International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science 17 (2019) 100170

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International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijgfs

Bluefin tuna and Cádiz: A pinch of history and gastronomy T

José Lucas Pérez-Lloréns
Instituto Universitario de Investigación Marina (INMAR), Universidad de Cádiz, Campus Universitario de Puerto Real, 11510, Puerto Real (Cádiz), Spain

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Atlantic bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus) has been fished and traded since ancient times throughout the
Almadraba Mediterranean basin. As recorded by prominent Greek, Roman and Arab authors, it has played an important role
Bluefin tuna in the culture and economy of Cádiz since Phoenician times, 3000 years ago. The ‘modern’ catching method, the
Gastronomic tourism almadraba, dates back to the late 14th century, consisting of a long and labyrinthine net. It is the oldest known
Historical cuisines
industrial fishing technique and a prime example of a sustainable human activity developed to follow the annual
Traditional cuisine
Avant-garde cuisine
migration cycles of bluefin tuna. Once the prime specimens are caught they are quickly slaughtered, landed, cut
and filleted (the technique is known as ronqueo, imitating the noise the knife makes when cutting the flesh) by
skilled maestros (masters). Up to 24 different cuts can be obtained from a single 150–200 kg specimen. They
possess special organoleptic characteristics, mostly because of their fat content that makes them suitable for a
wide range of specific preparation methods: raw, grilled, cooked in sauce, cured, salted, canned, etc. Bluefin tuna
recipes are well documented throughout history in Spanish cookbooks. Some of these recipes are still followed in
people's homes, as well as in many restaurants along the Cádiz coast. Traditional dishes offered in menus are, for
example, tuna with onion, tuna with tomato or tuna in marinade. In addition, some tuna cuts, especially those
that were traditionally discarded by restaurants and consumed by local fishermen (e.g. the heart, guts, back
cheek, eye muscle or soft roe) have been rediscovered by local chefs and are being offered in the menus of the
most avant-garde Spanish restaurants as luxury dishes. During the last few years, some fishing towns on the
Cádiz coast such as Barbate, Conil, Zahara or Tarifa, have been offering very interesting tourist activities con-
nected with the bluefin tuna fisheries: from boat tours to watch the catching of the tuna (almadraba), to gas-
tronomic routes to discover the best tuna tapas, or museums and interpretive centres to learn more about this
ancient and important activity.

“At home I serve the kind of food I know the story behind” (Pollan,
2004)
Bluefin tuna and ancient mediterranean cultures
The Mediterranean Sea is one of two known spawning grounds for
Atlantic bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus), the king of tunidae from a
gastronomic point of view. Every year large shoals of bluefin tuna re-
turn to their birthplace migrating from the open Atlantic waters
through the Strait of Gibraltar in search of the warm, clear and salty
Mediterranean waters to breed (Cort and Abaunza, 2019; Mather et al.,
1995; Schaeffer, 2001). Ancient Mediterranean civilizations, aware of
such behaviour, developed different fishing techniques to catch them
when migrating close to shorelines (Longo and Clark, 2012). The
Phoenicians, 2500 to 3000 years ago, were probably the first to be
involved in fishing and processing bluefin tuna (and other fish) in the
Eastern Mediterranean, especially in the Bosphorus, spreading their
skills to the whole Mediterranean basin (García-Vargas and Florido-
Corral, 2010). Since earliest recorded history, bluefin tuna fishing
played a prominent role in the culture and economy of the Mediterra-
nean peoples. For example, it was the emblem of Cyzicus1 electrum
coins: some pieces represented a winged and lion-headed demon
holding a tuna fish, and in others Heracles (a Greek god very much
associated with tuna fishing) is stamped with a tuna behind him
(Blázquez, 2006).
During antiquity, tuna fish were also cited in the literature and
appeared in some artwork throughout the Mediterranean. Thus, the
Roman writer, naturalist and philosopher Pliny the Elder (23 ACE-79
ACE) wrote (Blázquez, 2006):
“The tuna were so numerous that Alexander the Great's fleet, on its
way to Asia, had to be placed in battle lines as if against an enemy
fleet, since an isolated ship could not break through them. The fish

E-mail address: joselucas.perez@uca.es.

