𝜂 is called efficiency

Q . Derive the expression for impedance in series LCR circuit using phasor diagram. Hence define
impedance.

Ans: Consider a series combination of L, C & R along with an a.csource𝑉𝐿 ,𝑉𝑐 , 𝑉𝑅 are voltage drops
across inductor, capacitor and resistor respectively and 𝑋𝐿 ,𝑋𝑐 , 𝑅 are corresponding oppositions offered
by them to the flow of current I

They are given by

The individual phasor diagrams are

The combined phasor diagram is

Here OA = 𝑉𝑆

OB = 𝑉𝐿 OC =𝑉𝐶

OD = 𝑉𝐿 − 𝑉𝐶 OP = V

From Δ𝑂𝐴𝑃

O𝑃2 = O𝐴2 + A𝑃2

O𝑃2 = O𝐴2 + O𝐷2

The net voltage 𝑉 2 = 𝑉𝑅2 + 𝑉𝐿 − 𝑉𝐶 2

𝑉 2 = 𝐼 2 𝑅 2 + 𝐼𝑋𝐿 − 𝐼𝑋𝐶 2

𝑉 2 = 𝐼 2 𝑅 2 + 𝐼 2 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 2

𝑉 2 = 𝐼 2 𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 2

V=I 𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 2

Put Z = 𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 2

∴ V = IZ
Here Z is called impedance

Definition :Impedance is defined as the effective opposition offered by inductor, capacitor and resistor to
𝑉
the flow of AC through it. It is also given by Z = 𝐼

***********************

Electromagnetic waves

Q . Give any two uses of microwaves

Ans: Microwaves are used in aircraft navigation. (speed guns to time fast balls) Microwaves are also used
in microwave ovens.

Q. Give any two uses of IR- waves

Ans: IR – waves from the sun keep the earth warm and hence help to sustain life on the earth

IR – rays photographs are used for weather forecasting

Q Mention any two uses of UV waves

Ans: Highly focused UV – rays are used in eye surgery. UV- lamps are used to kill germs in water purifiers

Q. What is displacement current (𝒊𝒑 )?

Ans: The varying electric field between te 2 plates of a charged capacitor produces displacement current.
Current due to flow of charges is conduction current.

***************
 Ray Optics and Optical Instruements

Q . Mention few illsutrations of total internal reflection

Ans: Sparkling of diamond, total reflecting prism, optical fibres

Q . Mention few applications of optical fibre

Ans: (i)used as light pipe to examine internal organs like stomach, esophagus, intestine etc

(ii)used as decorative lamps

(iii) used to transmit and receive signals which are converted into light by transducers

(iv) used in the field of communication

Q. Draw the ray diagram when the image is formed at least distance of distinct vision in case of a simple
microscope.

Ans :

Q. What is accommodation?

Ans :the modification of the focal length of the eye lens by the ciliary muscles to see both far off and
nearby objects clearly is called accommodation.

Q. With a neat diagram explain simple microscope. Obtain an expression for magnification when the image
is at near point.

Ans: Simple microscope is convex lens of small focal length

When an object is placed between optical centre and principal focus, a virtual, erect and magnified image
is obtained. The position of the object is adjust so that image is obtained at near point
Linear magnification
𝑣
m=𝑢 ……..1

1 1 1
but𝑢 + 𝑣 = 𝑓

1 1 1
= − …………..2
𝑢 𝑣 𝑓

Substituting (2) in (1)

1 1
m=𝑣 −
𝑣 𝑓

𝑣
m= 1 − 𝑓

but v = − D
1+𝐷
∴m= 𝑓

Q. Obtain an effective focal length of two thin lenses in contact.

Ans :

A and B – two thin lens kept in contact

𝑓1 - focal length of the lens A

𝑓2 - focal length of the lens B

O – luminous point object placed on the common principle axis

The luminous point object placed at a distance u from the first lens forms an image 𝐼1 which is at a
distance 𝑣1
1 1 1
+𝑣 =𝑓 ………….1
𝑢 1 1

The image 𝐼1 formed by the first lens acts like a virtual object for the second lens to form a final real image
I which is at a distance v
1 1 1
+𝑣=𝑓 ………..2
𝑣1 2

Adding (1) and (2)

1 1 1 1 1 1
+ 𝑣 - 𝑣 + 𝑣 = 𝑓 +𝑓
𝑢 1 1 1 2

1 1 1 1
+ 𝑣 = 𝑓 +𝑓 ……..3
𝑢 1 2

If the combinations of lenses is replaced by a single same lens called equivalent lens of focal length f such
that is produces the effect as that of the combination
1 1 1
Then 𝑢 + 𝑣 = 𝑓 ……….4

From (3) and (4)

1 1 1
= 𝑓 +𝑓
𝑓 1 2

𝑹
Q Obtain a relation between radius of curvature and focal length [to show that R = 2f or f=𝟐 ]

Ans: Consider a concave mirror of focal length f and radius of curvature R.

