A Brief Introduction to Automobile Engineering

Presented by: Santanu Chakraborty

Defining the Automobile: The automobile is a self-propelled vehicle that travels on land.
History of the Automobile: The automobile has been around for more than 100 years. The
first automobiles were basically horse-drawn buggies and carriages powered by gasoline-
fueled engines instead of horses. They were called gas buggies and horseless carriages.
The first automobile was a gas buggy built by Karl Benz in Germany in 1885 and 1886.
A contemporary of Karl Benz, Gottlieb Daimler, mounted an engine in a wooden bicycle.
He also built a four –wheel gas buggy in the next year.
Two brothers, Charles and Frank Duryea, built the first automobile in the US in 1893.
By 1895, Henry Ford, Ransom Olds, and others were building cars in the US.
By 1900, several factories in Detroit and elsewhere were making automobiles. By 1908,
Ford had the car(Model T Ford) in production that put America on wheels.
Today, the automotive industry is one of the biggest in the world and 24 million people
work in the automotive industry and its related businesses.

Gas Buggy Model T Ford

Classification of Automobiles: Automobiles can be classified from the point of view of
various considerations as follows-
 Use
 Buses and trucks.
 Cars and jeeps.
 Motor cycles and scooters.
 Auto cycles.
 Capacity
 HTV; Eg. Trucks and buses.
 MTV; Eg. Tempo, mini-truck(=<4ton), caravan.
 LTV; Eg. Jeeps, vans, and cars.
 Fuel used
 Petrol vehicles; Eg. Cars, motor cycles, scooters and auto cycles.
 Diesel vehicles; Eg. Trucks, buses, cars, shovel and other off road vehicles.
 LPG; Eg. Auto cycles and vans.
 CNG; Eg. Mini-Truck, auto cycles and mini buses.
 Wheels
 Two wheelers; Eg. Motor cycles and scooters.
 Three wheelers; Eg. Auto cycles and tempos.
 Four wheeler; Eg. Cars, jeeps, mini-truck and caravan.
 Six wheelers; Eg. Buses and truck.
 Multi wheelers(>=10wheels); Eg. Articulated vehicles, coaches and trucks(>=18ton).
Drive
 Whether the vehicle can be driven sitting towards right or left side
 Left hand drive; Eg. American vehicles for use in USA.
 Right hand drive; Eg. Indian vehicles.
 Whether the vehicle can be driven by the front axle, rear axle or both the axles
 Front Axle/ wheel drive; Eg. MS800/ ALTO, Volkswagen car and etc.
 Rear Axle/ wheel drive; Eg. HM-Ambassador, Maruti OMNI, Tata Sumo and etc.
 Both(All) Axle/ wheel drive; Eg. Jeeps, Shaktiman, Ford Endeavour and etc.
 Transmission
 Manual, in which ordinary crash type gear box is used.
 Sliding mesh type.
 Constant mesh type.
 Synchromesh type.
 Semi-automatic, in which manual transmission is used with automatic clutch control.
 Fully-automatic, in which combinations of epicyclic gear trains with torque convertor.
 Car body styles
 Closed cars
 Saloon: It has 2or4 doors, a single compartment with two rows of seat and with cargo at
rear. Eg. HM-Ambassador, MS SX4, Hyundai Verna and etc.
 Hatchback: A saloon with a door at the back. Eg. MS 800, Fiat Pinto and etc.
 Coupe: It has 2 doors, a single compartment with one row of seat with cargo at rear. Eg.
Chevrolet Monte Carlo and etc.
 Limousine: It is a customized vehicle where driving compartment is apart from the rear
compartment by a sliding glass division and naturally large in size with or without
additional cargo facility. Eg. Rolls Royce Phantom, Ford Excursion, Cadillac DTS.
 Classification of automobiles:
 Open cars
 Sports: It has 2 doors or less, is provided with a collapsible hood, a fold-flat windscreen and
removable side-screen. Eg.
 Convertible: The roof in this is of soft folding type and windows of special wind-up design
by which provisions the car may be either open or enclosed.
 Special styles
 Estate car: A saloon car with the passenger roof extended right up to the rear end. Rear door
for loading with rear seats usually collapsible.
 Station wagon: Wood/ Steel/ Aluminum paneled body is used to enclose the vehicle where
minimum 4doors is provided with multiple seating arrangements.
 Transport vehicles
 Van: These are LTV. There are seats at the front and the cargo space at the rear. The side
doors are usually of sliding type where as rear door is used for loading and unloading.
 Truck: These are heavy goods commercial vehicles with all the axles attached to a single
frame. Generally twin wheels are fitted on the non-steered axles. Depending upon the load
capacity, there are two or more axles.
 Articulated vehicle: This is also a heavy goods vehicle consisting of a tractor and a semi-
trailer. The tractor provides the motive power while the trailer carries the goods. The two units
are connected together by means of a ‘fifth-wheel’ coupling. This type of vehicle has smaller
turning circle than the rigid truck whereas steering is more difficult as the trailer wheels do not
follow the same path as the tractor wheels.
 Bus: These are used for carrying large number of people over short distances often in a dense
traffic with 4doors facilities and adequate visibility for the passengers. Sometimes the buses
have two floors, i.e. ‘double-decker’ buses.
 Coach: These are used for transporting passengers over long distances and are provided with
adjustable seats, luxurious interior and different customized facilities. Eg. Volvo 8243.
 Off-road vehicles: These are used for carrying heavy bulk materials or used for special operations.
Eg. Dumper, shovel, dozer, excavator, fork-lift and etc.
Construction of the Automobile: The basic parts and systems in an automobile are the
major components. These include:
 A basic structure (Chassis) on different systems to be installed.
An engine or power plant that produces power to move the vehicle.
 A power train, to carry the power from the engine to the drive wheels.
 A suspension system, that absorbs the shock of the tires and wheels meeting bumps and
holes in the road.
 A steering system, so the driver can control the direction of vehicle travel.
 A braking system, so the driver can retard and stop the vehicle.
 An electrical system, to provide electricity for cranking the engine, charging the battery,
and powering the lights and other electrical equipment.
 A body (Superstructure), that provides enclosures or compartment for the engine,
passengers, and cargo/ luggage.
Chassis construction: Chassis is the complete vehicle except the body and mounts all the
major units such as framework, engine, power train, suspension system, axles, road
wheels, steering system, brakes, fuel tank, electrical system and accessories.