1
An ancient Greek town, probably founded as a colony of Miletus in 756 BCE.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijgfs.2019.100170
Received 1 May 2019; Received in revised form 9 July 2019; Accepted 17 July 2019
Available online 18 July 2019
1878-450X/ © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
J.L. Pérez-Lloréns
were not afraid of the shouting, the noises, or the banging. Only an
almighty uproar was capable of scaring them off.”
The earliest known detailed writing about bluefin tuna fishing is in
the book Halieutica by the Greco-Roman poet Oppian of Anazarbus (183
ACE-?). Specifically, it is described as a method whereby fish enter ‘nets
like a city’ with ‘gates’ that fill ‘the closing net with copious prey’,
which is the obvious precursor of the almadraba fishing technique (see
below). Oppian also recorded the migration of bluefin tuna (Blakey,
1856):
“The race of tunas comes from the wide Ocean and travel to the
regions of Our Sea when they are excited after the frenzy of mating
in spring. First, within the Iberian Sea they are captured by the
Iberians, [ …]. Later on, near the mouth of the Rhône, they are
captured by the Celts and the inhabitants of Marseilles, former co-
lonists of Phocaea2; finally, by those who inhabit the Island of Tri-
nacria [Sicily] and the Tyrrhenian coasts. An abundant and prodi-
gious booty is obtained by the fishermen, when the legions of tuna
advance in spring.”
The Roman thinker Claudius Aelianus (175 ACE-235 ACE) in his
book De Natura Animalium [On the Nature of Animals] described how
tuna fishing took advantage of the shore orography and observation
structures built along the coast which allowed lookouts to signal the
position of bluefin tuna shoals moving towards the shore, enabling
fisherman to close their nets and capture the fish (Aelianus, 1958). The
Spanish painter Salvador Dalí in his work Pesca de Atún [Tuna Fishing]
(1966/67) depicts its fishing as a fight between the Olympian gods and
the Titans, while portraying this activity as a metaphor of the mythical
fight between Man and Nature (Florido-Corral, 2013; Romero de Solís,
1996).
Bluefin tuna and Cádiz: a millenary relationship
Halieutic activity in Cádiz could be dated back 300,000 years, as
evidenced by the archaeological remains found on both sides of the
Strait of Gibraltar (Ramos-Muñoz and Cantillo-Duarte, 2011). The
oldest references to bluefin tuna fisheries along the Spanish coasts can
be found in writings by the Greek comedy authors Eupolis (446 BCE-
411 BCE) and Antiphanes (408 BCE-334 BCE). The fishing, processing
and marketing circuit of bluefin tuna by the Phoenicians of Cádiz is
attributed either to the Greek physician Hippocrates of Kos (460 BCE-
370 BCE) or to the Greek historian Timaeus (345 BCE-250 BCE), de-
pending on the source consulted (López and Ruiz, 2012; Mangas and
Plácido, 1999):
“It is said that the Phoenicians who inhabit the so-called Gadeira
[Cádiz], when sailing beyond the Pillars of Hercules [Strait of
Gibraltar], with an easterly wind arrive within four days at some
desert strands, full of seaweed and fish roe that at low tide are un-
covered, but are later submerged at high tide. And upon them there
are to be found an extraordinary number of tuna of incredible size
and bulk, when they become stranded. Once they are salted and
packaged, they are shipped to Carthage.”
The Greek geographer and historian Strabo (63 ACE-23 ACE) wrote
about the foraging behaviour of the tuna along the Cádiz shores (Quero,
2001):
“Many tunas that reach these coasts from the Outer Ocean [Atlantic
Ocean] are fat and oily. They find nourishment from the acorns of a
certain holm oak that grows at sea level and that produces truly
abundant fruit. It produces so much fruit, however, that after the
high tide the inner and outer coasts beyond the Pillars of Hercules
2 5
An ancient Ionian Greek city on the western coast of Anatolia (Asian
Turkey).
2
International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science 17 (2019) 100170
are covered with the acorns thrown up by the high tide. And the
closer the tuna approach from the Outer Ocean toward the Pillars,
the more they lose weight because of the lack of food. These fish are
like a kind of sea pig, because they eat acorns that fatten them be-
yond measure, to the point that the more acorns the sea produces
the more tuna are born.”
The Al-Andalus geographer Al-Mahalli in the 12th century provided
information about the migration of bluefin tuna throughout the Strait of
Gibraltar, the dates of entry and return, the locations for fishing, the
ways of consumption, etc. (Liaño-Rivera, 1997):
“Tunas cross the Strait of Gibraltar and reach the island of Crete […]
from their origin in the Ocean that bathes Black Africa [ …]. During
the whole of May they continue in the same direction and at the
beginning of June they undertake their return to their place of
origin. They are fished in Al-Andalus in the place called Qant.b.k
[Isla de las Palomas, Tarifa (Cádiz)] in front of the rock known as
Hayar al Ayyil [Peña del Ciervo] west of Yazirat al-jadra [Algeciras,
Cádiz] and between it and Yazirat [Tarifa, Cádiz] as many tunas
were fished as God alone can know. There is no thicker and tastier
fish. It is not eaten fresh except in Al-Andalus. Sometimes it is dried,
stored and exported as a mojama3 to all the ends of the earth.”
During the late medieval period, the noble family Casa de Medina
Sidonia (Cádiz) owned the legal rights to setting the tuna-traps from the
Guadiana River to the Kingdom of Granada, which was key in popu-
lating the southern Spanish coast (Fig. 1). Father Sarmiento
(1695–1772), a friend of the Duque de Medina Sidonia, wrote in his
book De los atunes y de sus transmigraciones y conjeturas sobre la dec-
adencia de las almadrabas y sobre los medios para restituirlas4 (Quero,
2001):
“Fishing for tuna in Cádiz domains being so famous, it was appro-
priate for the people of Cádiz to stamp tuna on their coins, as the
symbol of that fishery, and the great trade and profit that the fish
produced. These coins, whether original or embossed, are now very
common, and are called Cádiz Phoenician coins. They have on one
side Hercules' head, with the lion skin and club, as a sign that he was
their special God. And on the reverse two tuna, with a half moon,
together with some Phoenician characters.”
Popular characters, many of them from Cádiz, have made reference
in some of their artistic creations to the world that surrounds bluefin
tuna fishing. For example, Mariano Pardo de Figueroa (1828–1918)
(alias Dr. Thebussem), a famous writer and gourmet; the poet Rafael
Alberti (1902–1999) in his Canción a los pobres pescadores de Cádiz
[Song to the poor fishermen of Cádiz], or more currently the comedian
and singer Pablo Carbonell who directed the film Atún y chocolate [Tuna
and chocolate] (2004) about the tribulations of three fishermen from
Barbate trying to survive despite the fishing crisis the Cádiz people were
going through (Palacios, 2010). More recently in 2019, the Cádiz
chirigota5 La maldición de la lapa negra [The black limpet's curse], has
dedicated one of its songs to the tunas caught in the almadrabas of Cádiz
that are exported to Japan to be eaten as sushi and sashimi.
Fishing bluefin tuna: the almadraba
Tuna catching using large moveable beach-seines managed by
fishermen on the shore (called vista or tiro6) and aided by watchtowers,
was probably the technique used by the Phoenicians 3000 years ago
along the coasts of Cádiz, and later by the Romans. A more modern and
3
Cured and salted tuna.
4
On tuna and their migrations as well as hypotheses about the decline of the
almadrabas and the means to recover them.
Group that sings humorous and satirical songs during Carnival.
6
Spot and pull.
J.L. Pérez-Lloréns
Fig. 1. Almadraba at the Tower of Hercules (Cádiz) 16th century, by Hoefnagel (public domain).
efficient version was the almadraba, a fixed trap whose operation re-
quired fewer people and less effort (Ambrosio and Xandri, 2015). The
oldest mention to almadraba dates back to the late 14th century and
derives from the Hispano-Arabic term al-mah-draba (i.e. place at which
to fight or strike), which applies both to the fishing gear and to the
place where it is deployed. It is the oldest known industrial fishing
system that is currently being studied by anthropologists, sociologists
and economists as a clear example of a human activity developed to
follow the bluefin tuna's annual migration cycles (Florido-Corral,
2005): bluefin tuna shoals from northern Europe enter the Mediterra-
nean (derecho or first catch tunas) through the Strait of Gibraltar in late
spring (May–June) searching for suitable hatching areas for the further
development of young fish. This is known as gametic migration
(Rodríguez-Roda, 1964). For this migration of thousands of kilometres,
