Research Trends

In
Agriculture Sciences
Volume - 4

Chief Editor
Dr. R. K. Naresh
Professor, Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Sardar
Vallabhbhai Patel Univ. of Agri & Tech, Meerut-250110, Uttar Pradesh,
India

AkiNik Publications
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Chief Editor: Dr. R. K. Naresh

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Pages: 184
ISBN: 978-93-87072-99-2
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Book DOI No.:
 Contents

Chapters Page No.

1. Protected Cultivation of Horticultural Crops 01-26

(Krishan Kumar Singh)

2. Organic Agriculture 27-52

(Hament Thakur, Sumeet Sharma)

3. Response of Perennial Fruit Crops to Climate Change 53-68

(Tanushree Sahoo, Kaluram, Subhash Chander, Debashish Hota,
Bhubanananda Adhikari)

4. Principles and Procedures of Distinctiveness, Uniformity, and

69-90
Stability (DUS) Testing in Tomato
(Praveen Kumar Singh, Divya Prakash Singh, Akanksha Bisht, Nitish
Kumar)

5. Effect of Conservation Based Management Practices on Soil

Biochemical Parameters, Chemical Properties and Crop Yield
under Different Cropping Systems 91-108
(Rituparna Saikia, Sandeep Sharma, Nilotpal Hazarika)

6. Metabolism and Integrated Mechanisms of Seed Deterioration 109-140

(Ranjitha HP)

7. A Credulous Attitude of Indian Farmers Towards Intensive

Farming and Its Detrimental Effects 141-152
(Utkarsh Singh Rathore, Sandeep Kumar, Monika Mishra)

8. Export Potential, Competitiveness and Determinants of Tomato

153-161
Export in India
(Meenu Punia, Kavita, Anju Duhan, Monu Devi, Satbir Singh)
9. Integrated Management of Bakanae Disease of Rice, Incited 162-172
by Fusarium moniliforme Sheldon
(Pankaj Kumar, Anil Kumar Saini, Annie Khanna)
10. Management of fruit rot (Penicillium islandicum) in Indian 173-184
gooseberry
(Anil Kumar Saini and Pankaj Kumar)
 Chapter - 1
Protected Cultivation of Horticultural Crops

Authors
Krishan Kumar Singh
Department of Agriculture Sciences, Career Point University, Kota,
Rajasthan, India

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Page | 2
 Chapter - 1
Protected Cultivation of Horticultural Crops

Protected cultivation is the technique of providing favorable environment

condition to the plants. This is possible by erecting a greenhouse / glass
house, where the environmental conditions are so modified that one can
grow any plant in any place at any time by providing suitable environmental
conditions. The main purpose of protected cultivation is to create a favorable
environment for the sustained growth of crop so as to realize its maximum
potential even in adverse climatic conditions. Protected Cultivation
technology is a relatively new technology for our country. The total area
covered under protected cultivation in our country is approx 30,000 hectares.
There has been a very good development in this area during the last five
years. The leading states in the area of protected cultivation are Maharashtra,
Karnataka, Himachal Pradesh, North-eastern states, Uttarakhand, Tamilnadu
and Punjab. Protected cultivation technology offers several advantages to
produce vegetables, flowers, hybrid seeds of high quality with minimum
risks due to uncertainty of weather and also ensuring efficient and other
resources. Protected cultivation increase yield up to 5 to 8 times, saves water
up to 50%, higher yield from smaller area, crop grows consistently,
healthier, uniform quality fruits and matures fast. The major crops grown in
the protected cultivation are strawberry, tomato, capsicum, cucumber,
melons, rose, gerbera, carnation and chrysanthemum. Nursery grown in the
protected cultivation is becoming very popular venture for income and
employment generation. Thus protected horticulture has great potential to
enhance the income especially of small farmers if appropriate technological
interventions are made.
Introduction
Protected cultivation is the technique of providing favorable
environment condition to the plants also it is of vital importance to create an
ideal micro climate around the plants. This is possible by erecting a
greenhouse / glass house, where the environmental conditions are so
modified that one can grow any plant in any place at any time by providing
suitable environmental conditions.