Chassis classification:
 Conventional control chassis: In which engine is mounted in front of the driver’s
cabin. This type of arrangement avoids full utilization of the space. Eg. Shaktiman,
Tata 407/ 410, HM-Bedford, Mercedes Benz double chassis and etc.
 Semi-forward control chassis: In which engine is so mounted that half of it in the
driver’s cabin whereas the other half is in front, outside the driver’s cabin. Eg. Force
Traveler, Force Delivery van and etc.
 Full-forward control chassis: In which the engine is mounted completely inside
the driver’s cabin. Obviously maximum utilization of space is achieved in this type.
Eg. Tata 2515, HM-Winner, AL 2416 and etc.
Frame construction: Frame is the basic unit to which various components are attached and
body is bolted into frame later on. X-member in the centre is used to resist twisting force.

 Functions of the frame

 To support the chassis components and the body.
 To withstand static and dynamics loads without undue deflection or distortion.
 Loads on the frame
 Wt. of the vehicle and the passengers, which causes vertical bending of the side members.
 Vertical loads when the vehicle comes across a bump or hollow, which results in longitudinal
torsion due to one wheel lifted or lowered with other wheels at the usual road level.
 Loads due to road camber, side wind, cornering force while taking a turn, which result in
lateral bending of side members.
 Load due to wheel impact with road obstacles may cause that particular wheel to remain
obstructed while the other wheel tends to move forward, distorting the frame to parallelogram
shape.
 Engine torque and braking torque tending to bend the side members in the vertical plane.
 Sudden impact loads during a collision, which may result in a general collapse.
 Various cross-sections: There are various cross-sections for the side members and cross
members like ‘channel section, different box sections, hat section and double channel/ I-section.
Frameless construction: In this type of construction heavy side member used in conventional
construction are eliminated and the floor is strengthened by cross-members and the body, all
welded together. Body proper and frameless chassis components are welded together to form a
rigid, integral monocoque unit for extra strength and durability. Compared to framed
construction, the frameless construction of automobiles is economical when produced on large
scale.

Materials for frame: A comparative study is shown for the material selection of the side
members, cross-members, X-member and different frame brackets.

Mild Steel Plate Carbon Steel Plate 3% Ni Steel Plate

Carbon, % 0.15—0.20 0.22-0.27 0.25-0.35
Manganese, % 0.40-0.6 0.50-0.70 0.35-0.75
Silicon, % 0.7 max. 0.7 max. 0.05 max.
Phosphorous, % 0.5 max. 0.05 max. 0.05 max.
Sulphur, % 0.05 max. 0.05 max. 0.05 max.
Ultimate Strength, MPa 450-500 500-670 550-720
Yield Strength, MPa 225 250 320
Elongation, % on 100mm 20 % min. 20 % min. 20 % min.
Engine: An engine is a device which transforms the chemical energy of a fuel into thermal
energy and utilizes this thermal energy to perform useful work. Automobiles’ engines are
generally Internal combustion (IC) engine of Reciprocating type with operating fuels of Petrol
and Diesel based on their operating cycle Otto and Diesel respectively.

 Engine components:

 Engine nomenclature:
 Cylinder bore (d).
 Piston area (A).
 Stroke (L).
 Stroke to Bore ratio (L/d).
 Under-square, if d<L.
 Square, if d=L.
 Over-square, if d>L.
 Dead centre (TDC & BDC).
 Swept volume (VS): A x L.
 Engine capacity (CC): VS x K.
 Clearance volume (VC).
 Compression ration ( r ): VT/VC.
Cylinder arrangements:

 Cylinder row: An arrangement of cylinders in which the centre-line of the crankshaft journals is
perpendicular to the plane containing the centerlines of the engine cylinders.

 Cylinder bank: An arrangement of cylinders in which the centre-line of the crankshaft journals
is parallel to the plane containing the centerlines of the engine cylinders.

 In-line engine: The in-line engine is an engine with one cylinder bank and one crankshaft.
 V engine: There are two banks of cylinder(i.e. 2 in-line) inclined at an angle(60°) to each other
and with one crankshaft.
 Opposed cylinder engine: This engine has two cylinder banks located in the same plane on
opposite sides of the crankshaft and with single crankshaft.
 Opposed piston engine: When a single cylinder houses two pistons, each of which driving a
separate crankshaft and no cylinder head, it is called an opposed piston engine, but operates in 2S.
 Radial engine: Radial engine is one where more than two cylinders in each row are equally
spaced around crankshaft. The odd(3, 5,7, 9) number of cylinders is employed from the point of
view of balancing. Pistons of all the cylinder are coupled to the same crankshaft.
 X type engine: It is a variation of V-type. It has four banks of cylinder with a single crankshaft.
 H type engine: The H-type is essentially two ‘Opposed cylinder’ type utilizing two separate
but interconnected crankshafts.
 U type engine: The U-type is a variation of ‘Opposed piston’ arrangement.
 Delta type engine: The delta type is essentially a combination of three ‘Opposed piston’ engine
with three crankshafts interlinked to one another.
 Cylinder arrangements:
Engine components:
 Cylinder block: The cylinder block is the main supporting structure for the various
components. The cylinder of a multi-cylinder engine are cast as a single unit, called cylinder
block. The cylinder block is provided with water jackets in the case of liquid cooling.
Cylinder block is made of cast iron or aluminum.
 Cylinder head: The cylinder head is mounted on the cylinder block. It has passages for
cold water circulation, inlet and exhaust ports and it supports valves, springs, rocker arm
assembly. It contains combustion chamber which is formed in the space remaining when the
piston reaches the top of the stroke. Cylinder head is made of cast iron or aluminum. A
gasket is provided in between the cylinder head and cylinder block.
 Crank case: The bottom portion of the cylinder block is called crankcase. A cover called
crankcase which becomes a sump for lubricating oil is fastened to the bottom of crankcase.
 Cylinder: As the name implies it is a cylindrical space in which the piston makes a
reciprocating motion. The varying volume created in the cylinder during the operation of the
engine is filled with the working fluid and subjected to different thermodynamic processes.
 Cylinder liners: It is used to prevent the cylinder from wearing, so it is used which can be
replaced when it is worn out. It allows the engine block to be manufactured from a different
kind of material- E.g. an aluminum block and cast iron liners.
 Combustion chamber: The space enclosed in the upper part of the cylinder, by the
cylinder head and the piston top during the combustion process, is called the combustion
chamber. There are different types of combustion chamber- E.g. T-Head, L-Head, I-Head
and F-Head
 Inlet manifold: The pipe which connects the intake system to the inlet valve of the engine
and through which air or air-fuel mixture is drawn into the cylinder is called the inlet
manifold.
 Exhaust manifold: The pipe which connects the exhaust system to the exhaust valve of
the engine and through which the products of combustion escape into the atmosphere is
called the exhaust manifold.
 Engine components:
Engine components:
 Piston: It is made in one piece from cast iron or aluminum alloy and strong enough to
withstand high pressure due to combustion of fuel and transmits turning force to the
crankshaft via the connecting rod.
Function is to provide the movable end of the cylinder, so as to convert the expansion of the
burning gases on the power strike into mechanical movement of the piston, connecting rod
and crankshaft. Piston is attached to the connecting rod by means of ‘gudgeon pin’.