the fish build up their energy reserves and fatten up as much as pos-
sible. When they appear on the Cádiz coast their meat has obtained an
optimum level of fat and it is at this point that the meat is most suc-
culent and is usually dedicated in its entirety to ‘fresh’ consumption.
Shoals make their way back into the Atlantic Ocean (revés or second
catch tuna) from the hatching areas in the late summer (September–-
October). This is known as trophic migration (Cort and Abaunza, 2019;
Serna et al., 2004). At this stage, tunas are less fatty and their meat is
drier7 because they stop feeding during this period loosing up to 35% of
their body weight due to the reproductive effort (García-Vargas and
Florido-Corral, 2010).
Almadraba is a passive catching method consisting of a long and
labyrinthine net (rabera) that sinks more than 30 m deep and is an-
chored to the seabed. It is deployed close to the coastline, perpendicular
to the swimming direction of the school, and set at two moments co-
inciding with the above-mentioned migratory cycle: when tuna shoals
enter into the Mediterranean (almadraba de derecho or inward-bound
trap) and during the return journey (almadraba de revés or outward-
bound trap). The latter has not been used for many years along the
Cádiz coastline. Once the fish encounter this obstacle, they try to
overcome it by looking for an escape route swimming away from the
shore, where another net funnels them into a smaller compartment.
Traditionally, fishermen joined their boats together, pulling the nets
7
Aristotle (384 BCE-322 BCE) already distinguished between the derecho and
revés tunas assuring that the best time to fish them is in spring because “in
autumn they are not so tasty”.
3
International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science 17 (2019) 100170
into a tightening circle until the tuna were trapped in the middle (the
copo or slaughtering cage) while the tunas still kept moving around and
splashing the water.8 At this moment the levantá (raising) began,
pulling the net up to the water surface while some of the most skilled
men (frogmen) dived to the bottom of the net to choose the best spe-
cimens (more than 14 years old and 150–200 kg on average) and dis-
carded those that were either too small or too young. The men on board
caught the selected specimens using fishing harpoons and hooks. Cur-
rently, slaughtering techniques have been changed to ensure that death
happens as fast as possible in order to obtain meat of the highest quality
(FAO, 2015). As a result, a group of fish chosen for harvest are moved
away from the shoal and herded into the copo that is connected to a
rearing cage. Frogmen with a spear gun (lupara or ‘bang-stick’) shoot
swimming tuna in the head. The lupara has a shotgun shell at the tip of
a 2–3 m pole that detonates upon contact. The fish becomes im-
mediately immobile and dead from the high velocity projectile fired
directly into the brain. If the tuna still continues to swim, a frogman
follows it for a second shot. An advantage of this method is that the fish
can be singled out for slaughter and death is nearly always in-
stantaneous. However, it becomes impractical when a large number of
fish have to be slaughtered in a single day, since the procedure is
somewhat time-consuming (FAO, 2015). Some local companies are
starting to use a Japanese method (ike jime) to sacrifice tuna that is very
fast and causes very little suffering to the fish in order to obtain the best
meat quality. Once the tunas are onboard, they are kept in iced water
and in less than 1 h they will be cut into pieces (see below) in the
processing plant close to the dock, ready for distribution (FAO, 2015;
Florido-Corral et al., 2017; García-Vargas and Florido-Corral, 2010).
In contrast to other indiscriminate, massive and aggressive fishing
methods used throughout the Atlantic and Pacific (e.g. purse-seine
fishing systems,9 longlines, industrial nets and line trapping, even ex-
plosives in some countries), the almadraba is the paradigm of respectful
and sustainable fishing since only the biggest specimens are caught. It
was recognised by the European Parliament as a sustainable fishing
method in a 2015 study. There is no waste, no over-fishing and no
8
It is known as rebotá (bouncing).
9
Purse seines use a large wall to encircle schools of fish. Fishermen pull the
bottom of the netting closed in order to herd fish into the centre. Floating object
purse seines use natural or artificial fish aggregating devices (FADs) to attract
schools of tuna. The accidental catch of juvenile fish or other sealife can be a
serious conservation concern (ICCAT, 2006–2016).
J.L. Pérez-Lloréns
alteration of their natural migration routes, habitat or growth or
breeding cycles (Ambrosio and Xandri, 2015). The J.C. Mackintosh
Company, in Tarifa, is a pioneer in using a much more sustainable tuna
fishing method (‘green stick’) together with the ike jime slaughtering
technique. This method is perhaps the most selective of all the fishing
practices and techniques that are known, since the baits are targeted at
the large tunas that feed on the surface after having been suitably at-
tracted, as well as using artificial lures whereby no type of live or frozen
bait is required. At the same time this technique eliminates occasional
and accidental catches of species such as turtles, sharks or billfish, such
as marlin, swordfish or imperial needle (Skillman et al., 1993).
There are four almadrabas de derecho operating along the Cádiz
coast: Tarifa, Conil, Zahara and Barbate. Recently, traps have been set
again on the coast of Portugal, and there are a significant number on the
Atlantic coast of Morocco. The Spanish Government is receiving re-
quests to re-set traps in the Gulf of Cádiz, as a result of the good bio-
logical results of the Multiannual Recovery Plan for Bluefin Tuna
(Regulation EU, 2016/1627) implemented by the International
Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT), as well as
the excellent market conditions for this species today (ICCAT,
2006–2016). Until a few years ago, the Barbate trap could also become
an almadraba de revés just by changing the position of the outermost
net, taking advantage of tunas migrating from the Mediterranean to the
Atlantic. Currently, tuna schools are caught by purse seiners and
transfered to the fattening facilities that have been installed on the
Barbate coast to replace this kind of trap. In these pools tuna are fed
from the time they are caught (May–June) until the end of the fishing
season, in autumn.
Bluefin tuna catches and prices: some figures
Some sparse data series of catches have been available since the
16th century thanks to Father Sarmiento (friend of the Duque de
Medina Sidonia, who owned many almadrabas, see above). Average
values for this century for Conil and Zahara almadrabas (de tiro) to-
gether were above 3,500,000 bluefin tunas. During the 17th century
catches decreased to 1,305,802 specimens, collapsing during the early
18th century to such an extent that catches did not reach what some-
times could be captured in a single year in the 16th century. The de-
crease for each one of the four above-cited almadrabas continued
throughout the 19th and 20th centuries with average captures of
10,000 and 5500 tunas/year respectively, in spite of improvements in
fishing methods and technology. A consortium (Consorcio Nacional
Almadrabero) was established in 1928 between the State and the al-
madraba companies in order to exploit the fishing of bluefin tuna in the
Gulf of Cádiz under a monopoly regime. It is from this consortium that
we began to have complete and partial figures for the years in which it
operated, that is, from 1929 to 1971 (López and Ruiz, 2012).
Up until the 1970s, the tuna economy of the almadraba towns was
based on fish processing (curing and salting fish from earliest times, and
canning in oil from the beginning of the 20th century) and marketing.
Currently more than 50% of the bluefin tuna catches are destined for
the Spanish national market as gourmet products and local restaurants
(see later). However, this was not the case between the mid-1970s and
beginning of the 21st century when the Japanese bought almost 100%
of the first bluefin tuna catches (i.e. tunas de derecho) (Cañas, 2017).
Tuna were exported frozen and air-freighted within hours to be sold in
the central market of Tsukiji (Tokyo) at well above 120–140 €/kg or
more, when in Spain the average price is about 20 €/kg, although it
depends on the tuna part (for example, 40 €/kg for the prized belly
parts or above 100 €/kg for the salted and dried mojama)10 (Ambrosio
10
Already in Rome and Costantinople, tuna was not a cheap product, espe-
cially the select parts such as dry cured tuna (homotarikhos) or tuna belly (hy-
pogastrion) (Dagron, 1995).
4