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 The main purpose of protected cultivation is to create a favorable
environment for the sustained growth of crop so as to realize its maximum
potential even in adverse climatic conditions. Protected cultivation
technology offers several advantages to produce Fruits, flowers, hybrid seeds
of high quality with minimum risks due to uncertainty of weather and also
ensuring efficient and other resources.
This becomes relevant to farmers having small land holding who would
be benefitted by a technology, which helps them to produce more crops each
year from their land, particularly during off season when prices are higher.
This kind of crop production system could be adopted as a profitable agro-
enterprise, especially in pre-urban areas. At present there is a large gap
between the demand and production of these crops to meet, both quantitative
and qualitative needs of domestic and export markets which are difficult to
be bridged with the traditional cultivation practices. Thus, protected
horticulture has great potential to enhance the income especially of small
farmers if appropriate technological interventions are made. Protected
cultivation offers several advantages to produce horticultural crops and their
planting material of high quality and yields, through efficient land and
resource utilization.
Fruits, vegetable and flower crops normally occur 4 to 8 times higher
profits than other crops. This margin of profit can increase manifolds if some
of these high value crops are grown under protected conditions, like
greenhouses, net houses, tunnels etc. Such an agricultural production system
could provide a more profitable source of income and employment in rural
sector. The amount of post-harvest losses in Fruits and cut flowers is very
high (20-30%), which can be significantly reduced and productivity can be
increased 5-10 through protected cultivation technologies by taking the crops
round the year. Protected cultivation has very high entrepreneurial value and
profit maximization leading to local employment, social empowerment and
respectability of the growers. Environmentally safe methodologies involving
IPM tactics reduce the hazards lacing the high value products. Fertigation
has been found to be one of the most important production technologies for
hi-tech horticulture and protected cultivation. It helps in achieving higher
productivity and enhancing the quality of horticultural produce. Precision
application of water and nutrient is possible through drip fertigation to attain
very high crop water and nutrient use efficiency mainly in protected
cultivation.
Protected Cultivation technology is a relatively new technology for our
country. The total area covered under protected cultivation in our country is

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approx 30,000 hectares. There has been a very good development in this area
during the last five years. The leading states in the area of protected
cultivation are Maharashtra, Karnataka, Himachal Pradesh, North-eastern
states, Uttarakhand, Tamilnadu and Punjab. The major crops grown in the
protected cultivation are tomato, capsicum, cucumber, melons, rose, gerbera,
carnation and chrysanthemum. Nursery grown in the protected cultivation is
becoming very popular venture for income and employment generation.
The Centre for protected cultivation technology (CPCT) at IARI New
Delhi has done very good work in the area of protected cultivation
technology. The centre has demonstrated and standardized many protected
cultivation technologies, given training to the farmers, officials and
entrepreneurs related to different state and centre government agencies,
carried out active research and post graduate studies related to different
aspects of protected cultivation. The centre has carried out more than 50
training programmes related to Protected Cultivation Technologies to
farmers and officials of entire country.
Components of Protected Cultivation
Protected cultivation has two major components of technology. One is
the infrastructure involving frames, cladding materials, irrigation system,
tools, implements and other engineering inputs. These inputs ensure optimal
light, air temperature, water and plant growth requirements. This optimal
aspect of climatic parameters involves simple to most advanced engineering
inputs such as automation, etc. to regulate several parameters such as
ventilation which is one of the most important components in a successful
greenhouse production. In the absence of proper ventilation, greenhouses
and their plants can become prone to problems like high temperatures, and
development of pathogens, etc. Air circulation in protected structures is a
must which is done by providing ventilation devices. Importance of cladding
materials in protected cultivation can hardly be overemphasized. Their
quality and cost are important besides certification. Micro-irrigation and
fertigation involve, as you know, a lot of science and technology, demanding
research for continuous improvement. It is the engineering aspect of the
protected structure which provides plants optimal conditions to grow
normally. The importance of this component can hardly be overemphasized
and research done on this cannot go unacknowledged. Another aspect of
protected cultivation is crop production technology which involves
development of high-yielding varieties and hybrids of crops suitable for
protected cultivation. This aspect has not yet been given due attention in our
country. I appeal the plant breeders and biotechnologists to attend to it

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urgently and seriously in order to provide crop hybrids/varieties bred in India
for protected cultivation. This will not only save foreign exchange being
spent on import of large quantity of seeds of hybrids and varieties for
protected cultivation but open up avenues for foreign exchange earnings by
exporting seeds meant for it. Besides, development of varieties, the
production protocol for protected cultivation is different than that practiced
for open field production. Biotic and abiotic stresses are different, good
agricultural practices are different and the integrated pest, water, nutrient,
weed management, pollination, training of crops, harvesting practices, etc.
are crop-specific and different than the ones followed in open field
conditions.
In nut shell, protected cultivation being a specialized farming, mainly
has engineering and production components, needs full package of practices
of its own.
Protected cultivation Technologies
1. Plug Tray Nursery Raising Technology.
2. Design of Protected Cultivation Structures.
3. Plastic Low Tunnel Technology for off-season Vegetable
Cultivation.
4. Protected Cultivation Technology of High Quality Tomato and
Cucumber.
5. Insect Proof Net House Technology.
6. Walk in Tunnel Technology for off season Vegetable Cultivation.
7. Low Pressure Drip Fertigation Technology.
The centre has given official technical co-operation to state governments
like Jharkhand, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and to many private
organizations like IFFCO, Bhart Walmart and Harvel-Azud.
Protected Structures for Growing Ornamental Plant and Fruits
Fruit and flower production is significantly influenced by the seasonality
and weather conditions. The extent of their production cause considerable
fluctuations in the prices and quality of fruits. Striking a balance between all-
season availability of Fruits and flowers with minimum environmental
impact, and still to remain competitive, is a major challenge for the
implementation of modern technology of crop production. The crop
productivity is influenced by the genetic characteristics of the cultivar,
growing environment and management practices. The plant's environment