 Piston ring: The piston ring seals the gap left between the piston and the cylinder wall.
Made from high-grade centrifugally cost iron, it is split to enable the ring to be assembled
onto the piston. There are generally 4 piston rings where two rings are compression ring and
other two rings are oil ring.
 Connecting Rod: Its action converts the linear (straight line) movement of the piston into
the rotary movement of the crankshaft. It connects the reciprocating piston and the rotating
crank and is made of medium carbon steel and constructed as an I-section.
Engine components:
 Crankshaft: Coverts the reciprocating motion of the piston into rotary motion. Main parts
are journals, crankpins, webs or cranks. It rotates in the plain bearing shells in the crankcase,
held in the position by bearing caps.
Oil under pressure from the oil pump is forced into the bearing to lubricate the moving parts.
 Flywheel: Flywheel is fitted to the other end of the crankshaft to store the energy given to
it on the power stroke so that it can carry the rotating components over the induction,
compression and exhaust stroke. It also absorbs the torsional vibrations transmitted to the
crankshaft by the combustion of the gases. It is made of grey cast iron.
Engine components:
 Camshaft: It is a parallel shaft(may not coplanar) to the crankshaft with lobes and opens
the valves at correct time in the cycle of operation of the engine as well as it also regulates
the ignition distributor, fuel pump drives and lubrication oil pump. It is arranged in the
SOHC or DOHC configuration.
Camshaft rotation is provided by the crankshaft by means of timing chain or timing belt with
a speed half of crankshaft speed.
Engine components:
 Push rod: It transmits the motion of the cam-lobes to the rocker arm to open or close the
valve at the proper time.
Rocker arm assembly: It consists of rocker arm, rocker shaft and retainer spring which
transmits the vertical thrust from push-road to the valve tappet to open or close the valves.
Valve tappet: It transmits the motion of a rocker arm to the valves to be opened or closed.

Valves: Valves are commonly mushroom shaped poppet type. They are provided either on
the cylinder head or on the side of the cylinder for regulating the charge coming into the
cylinder (Inlet valve) and for discharging the products of combustion (Exhaust valve) from
the cylinder. Under full power exhaust valve can reach 6500C temperature. Exhaust valve is
made from high tensile alloy steels, containing alloys of cobalt chromium and silicon
chromium, silicon chromium austenitic steel which corrosion and wear resistant.
Valve operating mechanism: These valves are held to their seating by strong springs and as
the values usually open inwards, the pressure in the cylinders helps to keep them closed.
The valves are lifted from their seats and the ports opened either by cams having projecting
potion designed to give the period of opening required or by eccentrics operating through link-
work. Of these two methods the cam gear is more commonly used.
The cams or eccentrics of four stroke engines are mounted on shafts driven by gearing at half
the speed of the crankshaft.

 Valve timing diagram: The timing of the valves, i.e. their opening and closing without
respect to the travel of the piston is very important aspect for efficient working of the engine.
 Theoretically the valves open and close at Top dead centre (TDC) or at Bottom Dead Centre
(B.D.C) but practically they do so some time before or after the piston reaches the upper or
lower limit of travel.
 The actual timing of the valves varies with different four stroke cycle engines, but typical
example for an engine is shown in figure.
Engine components:
 Engine bearing: The purpose of bearing is to reduce the friction and to allow the parts to
move easily.
The crankshaft is supported by bearing.
The connecting rod big end is attached
to the crank pin on the crank of the
crankshaft by a bearing.
A piston pin at the rod small end is used
to attach the rod to the piston.
 The piston pin rides in bearings.
For any rotary action in the engine,
bearings are used to support the moving
parts.
Bearings are lubricated with oil to make
the relative motion.
Bearings used in engines are of two
types i) sliding or ii) rolling (figure). The
sliding bearings are sometimes called
‘bushings’ or ‘sleeve bearings’.
Sleeve bearings are used almost
universally in automobile engines.
Engine components:
 Air cleaner or air filter: A particulate air filter is a device composed of fibrous materials
which removes solid particulates such as dust, pollen, mold, and bacteria from the air. A
chemical air filter consists of an absorbent or catalyst for the removal of airborne molecular
contaminants such as volatile organic compounds.
The filtration system is done by using the followings-
 Pleated papers.
 Oil-wetted polyurethane.
 Oiled cotton gauze.
 An oil bath air cleaner.
 Four stroke SI engine: It is a constant volume heat addition cycle engine or Otto cycle. It is also
called spark-ignition engine.
Thermal efficiency, η otto = (Qin – Qout) / Qin;
Qin = m x Cv (T3-T2) and Qout = m x Cv (T4 – T1);
Therefore, η otto = 1 – [(T4 – T1) / (T3 – T2)]
= 1 – [1 / r ^ (γ – 1)]

Intake Stroke Compression Stroke Power Stroke Exhaust Stroke

Intake valve opens, Both valves closed, Fuel-air mixture burns, Exhaust valve open,
admitting fuel and air. Fuel/air mixture is increasing temperature exhaust products are
Exhaust valve closed compressed by rising and pressure, expansion displaced from cylinder.
for most of stroke. piston. Spark ignites of combustion gases Intake valve opens
mixture near end of drives piston down. Both near end of stroke.
stroke. valves closed - exhaust
valve opens near end
of stroke.
 Two stroke SI and CI engine: Depending upon the scavenging method, there are basically two
types of two stroke engines, viz., crankcase scavenged and separately scavenged(by scavenging
pumps- roots blower and piston pump).
 Advantages of two stroke engines:
 As there is a working stroke for each revolution, the power developed will be nearly twice that
of a four stroke engine of the same dimensions and operating at the same speed.
 The work required to overcome the friction of the exhaust and suction is saved.
 As there is a working stroke in every revolution, a more uniform turning moment is obtained
on the crankshaft and therefore, a lighter flywheel is required.
 Two stroke engines are lighter than four stroke engines for the same power output and speed.
 The construction of a two stroke cycle engine is simple because ports used instead of valves.
 No exhaust gases are trapped in the clearance volume due to scavenging.
 Disadvantages of two stroke engines:
 Heavier lubrication required due to power stroke for each revolution.
 With heavy loads, two stroke engines get heated due to excessive heat produced.