International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science 17 (2019) 100170
and Xandri, 2015; Bergin and Haward, 1996).
The ICCAT protects the almadraba as it is the most sustainable
fishing method. There is an annual ban on fishing and quotas imposed
by the EU Common Fisheries Policy to conserve stocks. In 2018 the
Cádiz almadrabas were allowed to fish 1292 tonnes of bluefin tuna
(Ambrosio and Xandri, 2015). So whilst sustainability is not the only
reason to preserve and protect this ancient but rapidly disappearing
fishing art, it is perhaps the most important. But Almadraba is not only
an artful technique of fishing. It is also a lifestyle, a cultural system and
part of an ethnological heritage (Florido-Corral, 2013). Naturally, it is
also an important source of employment, not only in the fishing itself
but also in the ‘auxiliary’ industries of salting and canning11 (Ambrosio
and Xandri, 2015). The four almadrabas of the Cádiz coast represent a
gross value added (GVA) of 9,788,000 €, which is 0.01% of the total
GVA in Andalusia, and 5.2% of the fishing sector GVA (Ambrosio and
Xandri, 2015). In addition, these towns have currently become a des-
tination for cultural and gastronomic tourism arising from this fishing
practice (see below).
The art of carving up the tuna: the ronqueo
Once bluefin tunas have been captured, those destined to the
Spanish national market are quickly landed to be skinned, cut up and
filleted by hand. Specimens can weigh more than 600 kg, but the best
ones are those between 150 and 200 kg because they are in a vigorous
state of youthfulness and at the exact stage of maturity. The market
price of bluefin tuna is strongly correlated to the quality of the meat;
slaughter, processing, storage and shipping need to be of the highest
standards. Overall, the fish needs to be slaughtered, bled and cooled as
quickly as possible. Every effort should be taken to prevent the for-
mation and build-up of lactic acid and other metabolites in the muscle
which, once oxidized, impart a metallic taste (and a brownish colour) to
the flesh when eaten raw. This defect, known as ‘burnt flesh syndrome’
or yake in Japanese, causes a dramatic decrease in sale price and pos-
sibly complete rejection by the buyers (FAO, 2015). Some local Com-
panies (e.g. J. C. Mackintosh) are using a Japanese slaughtering method
known as ike jime: a spike or probe is inserted through the skull of the
fish directly into the brain. The fish is stunned and killed at the same
time. This method is applied as soon as the fish comes out of the water,
producing a very rapid death and causing very little suffering. The tuna
slaughtered in this way lacks rigidity, its muscles are soft and its meat is
pinkish. Once the tuna is dead it is placed directly in snow water to
preserve its freshness. With this technique the rigor mortis of the fish is
delayed and it keeps its freshness for longer (FAO, 2015).
The filleting of bluefin tuna is called ronqueo, the noise the knife
makes when separating the different parts of the fish that sounds like
snoring (roncar, in Spanish). Before proceeding to the ronqueo, it is
necessary to let the tuna rest for four to five days so that it loses its
hardness and rigidity. A tuna of about 150–200 kg is cut up in half an
hour taking advantage of every part of the fish and leaving just the
bones (carcass) that will also be used in cooking. Not for nothing is it
said that bluefin tunas are like pigs in that nothing is left to waste, not
even the eyes. The body can be divided into three sections: head, trunk
and tail, that will render up to 24 different parts (cuts) once the ronqueo
is over (Fig. 2 and Table 1). The ronqueo begins by cutting off the tail
and the head, and thereafter the parpatana (back cheek) is removed.
The remaining piece, the trunk, is carved up in quarters (two black or
uppers, less fatty, and two white or lowers, more fatty). Then, the dif-
ferent parts are removed following a very strict dissection protocol: for
11
This was already pointed out by Father Mirabent (1779–1857) in his
Memoria sobre las pescas que se cultivan en las costas meridionales de España
[Report on the fisheries that are developed on the southern coasts of Spain]:
“[Almadraba] is the most grandiose and impressive, and in certain circum-
stances, the most lucrative.” (López and Ruiz, 2012).
J.L. Pérez-Lloréns
Fig. 2. Different cuts that can be obtained from a bluefin tuna during the ronqueo (in red the Japanese name of some cuts).
the black quarters it begins with the excision of the sangacho (the dark
muscle) to extract the lomo (tenderloin), which is further separated into
upper and lower pieces. For the white quarters, a previous skinning of
the ventresca (high-fat belly) is necessary and its separation from the
tarantelo (low-fat belly) before proceeding any further. Thereafter, the
descargamentos and descargados are extracted, the espinetas and cola
(tail) are worked and finally the muscles and parts of the head are
dissected (morrillo, mormo, contramormo, facera and galete), the small
muscles around the espinazo (carcass) are extracted with a spoon giving
place to what is perhaps the most succulent snack: the migas (crumbs).
The carcass is saved for salting. Besides the pieces coming from the
muscular mass (the so-called ‘noble’ parts), the inner parts are also
obtained (Table 1). Unlike what happens in the cutting up of animals
such as pigs or cows, where the muscles are dissected, the ronqueo
depends on the fat content of each piece, as the proportion of fat is
greater in the superficial pieces than in the deeper ones and the white
quarters are fatter than the black ones. In fact, the fat content of each
piece, on which the texture and flavour depend, determines its fate:
cooking, preserving or salting (Eructo, 2017). The Japanese are also
masters in the art of cutting up bluefin tuna, but their technique is
slightly different from the ronqueo, rendering cuts that do not exactly
match the ronqueo ones (Fig. 2). However, the respect for this great
product and its quality, using every single part of its cuts, is identical in
both cultures (Ellis, 2008).
The gastronomic enjoyment of bluefin tuna is not just a current
trend (see below). As above cited, specimens fished along the Cádiz
coast have been very much appreciated since ancient times. The
Phoenicians built the first factories dedicated to salting the tuna. They
also developed a commercial route throughout the entire
Mediterranean basin to transport the specimens captured and processed
in Gadir (current-day Cádiz) (García-Vargas and Florido-Corral, 2010).
They used amphorae divided into two chambers: the lower one for
5
International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science 17 (2019) 100170
salted fish and the upper one for several aromatic herbs and fragrances
to mask the unpleasant odour during the long journey (García-Vargas,
2006). The Phoenicians were the driving force behind a tradition and
technique that lasted for years after the Romans. The latter founded the
city of Baelo Claudia (nowadays Bolonia beach, Cádiz), where the main
tuna-processing factory of the Mediterranean was established. There,
tunas were cut up, salted and allowed to dry under the sun during the
whole summer. Tuna innards and other smaller fishes were fermented
in large pools dug out of the ground (piletas) to create the prized sauce
garum,12 which was a very expensive delicacy only consumed by the
wealthier classes of Ancient Rome (López-Linares, 2013). Currently
some avant-garde restaurants are reintroducing garum into their cu-
linary creations, but adapted to current taste and with much more
nuanced flavour and aroma, thanks to research carried out on ancient
recipes (García-Vargas et al., 2014; Mouritsen et al., 2017).
Bluefin tuna in cuisine throughout history
In Antiquity, bluefin tuna was considered a luxury food that only the
wealthiest people could afford.13 The most appreciated parts were
consumed fresh and grilled, and the remaining cuts used to be salted for
their conservation and then desalted to be roasted or stewed (García-
Soler, 2011). The Greek doctor Hippocrates (461 BCE-371 BCE) re-
commended tuna for dropsy: “for its pleasant taste, its benefit for the
12
According to Pliny the Elder, the taste for garum during this period was
considered to be a questionable fashion but also “No liquid, except unguents,
fetched a higher price” (Snodgrass, 2004).
13
The Greek poet Hiponnax (541 BCE-487 BCE) speaks, in a mocking tone, of
a young man who has eaten up his inheritance ‘in the form of female tuna and
myttotós [a very popular Greek sauce based on garlic, cheese and other in-
gredients such as honey, vinegar, leek, eggs, etc.]’ (García-Soler, 2011).
J.L. Pérez-Lloréns International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science 17 (2019) 100170