Let a paraxial ray LM is incident on the concave mirror at angle𝜃. After reflection, the ray passing through
the principal focus along MF.

From the diagram,

𝐿𝑀𝐶 = 𝐶𝑀𝐹 = 𝜃[ Law of reflection 𝑖= 𝑟]

𝐿𝑀𝐶 = M𝐶 𝐹 = 𝜃[ alternate angles]

∴ 𝐿𝑀𝐹 = 𝐿𝑀𝐶 + 𝐶𝑀𝐹 = 𝜃 + 𝜃= 2𝜃

𝐿𝑀𝐹 = M𝐹 𝑃 = 2𝜃[ alternate angles]

Drop a perpendicular MD from M

From the triangle MCD,

𝑀𝐷
tan 𝜃 = 𝐶𝐷

∵ 𝜃 is small tan 𝜃 ≃ 𝜃
𝑀𝐷
∴ ⁡θ = …………………1
𝐶𝐷

From the triangle MFD

𝑀𝐷
tan 2𝜃 = 𝐹𝐷

∵2𝜃 is small tan 2𝜃 = 2𝜃

𝑀𝐷
∴ 2𝜃 = 𝐹𝐷 ………………………2

From (1) and (2)

𝑀𝐷 𝑀𝐷
=2
𝐹𝐷 𝐶𝐷

1 2
=𝐶𝐷
𝐹𝐷

But FD = PF = f, the focal length

CD = PC + R, the radius of curvature

𝑅
∴f=2

Or R = 2f

Q Explain compound microscope with a neat diagram. Obtain an expression for magnifying power.

Ans:
Compound microscope consists of two lenses and objective and eye piece

Objective is a convex lens of short focal length and small aperture. Eyepiece is also a convex lens but of
large aperture and long focal length

When the object AB is placed at a distance greater than focal length of the objective, a real inverted and
magnified image A’B’ is formed.

The position of the eye piece is adjusted such that A’B’ lies within its principal focus. Hence A’B’ serves as
object Magnification of objective
𝑕1 𝐿
𝑚0 = =𝑓
𝑕 0

Where L – length of the microscope

𝑓0 – focal length of the objective

𝐷
∵ eyepiece behave like a simple microscope 𝑚𝑒 = 1 + 𝑓
𝑒

D – least distance of distinct vision

𝑓𝑒 – focal length of the eye piece

𝐷
When the final image is at ∞ then𝑚𝑒 = 𝑓𝑒

Magnifying power of a compound microscope m = 𝑚0 𝑚𝑒

𝐿 𝐷
m= 𝑓0 𝑓𝑒

𝒏𝟐 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐 −𝒏𝟏
Q. Derive the relation - = , where the symbol have their usual meaning
𝒗 𝒖 𝑹

Ans: XY – spherical surface

𝑛1 −refractive index of rarer medium

𝑛2 - refractive index of denser medium

O – luminous point object placed on the principal axis

I – real image of the object O

ON – incident ray

CNQ – normal drawn to XY at N

NI – refracted ray

𝑖 – angle of incidence

𝑟 – angle of refraction

Let 𝑁𝑂𝑀= 𝛼; 𝑁𝐼 𝑀 = 𝛽 and 𝑁𝐶 𝑀 = 𝛾

From the triangle NOC,

𝑖 = 𝛼 + 𝛾[ exterior angle = sum of the interior opposite angel]

……….…1

From the triangle NIC

𝛾=𝑟+𝛽

𝑟=𝛾− 𝛽 ……………….2

From snell’s law

𝑛1 sin 𝑖 = 𝑛2 sin 𝑟

From small angle sin 𝑖 = 𝑖 and sin 𝑟 = 𝑟

∴ 𝑛1 𝑖 = 𝑛2 𝑟 ………….3

Substituting (1) and (2) in (3)

∴ 𝑛1 𝛼 + 𝛾 = 𝑛2 𝛾 − 𝛽 ……………4
𝑁𝑃
Further tan 𝛼 = 𝛼 ∴𝛼 = 𝑃𝑂
 𝑁𝑃
tan𝛽 =𝛽 ∴𝛽 = 𝑃𝐼

𝑁𝑃
tan𝛾 =𝛾 ∴𝛾 =
𝑃𝐶

Substituting 𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾 in (4)