Compression Combustion Exhaust Scavenging

(ports closed) (All ports closed) (Intake port closed) and Intake
Air-fuel taken into (ports open)
Crankcase
 Four stroke CI engine: It is constant pressure heat addition cycle engine or Diesel cycle. It is also
called a compression-ignition engine.
Thermal efficiency, η diesel = (Q1 – Q2) / Q1;
Q1 = m x Cp ( Tc - Tb) and Q2 = m x Cv ( Td – Ta);
Therefore, η diesel = 1 – [Cv x (Td – Ta) / Cp x (Tc – Tb)]
= 1 – [1 / γ {(Td - Ta) / (Tc – Tb)}]
= 1 – [{1 / r ^ (γ – 1)} x {(rc^ γ – 1) / (γ (rc-1)}]

Intake Stroke Compression Stroke Power Stroke Exhaust Stroke

Intake valve opens, Both valves closed, Fuel sprayed, Exhaust valve open,
admitting air. Air is increasing temperature exhaust products are
Exhaust valve closed compressed at TDC and pressure, expansion displaced from cylinder.
for most of stroke. of combustion gases Intake valve opens
drives piston to BDC Both near end of stroke.
valves closed - exhaust
valve opens near end
of stroke.
 Ignition system: A conventional ignition system should provide sufficiently large voltage
across the spark plug electrodes to effect the spark discharge. A given engine design, the
optimum spark timing varies with engine speed, inlet manifold pressure and mixture
composition. There are different ignition systems- E.g. BIS, MIS, TCI, CDI and etc.
 Battery ignition system: Battery is used to provide the electrical energy and it is charged by a
dynamo driven by the engine. It requires the following components-
 Battery
 Ignition switch
 Ballast resistor
 Ignition coil
 Contact breaker
 Capacitor
 Distributor
 Spark plug

Magneto ignition system: Magneto is a special type of ignition system with its own electric
generator to provide the necessary energy for the system.
 Ignition switch
Magnet
 Contact breaker
 Condenser
 Primary winding
 Secondary winding
 Distributor
 Spark plug
 Firing order: 1-3-4-2 or
1-5-3-6-2-4. Each firing per 180°
for 4cylinder while 120° for
6cylinder of crank rotation.
 Method of charging: Method of charging is classified as follows-
 Naturally aspirated engine: Admission of air or fuel-air mixture at near the atmospheric pressure.
 Supercharged engine: Admission of air or fuel-air mixture under above pressure of atmosphere.

Supercharger: Supercharger is a pressure-boosting device which supplies air or fuel-air mixture at a

higher pressure. A centrifugal or axial flow or displacement type compressor is used. If the
supercharger is driven by the engine crankshaft by means of belt or chain or gear drive then it is
known as supercharger. Some superchargers are driven by a gas turbine which derives power from the
engine exhaust gases, is known as the turbocharger.
 Types of supercharger or turbocharger: There are three types of superchargers as follow-
 Centrifugal type
 Root’s type
 Vane type
 Method of supercharging: Necessary amount of compressed air or fuel-air mixture can be supplied
to the engine in the following ways-
 Independently driven compressor.
 Ram effect.
 Under-piston supercharging.
 Kadenacy system ( only for 2stroke engines)
 Engine driven compressor.
 Major parts of a turbocharger: The major parts are turbine wheel, turbine housing, turbo-shaft,
compressor wheel, compressor housing, waste-gate, intercooler (heat exchanger) and bearings.
 Turbo-lag: The lag is the time the idling turbine needs to reach boost speed, plus, the time needed
for the intercooler and tubing to fill as the change is made from a vacuum to a pressure.
 VGT : VGT is operated in the principle or varying the angle at which the exhaust gas hits the
turbine vanes. Two types of VGT are available, viz., VNT and VAT.
 Method of charging :
 Fuel supply system:
 Fuel system for SI/ Petrol engine:

 Carburetor: The function of a carburetor is to atomize and meter the liquid fuel and mix
it with the air as it enters the induction system of the engine, maintaining under all
conditions of operation fuel- air proportions appropriate to those conditions.
 Figure shows a simple carburetor.
L is the flow chamber for the storage of fuel.
The fuel supplied under gravity action or
by fuel pump enters the float chamber
through the filter F. The arrangement is
such that when the oil reaches a particular
level the float valve M block the inlet
passage and thus cuts off the fuel oil supply.
 Carburetor:
On the fall of oil level, the float descends
down, consequently intake passage opens
and again the chamber is filled will oil. Then
the float and the float and the float valve
maintains a constant fuel oil level in the float
chamber. N is the jet from which the fuel is
sprayed into the air stream as it enters the
carburetor at the inlet S and passes through
the throat or venturi R.
 As the piston moves down in the engine
cylinder, suction is produced in the cylinder
as well as in the induction manifold Q as a
result of which air flows through the
carburetor.
 The velocity of air increases as it passes
through the construction at the Venturi R and
pressure decreases due to conversion of a
portion of pressure head into kinetic energy.
 Due to decreased pressure at the venturi
and hence by virtue of difference in pressure
(between the float chamber and the venturi)
the jet issues fuel oil into air stream.
Since the jet has very time bore, the oil
issuing from the jet is in the form of time
spray, it vaporizes quickly and mixes with
the air. The air fuel mixture enters the engine
cylinder; its quantity being controlled by
varying the position of the throttle valve T.
 Fuel pump: The main objectives of fuel pump
is to deliver accurately metered quantity of fuel
under high pressure(120-200bar) to the carburetor.

Due to rotation of the crankshaft the cam

pushes the lever in the upward direction.

 One end of the lever is hinged while the

other end pulls the diaphragm rod with
diaphragm.

 So the diaphragm come in the downward

direction against the compression of the
spring and thus a vacuum is produced in the
pump chamber. This vacuum is produced in
the pump chamber. This causes the fuel to
enter into the pump chamber from the glass
bowl through the strainer and the inlet valve,
the impurities of the fuel.