Table 1
Different bluefin tuna cuts, characteristics and best ways to eat them.
Noble parts

Cut Characteristics Suitable for

Tarantelo (Low-fat belly) Semi-oily muscle. Very tender, creamy and flavourful (notes of iron) Stews, in sauces, grilled (rare), marinated, raw
(tartar, carpaccio), preserves
Solomillo (Tenderloin) Lean muscle. Noble part par excellence Grilled (rare), raw (tartar, carpaccio, sashimi)
Lomo or plato (Loin) Semi-oily muscle (12%). One of the best cuts Raw (sashimi, ceviche), grilled (rare), mojama (best
quality)
Descargamento Low fat muscle, very tender texture. Highly concentrated taste of iron Mojama (high quality), preserves
Descargado Low fat muscle, firm texture, not a strong taste Mojama (high quality)
Colas negra y blanca (Black and white tails) Lean, firm textured muscle, with a taste reminiscent of pork with a hint of the Stews, in sauces, mojama, fish balls and burgers
sea
Espineta negra Moderately greasy muscle with a herbal flavour Raw (sashimi, tartar, carpaccio)
Espineta blanca Soft textured muscle, with notes of leather in its taste Stews, grilled
Ventresca or ijada (High-fat belly) Muscle with fatty infiltrations (35%), very juicy, tastes of the sea and of ham Sashimi, grilled (rare), mojama

Inner parts

Characteristics Suitable for

Mormo and contramormo (Top of head) Very highly valued. Fine and delicate texture with a good muscle to fat balance Stews, marinades, roasted or in lard
(30%)
Morrillo (Nape) Very highly valued. Fatty muscle (30%), extremely juicy and with an intense Stews, marinades, grilled (rare)
flavour
Parpatana (Back cheek) High content in connective tissue. Fatty cut without any fibres, extremely juicy Stews (excellent), grilled (regarded as a gourmet
and with a texture both syrupy and stringy at the same time delicacy)
Facera (Eye muscle) Gelatinous and fatty (20%). Non-uniform texture with a strong and intense fish Glazed at a low temperature
flavour Salted and then boiled
Sangacho Muscle with a high blood content that gives it a very potent marine flavour Stews and in sauce
Galete (Cheek) Located near the ear. A very juicy and tasty texture with an intense marine Stewed, grilled, fried
flavour
Paladar (Palate) A very exclusive cut. A similar texture to veal shank Carpaccio
Huevas de grano (Roe) Granular texture and slight flavour of dried seaweed and fermented fish Salted and pressed
Huevas de leche (Testes, soft roe) A higher degree of sweetness than any other part of the tuna fish Fried, boiled and seasoned
Corazón (Heart) Earthy texture and an intense flavour of iron and salted anchovies Grilled, roasted, in an onion salad, cured. Cured in
salt to use as a powder or shavings
Hígado (Liver) Very intense and bitter flavour and texture Stewed, grilled, for patés
Buche and tripas (Crop and guts) A texture and flavour similar to veal tripe, slightly sweet Stewed, grilled
Páncreas Tastes of anchovies, bitter flavour Pickled
Piel de la barriga (Belly skin) Rich in gelatine Fried in batter or tempura
Tuétano (Bone marrow) Gelatinous texture, mild flavour For giving stews a gelatinous texture, also eaten raw
or fried in tempura

stomach and as a healthy medicine”. The Greek poet Ananius (about
540 BCE) in his so-called ‘gastronomic calendar’ poem says:
“[…] tuna from the sea is not bad food,
rather among all the fish it stands out together with myttotós”
The poem Hedypatheia [Life of Luxury] by the Greek writer and
philosopher Archestratus (?-330 BCE), considered as Europe's oldest
cookbook (Wilkins and Hill, 1994), discussed how to pick out the best
food (mostly fishes), the best way to cook it and where to travel to get
it. He had two obsessions: the quality of the raw material and the
simplicity of the elaborations (the same obsessions as most current
avant-garde chefs!14). He advised that fish should be cooked and sea-
soned simply, with the use of stronger flavours reserved only for lesser
quality fish (Alcock, 2005):
“I urge you again to eat a steak of peak-season tuna; for it is very
good and soft [ …]. The tuna, in autumn when the Pleiades set, you
can prepare in any way you please [ …]. But here is the very best
way for you to deal with this fish. You need fig leaves and oregano
(not very much), no cheese, no nonsense. Just wrap it up nicely in
fig leaves fastened with string, then hide it under hot ashes and keep
14
“When the ingredients are exceptional [bluefin almadraba tuna], the
cooking should be simple. This is when the product shows what it really is. That
is how you manage to cook the most sublime dish possible” (Melero, 2014).
a watch on the time: don't overcook it. Get it from Byzantium, if you
want it to be good”.
Later on, the Greek historian and geographer Strabo (63 BCE-23
ACE) referred to tuna and its derivatives, and the Roman Gavius Apicius
(25 BCE-37 ACE), considered to be the first gourmand in history, col-
lected several recipes in his book De Re Coquinaria [On the Subject of
Cooking] to cook one-year-old tunas (pelamys) and older ones, as well
as several dressings and sauces for raw and grilled tuna. They were
either fried or boiled, with pepper, onion, horse parsley, cumin, mint,
sage and dates, to which was added a mixture of honey, oil, vinegar (or
garum), and mustard (Déry, 1998).
The book Deipnosophistae [The Banquet of the Learned], early 3rd
century ACE by the Greek writer Athenaeus, recounts an anecdote oc-
curring in a banquet given by King Philip of Macedon (Soyer, 1853):
“[…] a gourmet guest ridiculously praised a dish of tuna-fish in-
testines just placed on the table. An invited sarcastic poet said: ‘They
are certainly excellent when I eat them’. The king replied: ‘How do
you eat them?’ and the poet answered: ‘With firm determination of
thinking in nothing better’.”
In the Middle Ages, the book Le Viandier (of unknown date, between
1340 and 1390) by the most famous medieval chef in France Guillaume
Tirel (alias Taillevent), and the book Le Ménagier de Paris [The Good
Wife's Guide] (1393), mention how to cook dogfish (“but can be sub-
stituted by fresh tuna if dogfish is unavailable or undesirable”) in garlic

