Transformer

Transformer
A transformer is an electrical device that transfers electrical energy between two or more
circuits through electromagnetic induction. Electromagnetic induction produces an electromotive
force within a conductor which is exposed to time varying magnetic fields. Transformers are
used to increase or decrease the alternating voltages in electric power applications.
A varying current in the transformer's primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in
the transformer core and a varying field impinging on the transformer's secondary winding. This
varying magnetic field at the secondary winding induces a varying electromotive force (EMF) or
voltage in the secondary winding due to electromagnetic induction. Making use of Faraday's
Law (discovered in 1831) in conjunction with high magnetic permeability core properties,
transformers can be designed to efficiently change AC voltages from one voltage level to another
within power networks.
Transformers have become essential for the transmission, distribution, and utilization of
alternating current electrical energy. A wide range of transformer designs is encountered in
electronic and electric power applications. Transformers range in size from RF transformers less
than a cubic centimeter in volume to units interconnecting the power grid weighing hundreds of
tons.
For simplification or approximation purposes, it is very common to analyze the
transformer as an ideal transformer model as presented in the two images. An ideal
transformer is a theoretical, linear transformer that is lossless and perfectly coupled; that is,
there are no energy losses and flux is completely confined within the magnetic core. Perfect
coupling implies infinitely high coremagnetic permeability and winding inductances and zero
net magnetomotive force.
 Np : Ns
+ +

~ Vp Vs Load

- -
Figure: Transformer

A varying current in the transformer's primary winding creates a varying magnetic

flux in the core and a varying magnetic field impinging on the secondary winding. This
varying magnetic field at the secondary induces a varying electromotive force (EMF) or
voltage in the secondary winding. The primary and secondary windings are wrapped around
a core of infinitely high magnetic permeabilityso that all of the magnetic flux passes through
both the primary and secondary windings. With a voltage source connected to the primary
winding and load impedance connected to the secondary winding, the transformer currents
flow in the indicated directions.
According to Faraday's Law, since the same magnetic flux passes through both the
primary and secondary windings in an ideal transformer,a voltage is induced in each
winding. The primary EMF is sometimes termed counter EMF.This is in accordance with
Lenz's law, which states that induction of EMF always opposes development of any such
change in magnetic field.

Transformers can be classified in many ways as the following:

 Power capacity: From a fraction of a volt-ampere (VA) to over a thousand MVA.

 Duty of a transformer: Continuous, short-time, intermittent, periodic, varying.
 Frequency range: Power-frequency, audio-frequency, or radio-frequency.
 Voltage class: From a few volts to hundreds of kilovolts.
 Cooling type: Dry and liquid-immersed – self-cooled, forced air-cooled; liquid-immersed
– forced oil-cooled, water-cooled.
 Circuit application: Such as power supply, impedance matching, output voltage and
current stabilizer or circuit isolation.
 Utilization: Pulse, power, distribution, rectifier, arc furnace, amplifier output.
 Basic magnetic form: Core form, shell form.
 Constant-potential transformer descriptor: Step-up, step-down, isolation.
 General winding configuration: By EIC vector group – various possible two-winding
combinations of the phase designations delta, wye or star, and zigzag or interconnected
star; other – autotransformer, Scott-T, zigzag grounding transformer winding.
 Rectifier phase-shift winding configuration: 2-winding, 6-pulse; 3-winding, 12-pulse; . . .
n-winding, [n-1]*6-pulse; polygon.

Bridge Rectifier
A diode bridge is an arrangement of four diodes in a bridge circuit configuration that
provides the same polarity of output for either polarity of input. When used in its most
common application, for conversion of an alternating current (AC) input into a direct
current (DC) output, it is known as a bridge rectifier. A bridge rectifier provides full-
wave rectification from a two-wire AC input, resulting in lower cost and weight as
compared to a rectifier with a 3-wire input from a transformer with a center-tapped
secondary winding. This essential feature of a diode bridge is what the polarity of the
output is the same regardless of the polarity at the input.
Vp = √2 × Vrms -1.4
 Figure: Bridge Rectifier

Voltage Regulator
The 78xx (sometimes L78xx, LM78xx, MC78xx...) is a family of self-contained fixed
linear voltage regulator integrated circuits. The 78xx family is commonly used in electronic
circuits requiring a regulated power supply due to their ease-of-use and low cost. For ICs
within the family, the xx is replaced with two digits, indicating the output voltage (for
example, the 7805 has a 5-volt output, while the 7812 produces 12 volts). The 78xx line are
positive voltage regulators: they produce a voltage that is positive relative to a common
ground. There is a related line of 79xx devices which are complementary negative voltage
regulators. 78xx and 79xx ICs can be used in combination to provide positive and negative
supply voltages in the same circuit.
78xx ICs have three terminals and are commonly found in the TO-220 form factor,
although they are available in surface-mount, TO-92, and TO-3 packages. These devices
support an input voltage anywhere from around 2.5 volts over the intended output voltage up
to a maximum of 35 to 40 volts depending on the model, and typically provide 1 or 1.5
amperes of current (though smaller or larger packages may have a lower or higher current
rating).
The advantages are as follows;
 78xx series ICs do not require additional components to provide a constant, regulated
source of power, making them easy to use, as well as economical and efficient uses of
space. Other voltage regulators may require additional components to set the output
voltage level, or to assist in the regulation process. Some other designs (such as a
switched-mode power supply) may need substantial engineering expertise to implement.
 78xx series ICs have built-in protection against a circuit drawing too much current. They
have protection against overheating and short-circuits, making them quite robust in most
applications. In some cases, the current-limiting features of the 78xx devices can provide
protection not only for the 78xx itself, but also for other parts of the circuit.

The disadvantages are as follows;

 The input voltage must always be higher than the output voltage by some minimum
amount (typically 2.5 volts). This can make these devices unsuitable for powering some
devices from certain types of power sources (for example, powering a circuit that requires
5 volts using 6-volt batteries will not work using a 7805).
 As they are based on a linear regulator design, the input current required is always the
same as the output current. As the input voltage must always be higher than the output
voltage, this means that the total power (voltage multiplied by current) going into the
78xx will be more than the output power provided. The difference is dissipated as heat.
This means both that for some applications an adequate heatsink must be provided, and
also that a (often substantial) portion of the input power is wasted during the process,
rendering them less efficient than some other types of power supplies. When the input
voltage is significantly higher than the regulated output voltage (for example, powering a
7805 using a 24 volt power source), this inefficiency can be a significant issue. Buck
converters may be preferred over 78xx regulators because they are more efficient and do
not require heat sinks, but they are more expensive.
 A voltage regulator is designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage level. A
voltage regulator may be a simple "feed-forward" design or may include negative
feedback control loops. It may use an electromechanical mechanism, or electronic
components. Depending on the design, it may be used to regulate one or more AC or DC
voltages.
 Electronic voltage regulators are found in devices such as computer power supplies
where they stabilize the DC voltages used by the processor and other elements. In
automobile alternators and central power station generator plants, voltage regulators
control the output of the plant. In an electric power distribution system, voltage regulators
may be installed at a substation or along distribution lines so that all customers receive
steady voltage independent of how much power is drawn from the line.

Figure: 7805 Voltage Regulator