 On the return stroke the spring pushes the

diaphragm in the upward direction forcing the
fuel from the pump chamber into the
carburetor through the outlet valve.
 Fuel supply system:
 Fuel system for CI/ Diesel engine:

 Fuel injection pump: The main objectives of fuel-injection pump is to deliver accurately
metered quantity of fuel under high pressure(120-200 bar) at the correct instant to the
injector fitted on each cylinder. Injection pumps are generally Jerk type pump and
Distributor pump.

 Referencing to the figure, L is the plunger

which is driven by a cam and tappet
mechanism at the bottom. B is the barrel in
which the plunger reciprocates.
 There is the rectangular vertical valve
which lifts off its seat under the liquid fuel
pressure and against the spring force (S).
 The fuel pump is connected to fuel
atomizer through the passage, P, SP and Y are
the spill and supply parts respectively.
 When the plunger moves up due to cam
and tappet mechanism, a stage reaches when
both the parts SP and Y are closed and with
the further upward movement of plunger the
fuel gets compressed.
 Fuel injection pump:
 Referencing to the figure, L is the plunger
which is driven by a cam and tappet
mechanism at the bottom. B is the barrel in
which the plunger reciprocates.
 There is the rectangular vertical valve
which lifts off its seat under the liquid fuel
pressure and against the spring force (S).
 The fuel pump is connected to fuel
atomizer through the passage, P, SP and Y are
the spill and supply parts respectively.
 When the plunger moves up due to cam
and tappet mechanism, a stage reaches when
both the parts SP and Y are closed and with
the further upward movement of plunger the
fuel gets compressed.
 The high pressure thus developed lifts the
deliver valve its seat and fuel flows to
atomizer through the passage P.
 With further vise of the plunger, at a certain
movement, the post SP connected to the fuel
in the upper part of the plunger through the
rectangular vertical groove by the helical
groove; as a result of which a sudden drop in
pressure occurs and the delivery valve falls
back and occupies its seat against the spring
force.
The plunger is rotated by the rack R which
is moved in or out by the governor.
 Fuel injection governor: A governor may be
defined as a device for regulating automatically
output of a machine by regulating the supply of
working fluid.
 When the speed decreases due to increase
in load the supply value is opened by
mechanism operated by the governor and the
engine therefore speed up again to its original
speed.

If the speed increases due to decrease of

load the governor mechanism closes the
supply value sufficiently to slow the engine to
its original speed.

The function of a governor is to control the

fluctuations of engine speed due to changes of
load.
 Fuel injector or atomizer:
Referring Figure, it consists of a nozzle valve
(NV) fitted in the nozzle body (NB).
 The nozzle valve is held on its seat by a spring
‘S’ which exerts pressure through the spindle E.
 ‘As’ is the adjusting screw by which the nozzle
valve lift can be adjusted. Usually the nozzle
valve is set to lift at 135 to 140 bar pressure.
 FP is the feeling pin which indicates whether
valve is working properly or not.
 The oil under pressure from the fuel pump
enters the injector through the passages B and C
and lifts the nozzle valve.
 The fuel travels down the nozzle N and injected
into the engine cylinder in the form of fine sprays.
 When the pressure of the oil falls, the nozzle
valve occupies its seat under the spring force and
fuel supply is cut-off.
 Any leakage of fuel accumulated above the
valve is led to the fuel tank through the passage
A. The leakage occurs when the nozzle valve is
corn out.
 Electrical system: The engines electrical system provides energy to operate a starting
motor and to power all the accessories.
 Main components of electrical system: The followings are-

 Battery( General configuration 12Volt). η (battery) = W1/W2=A1/A2.

 Alternator.
 Starter motor.
 Ignition coil.
 Heater.
 Electrical harness.
 Relay.
 Switch.
 Accessories .
 Front axle: Conventionally the front axle is dead axle. However nowadays this is true of
heavy vehicles only. For four wheel drive or front wheel drive vehicles and most of the
card, it is a live axle.
The axle has to take bending loads due to weight of the vehicle and also torque loads due to
braking of the wheels. For this reason, front axle is made of I-Section in the central position,
while the ends are made either circular or elliptical.

 Stub axle and its type: The main axle is connected to the stub axle by means of king
pins. The front wheels are mounted on these stub axles. It is made of 3%Ni Steel or Alloy
steel containing chromium and molybdenum.
There are four design of stub axle shown in fig.
 Steering system and its functions: Primary function of the steering system is to achieve angular
motion of the front wheels to negotiate a turn. Linkages and steering gear which convert the rotary
motion of the steering wheel into angular motion of the steered wheels.

 The other objectives of a steering system as follows-

 To provide directional stability of the vehicle when going straight ahead.
 To provide perfect steering condition; i.e. rolling motion of the road wheels.
 To facilitate straight ahead recovery after completing a turn.
 To minimize tyre wear.
 The requirements of a good steering system as follows-
 The steering mechanism should be very accurate and easy to handle with stability.
 The effort required to steer should be minimal and must not be tiresome to the driver.
 Camber or wheel rake: Camber is the tilt (2°max.)of the car wheels from the vertical to get
uniform tyre wear, anddepends on Kingpin. Camber is positive if the tilt is outward at the top.
 King pin inclination or SAI: Inclination (7°-8°)of the king pin from vertical is called the king
pin rake. SAI helps the straight ahead recovery, thus providing directional stability.
 Castor: The angle between the kingpin centre line and the vertical, in the plane of the wheel is
called the castor angle(3°max). If the kingpin centre line meets the ground at a point ahead of the
vertical wheel centre line, it is known as positive castor. Positive castor shows ‘toe-in’.
 Scrub radius: The road resistance acts at the wheel contact point on the road. The distance
between these two points is called scrub radius. It is positive when the tyre centre line lies outside
the steering axis; i.e. toe-out. If it is zero then the wheel in its straight position without toe-out or
toe-in. Scrub radius should be upto 12mm.
 Toe-in: It is amount by which the front wheels are set closer together at the front than at the rear
when the vehicle is stationary. Opposite nature is known as toe-out. Value should not cross 3mm.
 Correct steering angle: The perfect steering angle is achieved when all the four wheels are
rolling perfectly under all conditions of running. While taking turns, the condition of perfect rolling
is satisfied if the axes of the front wheel when produced meet the rear wheel axis at one point.
Then this point is the instantaneous centre of the vehicle.
Let,
Wheel base= b,
Wheel track= a,
Pivot centre of steering arm= c,
Distance of instantaneous centre= y,
Angle of outside lock= Ø,
Angle of inside lock= θ.
Then,
Cot Ø = ( y + c )/ b = y/b + c/b = Cot θ + c/b
 Cot Ø – Cot θ = c/b.
The turning radii for different wheels-
R IF = b/sin θ – {(a-c)/2};
ROF = b/ sin Ø + {(a-c)/2};
R IR = b/ tan θ - {(a-c)/2};
R OR = b/ tan Ø + {(a-c)/2};
 Steering mechanism: We have seen that for perfect steering we must always have and
instantaneous centre about which all the wheels must rotate. For this purpose inner wheel has to
turn more than the outer wheel. To achieve this condition, two types of mechanisms, have been
devise, viz., the Ackermann steering mechanism and the Davis steering mechanisms.
Let,
Length of track rod = l,
Length of links RA and SB = r,
Angle between vehicle centre line and the link = α,
Angle of outside lock= Ø,
Angle of inside lock= θ.
Then,
Sin (α + θ) = (y + x) / r; and
Sin (α - Ø) = (y - x) / r;
Adding,
Sin (α + θ) + Sin (α - Ø) = 2y/ r = 2 Sin α = (c - l)/ r.
 Steering linkages: There are two types of steering linkages, viz., one is used for rigid front
suspension and other is used for independent front suspension.