6
J.L. Pérez-Lloréns
and mustard sauce, as well as camelin sauce15 (McDonald, 1998). The
anonymous Valencian cookbook, Sent Soví (1324) explains the salting
technique and also how to desalt and cook it with lightly fried onion
(Song and Riera, 2019). The Castilian noble Enrique de Villena
(1384–1434) in his book Arte Cisoria [Treatise on the Art of Carving]
(1423) cited tunas when referring to “fishes that are customarily eaten
in these parts [Castilla]”. The book De Honesta Voluptate et Valitudine
[On Right Pleasure and Good Health] (1475) by the Italian cook and
culinary writer Platina, dedicated the last part to fishes, starting it with
cooking instructions for tuna (Snodgrass, 2004). The Catalan writer
Robert de Nola in his book Libre de Coch (1520) gave some tuna recipes,
all seasoned with orange juice (it was usual in those times), such as
cazuela de atún (tuna casserole), atún a la brasa (grilled tuna) and ves-
tresca salada de atún al estilo valenciano (Valencian-style salted tuna
belly). This is his recipe for empanadas de atún (tuna pies):
“The tuna needs to be fresh and cut into thin, three-finger slices;
then wash it well and sprinkle over the slices pepper and salt and
ginger and a little saffron, and all this should be well ground, and
then make the empanadas, put in a little oil and cover it; then place it
in the oven and, if people want to eat it cold, remove the broth, as I
have said in previous chapters, because the juice cannot be kept for
long. And this is the way tuna is commonly eaten”.
In the Modern Ages, the first Spanish cookbook, Libro del arte de
cozina [Book on the Art of Cooking] (1599) by Diego Granado, gives
tips for cooking tuna head and recipes, such as pedazos de atún a la
cazuela y a la parrilla (stewed and grilled tuna chunks), pulpetones de la
pulpa de atún rellenos y asados (cuts of tuna flesh stuffed and roasted) or
embutidos de merluza y atún (hake and tuna sausages):
“The fish, cleaned of scales and bones, is finely chopped with tuna
belly, previously desalted. The proportion is approximately one part
of tuna to four parts of hake. They are dressed with grain fennel,
crushed pepper, oil and vinegar. To this chopped mixture there are
added, later to be found as small chunks inside the sausage, cubes of
more tuna belly, of carrot cooked in wine and of sweet almonds. All
this is stuffed into a linen sack, ‘made in the shape of a sausage’,
brought to the boil three times in red wine, and then rinsed and
smoked for six hours. Sausages of fresh tuna and sturgeon can be
made with the same recipe.”
The Spanish cook and writer Martínez Montiño in his book El arte de
cozina, pastelería, vizcochería y conservería [The Art of Cooking, Baking,
Patisserie and Preserving] (1611) detailed several recipes such as
costrada de atún (tuna in a puff pastry pie), pastelón de atún (tuna pie),
salpicón de atún (tuna salad), atún lampreado (tuna stewed in wine and
fine spices), olla de atún (tuna casserole) and escabeche de atún (soused
tuna), indicating also how the tuna should be dressed:
“Fresh tuna is very good fish, and it is best to take the belly, mar-
inade and roast it on the grill. It is a very tasty fish, being served
with orange, and pepper, and a little marinade, and with pieces
taken from other lean tuna cuts mixed with belly pieces and baked
with salt and pepper: they make very good pies. This fresh fish is
very good in a casserole: cut it into pieces and sauté a little onion in
good oil, adding the tuna pieces you think are necessary, sauté them
thoroughly, season with all the spices and salt. Add a little hot
water, a few chopped vegetables, a dash of citrus, and let it simmer
with the lid partially on, until it is half stewed. This fish, despite it
acquiring after stewing a rancid taste, which some people will not
eat willingly, when it is fresh, straight from the sea, it has a very fine
taste, and you can make many things with it, such as tarts, pastries
and black sauce pies; and for this, tuna belly has to be mixed with
15
Cold cinnamon sauce with a somewhat sticky texture used in early French
cookery.
7
International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science 17 (2019) 100170
the rest, because apart from the belly it does not have any kind of
fat.”
Antonio Salsete, a Spanish gourmet and chef, in his book El cocinero
religioso [The Religious Chef] (written between 1611 and 1745) in-
cludes 7 tuna recipes. The monastic recipe book from the Balearic
Islands Olla podrida [Pot-pourri] (mid 18th century) by Jaume Martí i
Oliver also includes numerous recipes: pastel de atún (tuna loaf), atún en
adobo (marinated tuna), salpicón de atún (tuna salad), etc. (Serrano-
Larráyoz, 2008). The Franciscan monk Juan Altamiras in his book
Nuevo arte de la cocina española [The New Art of Spanish Cuisine]
(1767) gives some tips for cooking tuna and includes two tuna recipes:
costrada de atún (tuna pie) and salpicón de atún (tuna salad).
“[Costrada de atún]. You shall chop the lean flesh of the tuna and
you shall add a bit of chopped pork flank instead of bacon fat, as
much of it as you think fit, and you shall thoroughly mix it all to-
gether; you shall take some beef lard and warm it up in a pan but, if
you have no lard, use olive oil; because we poor people make do
with the cheapest available; and once it is hot, you shall add the
chopped fish and brown it so that it becomes lean and dry, as if it
were meat; you shall season it with cinnamon, lemon juice, and add
some raisins, about four ounces of sugar, raw eggs, and you shall
make the pie, seasoned with salt: if necessary, coat it with beaten
egg and toast it lightly underneath and on top.”
The manuscript El libro del arte de cocinar [The Book on the Art of
Cooking] (1787) by the Capuchin friar Fra Server d'Olot comprises
several recipes: atún con vino blanco (tuna with white wine), atún con
cebolla (tuna with onions), atún a la vinagreta (tuna vinaigrette), atún
salado en salsa (salted tuna in sauce), atún de sorra16 con ajo, perejil y
azúcar (tuna flank with garlic, parsley and sugar), atún confitado en
conserva (preserve of tuna confit) (Fábrega, 2012; Pérez, 2012).
Some of the books published in the Contemporary Age including
bluefin tuna recipes were The Physiology of Taste (1825) by Brillat-
Savarin: tuna omelette (using milts of carp); the book Avisos e in-
strucciones para un cocinero principante [Advice and Instructions for a
Novice Chef] (1857) by Felip Cirera there are also recipes for salted
tuna combined with raw onion and sour ingredients such as orange or
vinegar. El Practicón (1894) by Ángel Muro provides some recipes for
atún en adobo (marinated tuna) and en escabeche (pickled). For one of
the recipes (atún a la pelotari17) he says the following:
“This dish is served very warm, and when prepared and eaten in the
Basque Provinces it makes people drink lots of cider; and when this
treat is consumed on the Mediterranean coasts, they drink quite a lot
of Manzanilla, since it is a very strong delicacy for those with weak
stomachs”.
La cocina española moderna [Modern Spanish Cooking] (1917) by
Emilia Pardo Bazán includes the recipe for the rueda de atún mechado
(larded cutlet of tuna), and the book Platos escogidos de la cocina vasca
(Selected Dishes from Basque Cuisine) (1935) by María Mestayer de
Echagüe includes the recipe for atún estofado (stewed tuna).
Bluefin tuna in popular Cádiz cuisine
The traditional seafood cuisine of Cádiz has been deeply influenced
by different culinary modes and flavours provided by all kinds of cul-
tures for more than 3000 years: Phoenicians, Greeks, Carthaginians and