𝑁𝑃 𝑁𝑃 𝑁𝑃 𝑁𝑃
𝑛1 + 𝑃𝐶 = 𝑛2 −
𝑃𝑂 𝑃𝐶 𝑃𝐼

𝑛1 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛2
+ 𝑃𝐶1 = 𝑃𝐶2 -
𝑃𝑂 𝑃𝐼

𝑛1 𝑛 𝑛 2 −𝑛 1
+ 𝑃𝐼2 = ………5
𝑃𝑂 𝑃𝐶

Using sign convention

PO = -u

PI = +v

PC = + R

Equation (5) becomes

𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛 2 −𝑛 1
+ =
𝑢 𝑣 𝑅

𝑛2 𝑛1 𝑛 2 −𝑛 1
+ =
𝑣 𝑢 𝑅

Q . Derive the mirror equation for a concave mirror

Ans :Let AB be an extended object placed at a distance 𝑢 from the concave mirror of focal length 𝑓. let A’B’
be the real image 𝑓 the object AB at a distance 𝑣

Form the similar triangles A’B’F and MPF

𝐵′𝐴′ 𝐵′𝐹
=
𝑃𝑀 𝑃𝐹
∵ PM = BA
𝐵′𝐴′ 𝑃𝐵′
= ……………………………1
𝐵𝐴 𝑃𝐹

From similar triangles A’B’P and ABP

𝐵′𝐹 𝑃𝐵′
= ……………………2
𝑃𝐹 𝑃𝐵

But B’F = PB’-PF

𝐵′𝐹 = 𝑃𝐵 ′ − 𝑃𝐹
𝑃𝐵 ′ −𝑃𝐹 𝑃𝐵′
= …………………..3
𝑃𝐹 𝑃𝐵

Using sign conversion

PB = −𝑢

PB = −𝑣

PF = −𝑓

∴ equation 3 becomes
−𝑣+𝑓 −𝑣
= −𝑢
−𝑓

𝑣−𝑓 𝑣
=𝑢
𝑓

𝑢𝑣 − 𝑢𝑓 = 𝑣𝑓

Dividing each term by 𝑢𝑣𝑓

1 1 1
- =𝑢
𝑓 𝑣

1 1 1
=𝑢+
𝑓 𝑣

Q. If 𝒇𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒇𝟐 are the focal length of two thin lenses kept in contact, what is the effective power of the
combination?
1 1 1
Ans: The effective focal length of the combination 𝑓 = 𝑓 + 𝑓
1 2

1
But = P , Power of the combination
𝑓

1
= 𝑃1 Power of the first lens
𝑓1

1
= 𝑃2 Power of the second lens
𝑓2

𝑃 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2
Q. Prism :Prism is and optical medium bound by three rectangular faces and two triangular faces. Of the
three rectangular faces two are polished and are called refracting faces. The third rectangular face which
is grounded and is called base of the prism

The edge between refracting surfaces is refracting edge. The angle between two refracting surfaces is
called refracting angle or angle of the prism. A section of the prism perpendicular to the refracting edge is
called principal section of the prism.

Obtain an expression for refractive index of the material of the prism interms of angle of prism and angle of
𝑨+𝑫𝒎
𝐬𝐢𝐧
𝟐
minimum deviation or show that 𝒏𝟐 = 𝑨
𝐬𝐢𝐧
𝟐

Ans :

ABC – principal section of a prism

𝐵𝐴𝐶 = A = angle of the prism

𝑛2 = R. I of the medium of the prism

𝑛1 = R. I of the medium in which the prism is placed

PQ = incident ray

QR = refracted ray

RS = emergency ray

𝑖 = angle of incidence at the surface AB

𝑟1 = angle of refraction of the surface AB

𝑟2 = angle of incidence at the surface AC

𝑒 = angle of emergence

From the quadrilateral AQNR

𝐴 + 𝑄𝑁𝑅 = 1800 ……..1

From the triangle QNR

𝑟1 +𝑟2 + 𝑄𝑁𝑅 = 1800 ……..2

From equation (1) and (2)

𝑟1 +𝑟2 = A ………3

Deviation at the surface AB is 𝛿1 = 𝑖 − 𝑟1

Deviation at the surface AC is 𝛿2 = 𝑒 − 𝑟2

Total deviation 𝛿 = 𝛿1 + 𝛿2

𝛿 = 𝑖 − 𝑟1 + 𝑒 − 𝑟2

𝛿 = 𝑖 + 𝑒 − 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 …………….4

Substituting (3) in (4)

𝛿= 𝑖+𝑒 −𝐴 ………………5

The variation angle of deviation (𝛿) with angle of incidence is as shown in the graph. For a given value of
𝛿1 there are different values of 𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒

But when 𝛿 = 𝐷𝑚 , 𝑖 = 𝑒 and 𝑟1 = 𝑟2 = 𝑟

∴ equation 3 becomes

𝑟+𝑟 =𝐴
𝐴
𝑟= …………………6
2

Equation (5) becomes

𝐷𝑚 = 𝑖 + 𝑖 − 𝐴

2𝑖 = 𝐴+𝐷𝑚
𝐴+𝐷𝑚
𝑖= ………………..7
2

Refractive index of the material of the prism

sin 𝑖
𝑛2 =sin 𝑟

𝐴 +𝐷 𝑚
sin
2
𝑛2 = 𝐴
sin
2

Q. Derive the lens makes formula

Ans :

𝑓 = focal length of the lens

𝑛2 = R.I of the lens

𝑛1 = R. I of the surrounding medium

𝑅1 = radius of curvature of the surface ABC

𝑅2 = radius of curvature of the surface ADC

𝑂 = luminous object placed on the principal axis

𝐼 = real image of the object O

𝑢 = object distance

𝑣 = image distance

The formation of the image I can be seen in two steps

(i) Refraction at the surface ABC: In the absence of the second surface ADC, incident ray ON,
undergo refraction and meets the principal axis at 𝐼1

Object distance =𝑢
Image distance =𝑣1

Radius of curvature = 𝑅1
𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛 2 −𝑛 1
∴ + = ……………….1
𝑢 𝑣1 𝑅1

(ii) Refraction at the surface ADC: The image I, formed by the surface ABC, behaves like a
virtual object for surface ADC and the final image I is formed.

Object distance = 𝑣1

Image distance = 𝑣

Radius of curvature = 𝑅1
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 1 −𝑛 2
− 𝑣 2 + 𝑣1 =
1 𝑅2
𝑛2 𝑛1 𝑛 1 −𝑛 2
−𝑣 +𝑣 = − …………………2
1 𝑅2

Adding equation (1) and (2)

𝑛1 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 1 −𝑛 2 𝑛 1 −𝑛 2
− + 𝑣 2 − 𝑣2 + 𝑣1 = −
𝑢 1 1 𝑅2 𝑅2

𝑛1 𝑛1 1 1
− +− = 𝑛2 −𝑛1 −𝑅
𝑢 𝑣 𝑅1 2

Dividing each term by 𝑛1

1 1 𝑛2 1 1
+𝑣= −1 −𝑅
𝑢 𝑛1 𝑅1 2

1 1 1 1
+ 𝑣 = 𝑛2 − 1 −𝑅
𝑢 𝑅1 2

When the object is at ∞,image will be formed at 𝑓 i.e. when 𝑢 = ∞, 𝑣 = 𝑓

1 1 1 1
+ 𝑓 = 𝑛2 − 1 −𝑅
∞ 𝑅1 2

1 1 1
= 𝑛2 − 1 −𝑅
𝑓 𝑅1 2

This is called lens formula

*****************

Wave Optics

Q . State Malu’s Law

Ans: This law states that the intensity of the polarized light transmitted through the analyzer varies as the
squares of the cosine of the angle between the plane of transmission of the analyzer and the plane of the
polarizer

𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃

Where I is the intensity of the emergent light from second polaroid (analyzer). 𝐼0 is the intensity of plane
polarized light incident on second polaroid after passing through first polaroid (polarizer) and 𝜃 is the
angle between the pass axis of tow polaroids (analyzer and polariser)

Q. Mention the uses of polaroids

Ans :

(i) Polaroid’s are used to produce and analyze plane-polaroid light

(ii) Used as polarizing sun glasses
(iii) Used to view 3-dimensional pictures
(iv) Used to improve colour contrast in old oil paintings
(v) Used to control the intensity of light entering trains and aeroplanes
(vi) Used to eliminate head light glare of vehicles approaching from the opposite

Q. What are spherical, cylindrical and plane wavefront?

Ans: In a homogeneous medium at small distance from a point source of light the wavefronts
emerging formt he source are spherical wavefronts

for a linear source at small distance the emerging wave fronts are cylindrical wavefront

at large distances a small portion of either spherical or cylindrical wavefront can be considered to be
plane of wavefront

Q. Explain Huygen’s principle

Ans :(a) Every point on the given wavefront (called primary wavefront) acts as a fresh source of new
disturbance called secondary wavelets, which travel in all directions with the velocity of light in the
medium

(b) A surface passing these secondary wavelets, tangentially in the forward direction at any instant
gives the new wavefront at that instant. This is called secondary wavefront.

Q. State Bohr’s postulate of hydrogen atom

Ans: (i) An electron in an atom revolve round the nucleus in certain stable orbits called stationary
orbits. An electron in a stationary orbit does not radiate energy

(iii) An electron can revolve round the nucleus only in those orbits for which the angular
𝑕 𝑛𝑕
momentum is integral multiple of 2𝜋 i.e. angular momentum L =2𝜋

𝑕is called Planck’s constant.