 Steering gears and its type: The steering gear converts the turning motion of the
steering wheel into the to-and-fro motion of the link rod of the steering linkage with
necessary leverage to reduce the driver’s effort. There are different types of steering gears,
viz., worm and wheel, cam and double roller, worm and nut, re-circulating ball and rack-
pinion.
 Steering ratio: It is ratio of the angle turned by the steering wheel to the corresponding
turning angles of the stub axle. Steering ratio for cars is 12:1 where for HCVs is 35:1.
 Suspension system: All the parts which perform the function of isolating the automobile from the
road shocks are collectively called a suspension system.

 Objectives of suspension:
 To prevent the road shocks from being transmitted to the vehicle components.
 To safeguard the occupants from road shocks.
 To preserve the stability of the vehicle in pitching or rolling, while in motion.

 Types of suspension system:

 Dependent suspension system: When a vehicle with rigid axle (dead or live) suspension
encounters road irregularities, the axle tilts and the wheels no longer remain vertical. This
causes the whole of the vehicle to tilt on one side as a result road adhesion is decreased.
It employs the leaf-spring suspension for live rear axle as well as dead front axle suspension.
 Independent suspension system: To avoid the problems of dependent suspension system
independent suspension is designed for dead axle as well as live axle.
It employs the different front dead axle suspension, viz., Wishbone type, Mac-Pherson strut
type, Vertical guide type, Trailing link, Swinging half axle suspension.
It employs the different rear live axle suspension, viz., de Dion type and trailing link.

 Important accessories of suspension system:

 Stabilizer or anti-roll bar.
 Semi-elliptical leaf spring.
 Shock absorber (Mechanical or Hydraulic).
 Torsional spring.
 Panhard rod.
 Suspension system:
 Lubrication system: The function of a lubrication system is to provide sufficient quantity of
cool, filtered oil to give positive and adequate lubrication to all the moving parts of an engine.

 The various lubrication systems used for IC engines may be classified as-
 Mist lubrication system: This system is used where crankcase lubrication is not suitable. In
2stroke engine, as the charge is compressed in the crankcase, it is not possible to have the
lubricating oil in the sump. The lubricating oil is mixed with the fuel, the usual ratio being 3%-6%.
The oil and the fuel mixture is inducted through the carburetor. The fuel is vaporized and the oil in
the form of mist goes via the crankcase into the cylinder. The oil which strikes the crankcase walls
lubricates the main and connecting rod bearings, and the rest of the oil lubricates the piston, piston
rings and the cylinder. Its construction is very simple without oil pump, filter and etc.

 West sump lubrication system: In the wet sump system, the bottom of the crankcase contains
an oil sump or pan from which the lubricating oil is pumped via oil strainer to various engine
components by a pump. After lubricating, the oil flows back the sump by gravity. There are also
three subsystems-
 The splash system: It uses ‘oil troughs’ which is located below the crankshaft.
 The splash and pressure system: It uses ‘dip oil jet’ which is located below the crankshaft.
 The pressure feed system: Oil is distributed through distributed channels to the parts.

 Dry sump lubrication system: In this system, the supply of oil is carried in an external tank. An
oil pump draws oil from the supply tank and circulates it under pressure to the various bearings of
the engine. Oil dripping from the cylinders and bearings into the sump is removed by a scavenging
pump which in turn the oil is passed through a filter, and is fed back to the supply tank. The
capacity of the scavenging pump is always greater than the oil pump.
 Lubrication system:
 Cooling system: During the process of converting thermal energy to mechanical energy, high
temperatures are produced in the cylinders of the engine as a result of the combustion process. A
large portion of the heat from the gases of combustion is transferred to the cylinder head and walls,
piston and valves and it tends to damage the parts. So, a cooling system must be provided not only
to prevent damage to the vital parts of the engine, but the temperature of these components must be
maintained within certain limits in order to obtain maximum performance from the engine.

 Characteristics of an efficient cooling system:

 It should be capable of removing about 30% of heat generated in the combustion chamber
while maintaining the optimum temperature of the engine under all operating conditions.
 It should remove heat at a faster rate when engine is hot. However, during starting of the
engine the cooling should be minimum, so that the working parts of the engine reach the
operating temperature in a short time.