Romans (e.g. salted fish), Arabs (e.g. use of spices) and Christians came
to define a typical Mediterranean diet based on simplicity and on a rich
and varied natural larder that would be considerably expanded by
adopting New World products as their own (e.g. tomatoes, peppers,
16
It is the word used on the east coast of Spain for salted flank. The word
“sorra” comes from its old Arabic name meaning ‘belly skin’.
17
Name for the pelota players in the Basque Country.
J.L. Pérez-Lloréns
Table 2
Some of the most authentic bluefin tuna recipes that can be enjoyed in Cádiz.
Recipe Ingredients
Atún encebollado (Tuna cooked with Tuna (3/4 kg), onions (2), garlic cloves (4), bay leaf (1), olive Slice the garlic and onions and lightly fry them with the bay leaf. Chop and
onions) oil, salt, sherry wine
Atún en amarillo (Tuna with saffron) Tuna (1/2 kg), potatoes (3/4 kg), onions (2), garlic cloves (4), Slice the garlic and onions and lightly fry them with the bay leaf. Peal and
bay leaf (1), saffron, salt, olive oil
Atún con tomate (Tuna with tomatoes) Tuna (3/4 kg), onions (2), garlic cloves (4), green pepper (2),
tomatoes (1 kg), flour, olive oil, salt, sugar
Atún mechado (Larded tuna) Tuna (1 kg in one chunk), white pork lard (1/4 kg), fresh bacon Bleed the fish by immersing it in cold water, then drain it and spike it,
fat (100 g), flour, garlic cloves (4), bay leaf (1), parsley, clove stuffing the holes with a preparation of bacon fat, pepper and finely
(1), carrot (1), pepper, fine wine, salt
Atún escabechado Tuna (1 kg), olive oil, onions (2), bay leaf (1), ground black
(Tuna in a pickle sauce) pepper, sherry vinegar, water
Atún en adobo (Marinated tuna) Tuna (3/4 kg), garlic cloves (2), salt, oregano, paprika, soft
vinegar
Atún de ijar (Dried tuna flanks in oil) Tuna belly, coarse salt, olive oil
potatoes). The length of the Cádiz coast meant that a large part of its
pantry was supplied with marine produce, including tuna. In trap
fishing, by-catches of the so-called ‘lesser tunas’(e.g. little tuna, bonitos,
black skipjack, etc.) occur. These foods have an important place in the
kitchen of the working classes, especially in the social environments of
the almadrabas (Florido-Corral, 2013). In times without refrigerators it
was necessary that blue fish (including tuna) were sold and cooked
quickly before they went off. For this reason, the fishmongers began to
tout their merchandise at the end of the afternoon and it was very
common to have stewed, grilled, baked or marinated tuna for dinner.
Currently, the coasts of Cádiz (and Huelva) have been acknowledged as
the birth place of some traditional tuna dishes, some of them probably
influenced by migrant workers (mostly Spanish, eastern Mediterranean,
Portuguese and Italian) that settled in Cádiz coastal areas and brought
their food tastes and their own culinary traditions (Florido-Corral,
2013). Among these dishes are atún encebollado (tuna with onion), atún
con tomate (tuna with tomato), atún en manteca (tuna in lard), atún
mechado (larded tuna), atún en amarillo (tuna with saffron), morrillo de
atún al horno (baked tuna nape), atún en adobo (tuna in marinade), atún
en escabeche (pickled tuna) and others that are being rediscovered by
local chefs, such as atún con alcauciles (tuna with artichokes), atún con
garbanzos (tuna with chickpeas) or sopa de atún (tuna soup) (Table 2)
(Spinola, 2014, 2016).
Bluefin tuna in creative and avant-garde cuisines
In the last decades, especially after the Spanish Civil War, there has
been a culinary renaissance. The updating of the traditional recipes to
renewed tastes, and new creations by housewives, culinary profes-
sionals, catering schools, and artisans and gastronomes have all given
8
International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science 17 (2019) 100170
Preparation
salt the tuna and add to the pan with a glass of sherry wine. Cook over
medium heat (10–15 min), carefully stirring all the time. Serve hot
chop the potatoes, add to the pan, stir, cover with water and add salt. After
20 min, add the tuna, diced and salted, to the pan together with the
saffron. Cook for 10 min. Serve hot
Cut the tuna into fillets, cover them in flour and fry. Reserve. Thinly cut
the onion and garlic and lightly fry, add the green peppers cut into small
pieces. When they start to brown, add the tomatoes, peeled and chopped.
Once the sauce is done, add salt and one spoonful of sugar. Pour onto the
fillets and cook for another 10 min
chopped garlic (2 cloves). Roll the fish in flour and sautée in a pan with
the pork lard until golden. Remove from heat. In the leftover juices, fry the
chopped onion, two garlic cloves, the chopped carrot, clove and bay leaf.
Add the parsley, the chunk of tuna, the wine and cover with water. Allow
to simmer until reduced. Once ready, remove the tuna from the heat and
liquidize the remaining juices. To serve, cut the tuna into slices and cover
with the sauce.
Cover the bottom of the pan with olive oil and fry the onion, finely
chopped, and the bay leaf. Add salt and pepper. Leave to cook until the
onion starts to brown and, after seasoning the pieces of tuna with salt and
pepper, put them in the pan with the vinegar. Add a bit of water and cook
for 10 min. Serve hot
Cut the tuna into small cubes. For the marinade: place the peeled cloves of
garlic, oregano and salt in a pestle and grind thoroughly, then add the
paprika and vinegar. Mix thoroughly and add the tuna. Allow it to
marinate for several hours. Then, drain the tuna, cover it in flour and fry
for 4 or 5 min in very hot olive oil
Place the large pieces of tuna in a container and cover them completely
with coarse salt. Leave for two months. Then, cut the tuna into fillets and
remove the salt by placing them in a container for 12 h. Afterwards, dry
the fillets with a clean cloth, place them in a glass dish and cover them
completely with olive oil
Fig. 3. Marinated bluefin tuna loin with seaweeds (sea lettuce, ogonori and
codium) and saltmarsh plants (salicornia) from Cádiz Bay elaborated by Julio
Vázquez, Chef of El Campero restaurant (Barbate, Cádiz) (courtesy of El
Campero).
rise to an extensive recipe book whose accommodation to the renewed
tastes and subtle local touches define the current seafood gastronomy of
Cádiz (Spinola, 2014, 2016).
The solomillo (sirloin), lomo (loin) and ventresca (high-fat belly) of
bluefin tuna are the cuts traditionally most appreciated in gastronomy.
They are perfect to consume raw (tartare, sashimi, ceviche, etc.) since
J.L. Pérez-Lloréns
its superb taste, flavour and texture means it is best appreciated without
cooking. Currently, haute cuisine has discovered parts such as parpa-
tana (back cheek), facera (eye muscle), mormo and contramormo (top of
head), morrillo (nape), corazón (heart), cola (tail) or paladar18 (palate)
(Table 1), usually discarded by restaurants (or given to fishermen for
home cooking), that are used to prepare a vast variety of delicious re-
cipes either for cold and hot appetizers or as the main ingredient of any
menu (La Razón, 2014). The pioneer in the use of these bluefin tuna
cuts was El Campero restaurant (Barbate), a benchmark in the region
when it comes to bluefin tuna cuisine. The restaurant, run by Pepe
Melero for more than 35 years, is considered ‘the mecca of bluefin
tuna’. Its menu combines the most traditional and local fishermen's
recipes (e.g. tuna with onion or marinated, Table 2) with the most
avant-garde preparations (e.g. carpaccio of palate, lollipops of crystal-
lised tuna sperm, contramormo with orange sauce and coconut milk, or a
faux cheese ball with dried tuna, roe and passion fruit alioli19), always