Q. Explain refraction of plane waves using Huygens principle

Ans:

Let P𝑃1 represent the surface separating medium -1 and medium -2. Let 𝑣1 and 𝑣2 be the speed of light
in medium-1 and medium -2 respectively. Consider a plane wave front AB incident in medium -1 at
angle ‘𝑖′on the surface ′ . According to Huygen’sprinciple, every point on the wave front AB is a source
of secondary wavelets.

Let the secondary wavelet form B strike the surface PP’ at C in a time t. then BC = 𝑣1 𝑡

The secondary wavelet from A will travel a distance 𝑣2 𝑡 as radius ; draw an arc in medium -2. The
tangent from C touches the arc at E. then AE =𝑣2 𝑡 and C is the tangential surface touching all spheres
of refracted secondary wavelets. Hence, CE is the refracted wave front. Let r be the angle of refraction.
In the above figure 𝑖 is the angle of incidence and r is the angle of refraction.

BC = 𝑣1 𝑡 and AE = 𝑣2 𝑡
𝐵𝐶 𝑣 𝑡
From ∆𝑙𝑒 ABC sin 𝑖 = 𝐴𝐶 = 𝐴𝐶
1
……………..1

𝐵𝐶 𝑣 𝑡
From ∆𝑙𝑒 ABC sin 𝑟 = 𝐴𝐶 = 𝐴𝐶
2
……………..2

Dividing (1) by (2)

From ∆𝑙𝑒 ABC

sin 𝑖 𝑣
=𝑣1 …………………..3
sin 𝑟 2

If c is the speed of light in vacuum, then 𝑛1 = c/𝑣1 and

𝑛2 = c/𝑣2
𝑛2 c/𝑣 𝑣
= c/𝑣1 = 𝑣2 ……………….4
𝑛1 2 1
 sin 𝑖 𝑛
From (3) and (4) sin 𝑟 =𝑛 2
1

𝑛1 sin 𝑖 = 𝑛2 sin 𝑟. This is known as Snell’s law of refraction.

If 𝜆1 and 𝜆2 denote the wavelengths of light in medium (1) and medium (2) and if BC = 𝜆1 and AE =𝜆2
then
𝜆1 𝐵𝐶 𝑣 𝜆
= 𝐴𝐸 =𝑣1 𝜆
𝜆2 2

𝑣 𝑣
∴𝜆 1 =𝜆 2
1 2

i.e. when a wave travels from rarer medium to denser medium, the speed of light decreases but
frequency remains constant.

Q Obtain an expression for fringe width using young’s double slit experiment?

Ans :Consider two narrow slits A & B separated by a small distance d which are illuminated by a
monochromatic light of wavelength 𝜆. A screen is placed at a distance of D from the slits on which
interference fringes are formed. Let O be a point on the screen which is equidistant from A & B

The path difference between the waves from A & B reaching the point O is zero. Hence they interfere
constructively to produce a central bright fringe.

Let P be another point on the screen at a distance x form O. the intensity at P may be minimum or
maximum depending upon the path difference between the two waves. The path difference is
calculated as follows:

Path difference p.d = BP – AP

From triangle BFP

𝑑 2
B𝑃2 = 𝐷2 + 𝑥 + 2 ……………….1

From triangle AEP

𝐴𝑃2 = A𝐸 2 + 𝐸𝑃2
 𝑑 2
𝐴𝑃2 = 𝐷2 + 𝑥 − 2 …………………2

Eq (1) – Eq (2)

𝑑 2 𝑑 2
B𝑃2 - 𝐴𝑃2 = 𝐷2 + 𝑥 + 2 - 𝐷2 + 𝑥 − 2

𝑑 𝑑2 𝑑 𝑑2
B𝑃2 - 𝐴𝑃2 = 𝐷2 + 𝐶 2 + 2𝑥 2 + - 𝐷2 + 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 2 +
4 4

B𝑃2 - 𝐴𝑃2 = 2 𝑥d

i.e. 𝐵𝑃 + 𝐴𝑃 𝐵𝑃 − 𝐴𝑃 = 2 𝑥d

but BP = AP + D and BP –AP = Δ called path difference

𝐷 + 𝐷 Δ =2 𝑥d
𝑥𝑑
2D Δ = 2 𝑥d ⇒ Δ = 𝐷

𝑥𝑑
∴ Path difference Δ = 𝐷

If the path difference at P is equal to n𝜆 then a bright fringe is obtained at P

𝑥𝑑 n𝜆𝐷
∴ n𝜆 = or 𝑥 =
𝐷 𝑑

Dn 𝜆
𝑥𝑛 = where 𝑥𝑛 is the distance of nth bright fringe from O
𝑑

D 𝑛 +1 𝜆
Similarly 𝑥 𝑛+1 = where 𝑥𝑥+1 is the distance of (n+1)th bright fringe from O
𝑑