 Types of cooling system: In order to cool the engine a cooling medium is required. This can be
either air or a liquid. The followings show the types of cooling system for the IC engines-
 Liquid or indirect cooling system: In this system mainly water is used with coolant (ethyl
glycol) and made to circulate through the jackets provided around the cylinder, cylinder-head,
valve ports and seats where it extracts most of the heat. There are following liquid cooling
system, viz., Non-return system, Thermosyphon system, Forced circulation cooling
system, Pressure cooling system and Evaporative cooling system.
 Air or direct cooling system: In an air-cooled system a current of air is made to flow past
the outside of the cylinder barrel, outer surface area of which has been considerably increased
by providing cooling fins. This method will increase the rate of cooling. There are several air
cooling system, viz., Cooling fins, Baffles and etc.
 Cooling system:
 Power transmission system: The automotive drive train or power train carries the power from the engine
to the drive wheels.
Power transmission system consists of the following devices to successfully transmit power-
 Clutch assembly: Clutch is a mechanism used to connect a driving shaft to a driven shaft so that the
driven shaft may be started or stopped at will, without stopping the driving shaft. The basic types of clutches
are positive clutch and friction clutch. There are different types of friction clutch, viz., Disc or plate(single
or multi) clutch, Cone clutch and Centrifugal clutch. The disc clutch assembly has the following parts-
disc(Single or multi) with splined hub, pressure plate (coil spring and diaphragm) and operating mechanism.
 Transmission or transaxle: Transmission or GB(Manual- sliding mesh, constant mesh and
synchromesh and Automatic- epicyclic and wilson GB)) is used to vary the tractive effort with speeds.
Transmission is placed between the clutch and propeller shaft for longitudinal engine rear wheel drive
whereas the transaxle is used for transverse engine front wheel drive, the transaxle consists the final drive
and differential so propeller shaft is not used, but it is a complicated system with compact layout. A selector
mechanism is required to select the corresponding gear for the suitable conditions.
 Transfer box: This is also called ‘transfer case’ and is suspended from the chassis cross members behind
the GB , in all wheel drive vehicles with a selector mechanism. The simplified view shown in figure.
 Propeller shaft: This is the shaft which transmit the drive from the transmission to the bevel pinion of
front engine rear wheel drive. It consists of shaft, two universal joint and a slip joint.
 Rear axle drives: In all drives employed for the rear axle the springs take the wt. of the body. There are
two types of rear axle drives, viz., Hotchkiss drive and Torque tube drive.
 Final drive: The functions of the final drive are to provide a permanent speed reduction(4:1, for cars and
10:1 for HCVs) and also to turn the drive round through 90°. The following final drives are straight bevel
gears, spiral bevel gears and hypoid gears. It consists of crown wheel and bevel pinion.
 Differential: When the vehicle is taking a turn, the outer wheels will have to travel greater distance as
compared to the inner wheels in the same time. There will be a skidding tendency if a solid axle is used
without differential, therefore differential mechanism is used to reduce the speed of the inner wheels and
increase the speed of the outer wheels when taking turns, but both the wheels rotate with the same speed
when the vehicle is going in a straight line.
 Power transmission system:

Rear axle assembly: Rear axle consists the half of axle shafts(splined and flange), axle casing(split
type, banjo type and integral carrier), bearings, spring seats, brake drum sub assembly, wheels and
tyres.
Rear live axle half shafts have to withstand the following loads-
 Shearing force due to vehicle weight.
 Bending moment on account of the offset of the vehicle load applied via the wheels.
 End thrust caused by the side forces on account of cornering, side wind and etc.
 Bending moment caused by the end thrust and its reaction by the tyres on the ground.
 Driving torque.
There are three types of axles, viz., Semi-floating, Fully-floating and Three quarter floating axle.
 Power transmission system :
 Power transmission system :
 Power transmission system :
 Power transmission system :
 Power transmission system :
 Wheels and tyres : The importance of wheels and tyres in the automobile is obvious, without the
engine the car may be towed, but even that is not possible without the wheels.
The wheel, along with the tyre has to take the vehicle load, provide a cushioning effect and cope
with the steering control.
The various requirements of an automobile wheel are-
 It must be strong enough to perform the above functions.
 It should be balanced both statically as well as dynamically.
 It should be lightest possible so that the unsprung weight is least.
 Mounting and removing should be easy.
 Its material should not deteriorate with weathering and age.

 Types of wheels: There are three types of wheels, viz.,

 The pressed steel disc wheel: This type of wheel consists of two parts, a steel rim which is
generally well-based to receive the tyre and a pressed steel disc. The rim and the disc may be
integral, permanently attached or attachable, depending upon design. The rim profile, indicated
by letters J, K, JJ, JK, or B in the specification, is designated to comply with tyre bead.
 The wire wheel: Unlike the disc wheel the wire wheel has a separate hub, which is attached to
the rim through a number of wire spokes. The spokes are mounted in a complicated criss-cross
fashion in all the three planes. Each spoke is individually hooked at one end of the hub while its
other end is pushed through a hole in the wheel rim, where a tapered nut, called nipple, is
screwed down pulling the spoke tight. The spoke carry the wt, transmit the driving and braking
torques and withstand the side forces while cornering, in tension.
 The light alloy wheel: The latest trend of automobile wheels is the use of wheels made from
aluminum or magnesium alloys with wider rims for stability on cornering. Cast wheels are
generally used for cars while forged wheels are preferred for wheels of HCVs. It is light in
weights and due to less weight it is a good conductors of heat with high heat dissipation rate.
 Wheels and tyres :
 Wheel dimension: Referring from the figure
W = Width in unit.
D = Diameter in unit.
C = Offset.
For example, the codes 5.50B-13 and 9/2J-14 describe

Width, W Rim type Diameter, D

5.50 unit B 13 unit
9/2 unit J 14 unit
 Wheels and tyres:
 Tyre: A tyre is a cushion provided with an automobile wheel.

Tyre performs the following function-

 To support the vehicle load.
 To provide cushing against shocks.
 To transmit driving and braking forces to the road.
 To provide cornering power for smooth steering.

Desirable tyre properties-

 Non-skidding with well balanced.
 Uniform wear.
 Load carrying.
 Cushioning
 Power consumption
 Tyre noise.

 Types of tyres: There are three types of wheels, viz.,

 Solid tyre: Now a days, it is obsolete.
 Pneumatic tyre with tube: It consists of two main parts, viz., carcass and the tread. The
carcass is the basic structure taking mainly various loads and consists of a number of plies. Each
cord of plies is covered with resilient rubber compounds and are insulated against each other.
 Pneumatic tyre without tube(tubeless): This type of tyre does not need a separate tube;
instead the air under pressure is filled in the tyre itself for which purpose a non-return valve is
fitted to the rim. The following advantages of this type are- lesser weight, better cooling, slower
air leakage, simpler assembly and improved safety.
 Wheels and tyres:
 Carcass type: There are three types of carcass-
 Cross ply or bias ply.
 Radial ply.
 Belted-bias ply.