preserving the taste of the excellent raw ingredient, but playing with
tastes, flavours, textures and appearances to provide diners with a
pleasant gastronomic experience (Fig. 3) (La Razón, 2014; Melero,
2014).
Aponiente, Ángel León's 3 Michelin Stars restaurant in El Puerto de
Santa María (Cádiz), exclusively introduced, during the event ‘I
Encuentro de los Mares’ (June 2019) (www.encuentrodelosmares.com/
en/), the jarrete de atún rojo (bluefin tuna tail), a dish prepared with the
tail of the fish which will feature in the menu as from the 2020 season
(Fig. 4a and b).
Staff from El Campero restaurant together with Gadira20 have also
given presentations at the Basque Culinary Centre on the history of
bluefin tuna fishing off the coast of Cádiz; how migration affects the
quality of meat; the importance of traceability of the product; fresh vs.
deep-frozen tuna; the importance of technique and experience in cut-
ting the tuna; Spanish and Japanese cuts; main characteristics of the
different cuts and nutritional information; or about the permanent re-
search at El Campero looking for new cuts and processing methods
(Monforte, 2017).
Gastronomic, tourist and cultural activities around bluefin tuna
The province of Cádiz occupies third place in the ranking of national
destinations that Spaniards choose when they want to take a gastro-
nomic trip, and bluefin tuna has helped bring to the fore the gastro-
nomy of the coastal towns of Cádiz such as Barbate, Conil or Zahara
(Ibáñez-Quignon, 2018). The ‘Tuna Route’ and ‘Tuna Tour’ are among
the most noticeable touristic activities related to bluefin tuna fisheries
(Florido-Corral, 2013).
The ‘Tuna Route’ was one of the five projects approved in Spain by
18
100 kg of bluefin tuna render about 50 g of palate.
19
Garlic and oil dressing.
20
Company from Barbate (Cádiz), a company dedicated to the marketing and
export of the bluefin tuna.
9
International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science 17 (2019) 100170
Fig. 4. Jarrete de atún (bluefin tuna tail): tuna tail
that has been blanched, trussed and vacuum-cooked
for 1 h. Afterwards it is roasted, and basted mean-
while with a dark stock of tuna belly and fish heads
(a) (courtesy of Ángel León). Dish presentation: the
tuna is accompanied by the sauce from roasting,
some mashed Robuchon potato and summer truffle
(b) (José Lucas Pérez Lloréns).
the European Commission through EASME (Executive Agency for Small
and Medium-sized Enterprises) and financed by the European Maritime
and Fisheries Fund in the Nautical Routes for Europe call of the
European Commission (https://ec.europa.eu/easme/en/tuna-route).
The bluefin tuna fishing towns of Barbate, Conil and Zahara celebrate
their big feria de la almadraba, a gastro-tourism route, with many bars
and restaurants serving up meals and tapas specially prepared for this
occasion and where this marine resource has become a key ingredient
in more than 300 ways to enjoy its almost endless culinary possibilities.
It is celebrated in May/June when the fattier and tastier bluefin tunas
(tunas de derecho) enter the Mediterranean to spawn. This route also
includes a competition for the best bluefin tuna tapas made from tra-
ditional recipes, to the most innovative and surprising presentations
created by local chefs, many of them trained in local culinary schools.
Among the many restaurants and bars that participate in the route, the
following are worth noting: El Campero, La Bocana and La Taberna de
Abelardo (or Casa Presenta) (in Barbate), La Fontanilla, El Timón de
Roche, El Roqueo and Blanco y Verde (Conil), Casa Juanito, Marisquería
Porfirio, Almadraba, Gaspar, La Botica, Restaurante Antonio, El Albedrío
(Zahara). Master classes, show-cookings and tasting events are also
offered (García, 2017).
Among the various gastronomic-cultural activities to promote the
use of almadraba bluefin tuna in Spanish haute cuisine, are the en-
counters between several Michelin-starred chefs (e.g. Ferran Adrià,
Quique Dacosta, Dani García or Andoni Luis Aduriz) and Cádiz chefs
(Ángel León, Julio Vázquez or José Manuel Córdoba) in Barbate to
participate in the levantá (raising) of the tuna as well as in show-
cookings and tastings, for which Blue Fin cava was created ad hoc for
the pairing (La Razón, 2014).
‘Bluefin tuna tours’ are also offered to visitors by several local
companies. They all combine hands-on knowledge of this artisan fishing
method through tours of the almadrabas with visits to the tuna mu-
seums and interpretation centres in Barbate and Conil (such as La
Chanca21) where people can see first-hand the art of ronqueo (or cutting
tuna, see above), and learning all about the culture of fishing, cooking
and eating tuna on the Cádiz coast (Castillejo, 2016) (Fig. 5).
Although it is not held in the province of Cádiz, the most important
cultural phenomenon in the year related to bluefin tuna, from the point
of view of gastronomy, is undoubtedly the meeting ‘Arráez & Sotarráez’
(www.amigosdelatun.com). It is celebrated in Isla Cristina (Huelva),
historically a tuna trap city, and attended by skippers from Cádiz,
Huelva and Morocco, southern industrialists, chefs and academic spe-
cialists from many different fields.
Conclusion
Bluefin tuna fishing has been an ancient activity in Cádiz coasts that
drove commerce and trading along the Mediterranean since Phoenician
21
Chanca was the place where, since the 16th century, the bluefin tunas were
cut into pieces and processed.
J.L. Pérez-Lloréns
Fig. 5. Tiles on a facade of a house in the historic centre of Conil, showing the capture of tunas (almadraba) by local fishermen (José Lucas Pérez Lloréns).
times 3000 years ago. Due to their high market value, bluefin tuna
populations have been over-exploited during the 20th century, which
has put them in jeopardy. From 2007, when this problem was first
detected, the ICCAT implemented a plan that led to the successful re-
covery of tuna populations and the introduction of strict controls in
order to avoid over-fishing. Apart from sustainable fishing and that
which is subject to quotas, there are fish farms where tuna fish are
fattened to meet the strong demand, both domestic and international
(mainly from the Japanese market). Since the market price of bluefin
tuna is strongly correlated to the quality of the meat, slaughter, pro-
cessing, storage and shipping are improving day-by-day to achieve the
highest standards. From the early 21st century gastronomic tourism in
many coastal towns of Cádiz province has been reinvigorated thanks to
the recovery of ancient, classical and popular bluefin tuna (and ‘minor
tunas’) recipes as well as new creative cuisine driven by local chefs and
culinary schools that can be enjoyed both in popular as well as avant-
garde restaurants. This kind of gastronomic tourism based around tuna
has been increasingly on the rise over the last few years. It is com-
plemented with cultural activities that afford visitors a better knowl-
edge (and a better gastronomic enjoyment) of this ancient fishing art
(almadraba) and the traditional way of carving (ronqueo) and processing
the tuna.
Declaration of interest
None.
Acknowledgements
El Campero restaurant (Barbate, Cádiz) and Ángel León (Aponiente)
for the photos provided. Thanks to Alicia de Benito Harland for pol-
ishing the text and Consuelo Guerra (Suralgas company) for the in-
formation provided. Financial support by PAIDI group RNM-214 of the
Andalusian Regional Government is very much acknowledged.
10
International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science 17 (2019) 100170
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