D 𝑛+1 𝜆 Dn 𝜆
∴ 𝑥𝑥+1 -𝑥𝑛 = -
𝑑 𝑑

Dn 𝜆 D𝜆 Dn 𝜆
∴ 𝑥𝑥+1 -𝑥𝑛 = +𝑑 -
𝑑 𝑑

D𝜆
∴ 𝑥𝑥+1 -𝑥𝑛 = 𝑑

But 𝑥𝑥+1 -𝑥𝑛 is the distance between two successive bright fringes (𝛽)
D𝜆
∴𝛽= 𝑑

D𝜆
Similarly we can show that the distance between two successive dark fringes as 𝛽 = 𝑑

Hence fringes are equidistant

D𝜆
∴𝛽= 𝑑

Note
 1. Two independent monochromatic sources produce interference
2. Central bright fringe can be identified using white light. When white light is used, coloured
fringes are formed on the screen with white band only at the centre
3. In YDSE if one of the slit is covered by the opaque object fringes will disappear
4. In YDSE if glass plate is introduced in the path of the beam fringe pattern will shift.
5. If screes I moved away from the slit, the number of fringes increases bu the sharpness
decreases
6. Coherent sources can be obtained by two methods namely, amplitude division method and
wave front division method
7. Newton’s rings, air wedge experiment are examples for amplitude division and Young’s double
slit experiment(YDSE) is an example for wave front division for angular positions of dark
bands
𝜆
Path difference, 𝑑 sin 𝜃 = (2n+)𝜆 and sin 𝜃=(2n+)2𝑑

For angular position of bright band.

*****************

Atom

Q. State Bohr’s postulate of hydrogen atom

Ans: (i) An electron in an atom revolve round the nucleus in certain stable orbit called stationary
orbits. As electron in a stationary orbit does not radiate energy

(ii) An electron can revolve round the nucleus only in those orbits for which the angular
𝑕 𝑛𝑕
momentum is integral multiple of 2𝜋 i.e. angular momentum L = 2𝜋

𝑕is called Planck’s constant

(iv) An atom can radiate energy only when the electron undergo transition from an orbit of
higher energy level (Eq) to an orbit of lower energy level (𝐸𝑗 )
𝑕𝑣 = 𝐸𝑗 − 𝐸1
𝑛𝑕
𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑣𝑟 = 2𝜋
𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑕 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑘 ′ 𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

Q. Obtain an expression for nth stationary orbit of hydrogen atom

Ans: Let an electron of mass m, charge –e revolve round the nucleus of the hydrogen atom with a speed v
in a circular orbit of radius r

The electronic force (𝐹𝑒 ) of attraction between the electron and the nucleus provides the necessary
centripetal (𝐹𝑒 ) force
 1 𝑒.𝑒 1 𝑒2
𝐹𝑒 = 4𝜋𝜀 . = 4𝜋𝜀 . 𝑟 2
0 𝑟2 0
𝑚𝑣 2
𝐹𝑒 =
𝑟
1 𝑒2 𝑚𝑣 2
. 𝑟2 =
4𝜋𝜀 0 𝑟
1
𝑚𝑣 r = 4𝜋𝜀 𝑒 2
2
………1
0
From Bohr’s postulate
𝑛𝑕
𝑚𝑣𝑟 =
2𝜋
Squaring both sides,
𝑛2𝑕2
𝑚2 𝑣 2 𝑟 2 = ………2
4𝜋 2
2 ÷ (1)
𝑚 2 𝑣2 𝑟 2 𝑛2𝑕2 4𝜋 𝜀 0
= ×
𝑚𝑣 2 r 4𝜋 2 𝑒2

𝜀0 𝑛2 𝑕2
𝑚𝑟 =
𝜋𝑒 2
𝜀0 𝑛2 𝑕2
𝑟=
𝜋𝑚𝑒 2
The radius of the nth stationary orbit
𝜀0 𝑛2 𝑕2
𝑟𝑛 =
𝜋𝑚𝑒 2
Note:

i) The first orbit of hydrogen atom is called Bohr orbit and its radius is called Bohr radius
Bohr radius
𝜀0 𝑕 2
𝑟0 = = 5.29 x 10−10 𝑚
𝜋𝑚 𝑒 2
2
ii) 𝑟𝑛 ∝ 𝑛

If 𝑟1, 𝑟2, 𝑟3 ……… are the radii of first, second, third orbits …then

𝑟1 ; 𝑟2 ; 𝑟3 … … … … ; ; ; 12 ; 22 ; 32 …..

𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑟1 ; 𝑟2 ; 𝑟3 … … … … ; ; ; 1; 4; 9…..
 iii) 𝑟𝑛 = 𝑟0 𝑛2 where 𝑟0 is the Bohr radius

Q. Obtain the relation between amu and eV

Ans :When I amu (𝑢)of mass of completely converted into energy, energy released is given by E = 𝑚𝑐 2

𝑚 = 1𝑢 = 1.66 × 10−27 𝑘𝑔

C = 2.9979× 106 𝑚𝑠 −1

E = (1.66x10−27 )(2.9979x108 )2

= 14.919× 10−11 J
14.919×10 −11
= 𝑒𝑉
1.602×10 −19

= 931.5 × 106 eV

= 931.5 MeV

∴ Iu = 931.5 MeV

Q Distinguish between nuclear fission and nuclear fusion

Ans:

Sl. Nuclear fission Nuclear fussion

No
1 It is the process in which nucleus of
elements breaks into two lighter nuclei of comparable
masses releasing neutrons and energy
2 It takes place at ordinary room temperature
3 It can be controlled
4 Energy released per fission reaction is more
5 Energy released per nucleon is less
6 End products are radioactive
heavy It is the process in which two or more
lighter nuclei fuse together to form a
single heavy nucleus
It takes place at very high temperature
of about 100 K
It cannot be controlled
Energy released per fusion reaction is
less
Energy released per nucleon is more
End products are not radioactive

Q. Obtain the relation between decay constant 𝝀 and half life 𝑻𝟏

𝟐

Ans: We know N = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡

Where 𝑁0 is the number of radioactive nuclei present in the sample initially. N is the number of
radioactive nuclei present in the sample at any instant t. 𝜆 is the decay constant.
𝑁0
When t = 𝑇1 , N =
2 2
𝑁0 −𝜆𝑇1
= 𝑁0 𝑒 2
2

1 −𝜆𝑇1
=𝑒 2
2

1 1
= 𝜆𝑇1
2 𝑒 2

𝜆𝑇1
2=𝑒 2

Taking log on both sides

𝜆𝑇1
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 2 = 𝑒 2

2.303 × log 2 = 𝜆𝑇1

2

2.303 × 0.3010 = 𝜆𝑇1

2

0.693 = 𝜆𝑇1
2

0.693
𝑇1 =
2 𝜆

Q. Write a note on binding energy curve

Ans : The graphical representation of variation of binding energy per nucleus with mass number of
different nuclei is called binding energy curve

The study of binding curve reveals the following details

i. The binding energy per nucleonis less of lighter nuclei such as 21𝐻 , 32𝐻𝑒. These nuclei are less
stable.
ii. In the lighter nuclei region, the binding energy per nucleon increases sharply with mass
number and reaches a maximum value of 8.75MeV for A =56
iii. For nuclei 30 < A <170, the binding energy per nucleus is maximum (8MeV) and is almost
constant. Hence these nuclei are stable
iv. For nuclei A >170, the binding energy per nucleon decreases and reaches a value of 7.6 MeV
for A =238.
v. Heavy nucleus say A> 240, whose binding energy per nucleon is less, tend to undergo fission
to attain stability. During this process energy is released
vi. Very light nuclei A≤ 10 whose binding energy per nucleon is less, tend to undergo fusion to
attain stability. During this process energy is released

Q. Show that N = 𝑵𝟎 𝒆−𝝀 , where the symbols have their usual meaning

Ans :Let𝑁0 be the original number of parent atoms present in the radioactive sample. N be the number
of parent atoms at any instant of time.
𝑑𝑁
ifdN atoms decay in a small interval of time, dt then is the rate of decay of the readioactive sample.
𝑑𝑡

From decay law

𝑑𝑁
∝N
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑁
= − 𝜆𝑁
𝑑𝑡
Where 𝜆 is a constant called decay constant

On rearranging the terms

𝑑𝑁
= − 𝜆𝑑𝑡
𝑁
Integrating both sides of the equation
𝑁 𝑑𝑁 1
𝑁0 𝑁
= 0
− 𝜆𝑑𝑡

𝑁 𝑑𝑁 1
𝑁0 𝑁
=− 𝜆 0
𝑑𝑡

1 𝑁

𝜆𝑑𝑡 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑁 .
0 𝑁0

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑁 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑁0 = 𝜆(𝑡 − 0)

𝑁
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 = − 𝜆𝑡
𝑁0

𝑁
=𝑒 − 𝜆𝑡
𝑁0

N =𝑁0 𝑒 − 𝜆𝑡

******************
 Semiconductor Electronics

Q. Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors

Ans:

Sl. Intrinsic semiconductor Extrinsic semiconductor

No
1 It is the semiconductor in the pure It is the pure semiconductor, doped with a suitable
form impurity
2 Electrons and holes are equal in Electrons and holes are unequal in number
number

Q. Distinguish between p type and n type semiconductors

Ans:

Sl. p type n type semiconductor

No semiconductor
1. It is formed by It is formed by doping pure Ge with a pentavalent impurity
doping pure
Ge with at
trivalent
impurity
2. Majoriy Majority charge carriers are electrons
charge
carriers are
holes
3 Minority Minority charge carriers are holes
charge
carriers are
electrons
4 Mobility of Mobility of majority charge carrier is high
majority chare
carrier is less

Q. With a neat circuit diagram explain the working of half wave rectifier. Indicate the waveforms of
input and output voltage

Ans :
 The ac voltage to be rectified is applied across the primary of the transformer P. The diode D id
connected in series with a load resistor 𝑅𝐿 and this series combination is connected to the secondary
S of the transformer

During the positive half cycles of the transformer output, the end A is negative. The diode is forward
biased and conducst a current.

During the negative half cycles of the transformer output, the end A is negative. The diode is reverse
biased and does not conduct a current

Thus a current flows through output circuit only during positive half cycles of input ac.

The input and output waveforms of a half wave rectifier is as shown

Q. With a neat circuit diagram, explain the working of full wave rectifier. Indicate the waveforms of
input and output voltage.

Ans:
The ac voltage to be rectified is applied across the primary of the transformer. The p regions of the
two diodes 𝐷1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷2 are connected to the ends of the secondary of the transformer. Then regions are
joined together and then inturn is connected to the centre tap through a load resistance 𝑅𝐿 . The
rectified output can be drawn across the load resistance 𝑅𝐿

During positive half cycles of transformer output, the end A is positive and the other end B is negative.
The diode 𝐷1 is forward biased and 𝐷2 is reverse biased. Consequently 𝐷1 conducts and 𝐷2 doesnot
conduct any current. A current flows though the load resistance 𝑅𝐿 in the same direction X and Y

Thus a unidirectional current flows through a load resistance over the complete cycle of input ac.

The input and output waveforms of a full wave rectifier is as shown.

This pulsuating dc can be made steady using filter circuit.

Q. with a neat diagram, explain the input and output characteristics of an npn transistor in CE mode.

Ans:

Input Characteristics: The graphical representation of variation of base current 𝐼𝐵 with base emitter
voltage 𝑉𝑐𝑠

when collector emitter voltage 𝑉𝑐𝑠 is kept constant is called input characteristics.

The collector emitter voltage 𝑉𝑐𝑠 is kept constant at a suitable value. The base emitter voltage 𝑉𝐵𝐸 is
increase gradually in suitable small steps. The corresponding value of base current𝐼𝐵 is noted.

The variation of base current 𝐼𝐵 with base emitter voltage 𝑉𝐵𝐸 is as shown in the graph
The reciprocal of slope of input characteristics represents input resistance
𝐴𝐵 Δ𝐼𝐵
Slope =𝐵𝐶 = Δ𝑉𝐵𝐸

1 Δ𝑉𝐵𝐸
Input resistance 𝑅1 = 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = Δ𝐼𝐵

Output Resistance : The graphical representation of variation of collector current 𝐼𝑐 with collector
emitter voltage 𝑉𝐶𝐸 when base current 𝐼𝐵 is kept constant is called output characteristics

The base current 𝐼𝐵 is kept constant at a suitable value. The collector emitter voltage 𝑉𝐶𝐸 is
increased gradually in suitable small steps and the corresponding value of collector current 𝐼𝐶 is
noted.

The variation of collector current 𝐼𝐶 with collector emitted voltage 𝑉𝐶𝐸 is as shown in the graph

The reciprocal of slope of output characteristics represents output resistance.

Δ𝐼𝐶
Slope = Δ𝑉𝐶𝑆

1 Δ𝑉𝐶𝐸
Output resistance 𝑅0 = 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = Δ𝐼𝐶

*********************
 Communication Systems

Q. Draw a block diagram of generalized communication system.

Q What is the block diagram of AM transmitter?

Ans:

Q. Explain how the Zener diode is used as a voltage regulator

Ans: The unregulated dc voltage (filtered output of a rectifier) us connected to the Zener diode through a
series resistance such that the Zener diode is revers biased. The regulated output can be drawn across
the load resistance.

When the input voltage increases, the current through resistance 𝑅𝑠 and Zener diode also increases. This
increases the voltage drop across 𝑅𝑠 without any change in the voltage across the Zener diode. This is
because when the applied voltage is equal to breakdown voltage of the diode, Zener voltage remains
constant even though the current through the diode increases.

Similarly, if the input voltage decreases, the current through the reistance𝑅𝑠 and the Zener diode
decreases. The voltage drop across 𝑅𝑠 decreases without any change in the voltage across the Zener diode.

Thus any change in the input voltage produces a corresponding change in voltage drop 𝑅𝑠 without any
change in the voltage across the Zener diode.

But Zener diode acts a voltage regulator.

**********************