 Wheel dimension: Referring from the figure

Aspect ratio = Tyre section height/ Tyre section width.
W = Width in unit.
D = Diameter in unit.
S = Speed rating upto 170 Kmph.
H = Speed rating upto 210 Kmph.
V = Speed rating above 210 Kmph.
R = It signify the radial type.
For example, the code 145 SR-13 describes
Width, W Speed rating Diameter, D Radial
145 unit S (<170Kmph) 13 unit R Material %, Composition
Synthetic rubber 31
 Tyre materials with composition: Show in the table
Natural rubber 18
Bead wire 4
Carbon black 24
Tyre cord 10
Other chemicals 13
 Wheels and tyres :
 Sequence of tyre rotation:
 Brakes: A brake is a device by means of which artificial frictional resistance is applied to the a
moving member(brake disc or drum, i.e. wheel), in order to retard or stop the motion of the vehicle.
The maximum retarding force applied by the brakes at the wheels, F, depends upon the co-efficient
of friction between the road and the tyre surface µ, and the weight of the vehicle on the wheel, W,
i.e. F = µ x W.
 Braking requirement:
 The brakes must be strong enough to stop the vehicle within a minimum distance in an
emergency. The driver have proper control over the vehicle during emergency braking and the
vehicle must not skid.
 The brakes must have good anti-fade characteristics. This requirement demands that the
cooling of the brakes should be very efficient.

 Types of brakes: The brakes for automotive use may be classified according the following-
 Purpose: From purpose point of view, two categories are the service or primary brake and
the parking or secondary brakes.
 Location: It is located in the transmission system (E.g. propeller shaft), but poor braking.
 Construction: From construction point of view, two categories are the drum brakes and
disc brakes.
 Method of actuation: This criterion gives the following brakes types, viz., Mechanical
brakes(by lever or bowden cable), Hydraulic brakes, Electrical brakes, Vacuum brakes
and Air brakes.
 Extra braking effort: Servo brake or power assisted brake (use exhaust gas) is in the type.

 Properties of brake fluid: The required brake fluid properties are, viz., Boiling point(250°-
300°C), Viscosity, Lubrication properties, Effect on rubber, Corrosive action and Storage stability.
 Brakes:
 Brakes:
 Brakes:
 Exhaust system: An exhaust system is usually piping used to guide reaction exhaust gases away
from a controlled combustion inside an engine. The entire system conveys burnt gases from the engine
and includes one or more exhaust system components.
An exhaust pipe must be carefully designed to carry toxic and/or noxious gases away from the users of
the vehicles. For the internal combustion engine it is important to have the exhaust system "tuned" for
optimal efficiency. Also this should meet the regulation norms maintained in each country. In
European countries, EURO 5, India BS-4 etc. Dual silencer system is also used to reduce the noise.

 Catalytic converter: The catalytic converter converts harmful pollutants in the exhaust gas into
harmless gases. The catalyst is a material in the catalytic convertor that causes a chemical change
without being a part of the chemical reaction. One catalyst treats HC and CO while the other treats
NOx. HC and CO are being made to form H2O and CO2 where NOx splitted into harmless nitrogen
and oxygen.
 Exhaust gas recirculation: Excessive NOx form when peak combustion temperature exceeds
(1927°C). To lower the combustion temperature, many engines have an EGR system. It recalculates a
small metered amount(6-13%) of the inert exhaust gas back into the intake manifold. The cooler
exhaust gas absorbs heat from the much hotter combustion process. This reduces peak combustion
temperature and lowers the formation of NOx.
 Fuels: IC engines can be operated on different types of fuels such as liquid, gaseous and even solid
fuels. Depending upon the fuel to be used the engine has to be designed accordingly.
 SI engine fuels: Gasoline which is used in the present day SI engines is usually blend of several low
boiling paraffins, nephthenes and aromatics in varying proportions. The following properties are-
 Volatility
 Starting and warm up
 Operating range performance
 Crankcase dilution
 Vapour lock characteristics
 Antiknock quality
 Gum deposits
 Sulphur content
Ratings of SI engine fuels: It is rated by Octane number = [100 + {(PN - 100)/ 3}]
 CI engine fuels: Normal paraffins are the best fuels for CI engine due to antiknock featrue. The
following properties are-
 Knock characteristics.
 Volatility
 Starting characteristcs.
 Smoking and odour
 Viscosity
 Corrosion and wear
 Handling
Ratings of CI engine fuels: It is rated by Cetane number.
 Future scope of Automobiles: The following future scope will increase the durability of
automobiles with reliability and less emissions.
Computer controlled manufacturing with feedback loop to continually monitor and optimize the
process ultimately to reduce production times.
 Material advancements mean less weight of the vehicle with greater resistance by using alloys.
 Use of direct injection (MPFI and CRDI)would open up new opportunities for engine design. Part
of control of particulates and NOx could be achieved by advances in fuel spray technology, where the
length and shape of the injection pulse could be determined by mapping techniques.
Hybrid engine technology and re-generative braking systems are being used by some bus and truck
manufacturers.
 Anti-lock braking (ABS) – Most breaking systems have ABS. Once ABS is installed traction
control facility (TCS) is added for detecting wheel spin during acceleration and momentarily applying
a braking force to limit it with electric braking.
 Alternative power sources have considered such as nickel-metal hydride and zinc-air batteries.
 Controllable aerodynamic systems for use as the vehicle is on the move, which could greatly aid
fuel efficiency.
 Introduction of electronically-controlled valve actuation (EVA) will be the major improvement in
the next decades.
 Japan has developed electronically controlled automatic transmissions (EAT) and are noteworthy
for their early adoption of fuzzy logic control in order to provide a transmission which adapts to the
driver’s style.
 Frontal impact airbags are developed on reducing the size of the electronic control units (ECUs)
and integration of crash sensors into the ECU itself to eliminate use of cables and connectors to
improve reliability.
 Security- Car key to be replaced by a so-called “smart card”. It involves the use of an integrated
circuit (IC) and transponder circuitry which is buried within a credit card size plastic holder.
 References: The following references helped me to present the presentation to all of you, so I am
grateful forever to these references-

 Books:
A Text Book of Machine Design by Khurmi and Gupta, published by Eurasia.
Machine Component Design Vol. I and II by William C. Orthwein, published by Jaico.
Automotive Mechanics by William H. Crouse and Donald L. Anglin, published by McGraw-
Hill.
Internal Combustion Engines by V. Ganesan, published by Tata McGraw-Hill.
Automobile Engineering Vol. I and II. By Dr. Kripal Singh, published by Standard publishers.
Automotive Electrical Equipment by P. L. Kohli, published by Tata McGraw-Hill.
Latest Development of Heavy Earth Moving Machinery by Dr. Amitosh Dey, Published by
Annapurna publication.

 A special thanks to Research and Development Centre of Hindustan Motors Ltd. (UTP & Chennai).

 Websites:
 www.google.com
 www.saeindia.org
 www.sae.org

 Using softwares:
 Autodesk AutoCAD 2012.
 CATIA P3 V5 R19
 PTC Pro Engineer WF 5.0.