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can be specified by five basic factors, namely, light, temperature, relative
humidity, carbon dioxide and nutrients. The main purpose of protected
cultivation is to create a favourable environment for the sustained growth of
plant so as to realize its maximum potential even in adverse climatic
conditions. Greenhouses, rain shelters, plastic tunnels, mulches, insect-proof
net houses, shade nets etc. are used as protective structures and means
depending on the requirements and cost-effectiveness. Besides modifying
the plant's environment, these protective structures provide protection
against wind, rain and insects.
Protected cultivation is relevant to growers in India who have marginal
and small land holdings, which helps them to produce more crops each year
from their land, particularly during off-season when prices are higher.
However, growing Fruits and flowers under protected conditions requires
comparatively high input cost and good management practices, which have
direct bearing on the economic viability of the production system. Even if
the protective structures are cost effective, proper planning, management and
attention to details are needed to achieve maximum benefits.
Methods of Protected Cultivation
The kinds of protective structures for crop production range from simple
provisions such as rain shelters, shade houses, mulches, row covers, low
tunnels, cloches to greenhouse structures with passive or active climate
control. Salient points of various structures are as under;
Green House

Green houses are climate controlled. Jain Green Houses have a variety
of applications, the majority being, off-season growing of Fruits, floriculture,
planting material acclimatization, fruit crop growing for export market and
plant breeding and varietals improvement.
Advantages of Green Houses
 The yield may be 10-12 times higher than that of out door
cultivation depending upon the type of greenhouse, type of crop,

Page | 7
 environmental control facilities.
 Off-season production of vegetable and fruit crops.
 Reliability of crop increases under greenhouse cultivation.
 Ideally suited for vegetables and flower crops.
 Year round production of floricultural crops.
 Disease-free and genetically superior transplants can be produced
continuously.
 Efficient utilisation of chemicals, pesticides to control pest and
diseases.
 Water requirement of crops very limited and easy to control.
 Maintenance of stock plants, cultivating grafted plant-lets and micro
propagated plant-lets.
 Hardening of tissue cultured plants
 Production of quality produce free of blemishes.
 Most useful in monitoring and controlling the instability of various
ecological system.
 Modern techniques of Hydroponic (Soil less culture), Aeroponics
and Nutrient film techniques are possible only under greenhouse
cultivation.
Classification of Greenhouses
Greenhouse structure of various types are used for crop production.
Although there are advantages in each type for a particular application, in
general there is no single type greenhouse, which can be constituted as the
best. Different types of greenhouses are designed to meet the specific needs.
The different types of greenhouses based on shape, utility, material and
construction are briefly given below:
Greenhouse Type Based on Shape:
For the purpose of classification, the uniqueness of cross section of the
greenhouses can be considered as a factor. The commonly followed types of
greenhouses based on shape are:
Lean to type greenhouse.

Even span type greenhouse.

Uneven span type greenhouse.

Ridge and furrow type.

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 Saw tooth type.

Quonset greenhouse.

Interlocking ridges and furrow type Quonset greenhouse.

Ground to ground greenhouse.

1. Greenhouse Type Based on Utility

Classification can be made depending on the functions or utilities. Of
the different utilities, artificial cooling and heating are more expensive and
elaborate. Hence based on this, they are classified in to two types.
Greenhouses for active heating.
Greenhouses for active cooling.
2. Greenhouse Type Based on Construction
The type of construction predominantly is influenced by structural
material, though the covering material also influence the type. Higher the
span, stronger should be the material and more structural members are used
to make sturdy tissues. For smaller spans, simple designs like hoops can be
followed. So based on construction, greenhouses can be classified as
Wooden framed structure.
Pipe framed structure.
Truss framed structure.
3. Greenhouse Type based on Covering Material
Covering materials are the important component of the greenhouse
structure. They have direct influence on greenhouse effect, inside the
structure and they alter the air temperature inside. The types of frames and
method of fixing also varies with covering material. Hence based on the type
of covering material they may be classified as
Glass Glazing.
Fibre glass reinforced plastic (FRP) glazing
i. Plain sheet
ii. Corrugated sheet.
Plastic Film
i. UV stabilized LDPE film.
ii. Silpaulin type sheet.

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 iii. Net house.
Based on the Cost of Construction Involved
i. High cost Green House
ii. Medium cost Green House
iii. Low cost Green House
The structural requirements and the cost per unit area for different
models of low cost green houses for cultivation of vegetables are detailed
below with diagrams to enable an interested enterprenur to construct a low
cost green house on his own accord. However, the local weather conditions
and the individuals necessity play a major role in the selection of the model.
Poly House

Poly houses are basically naturally ventilated climate controlled. Jain

Poly houses have a variety of applications, the majority being, growing of
Fruits, floriculture, planting material acclimatization, fruit crop growing for
export market
Poly Tunnels

Poly Tunnels are basically naturally ventilated climate controlled. Jain

Poly Tunnels have a variety of applications, the majority being, growing of
Fruits, floriculture, planting material acclimatization, fruit crop growing for
export market.

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Net House

Net houses are basically naturally ventilated climate controlled. Jain Net
houses have a variety of applications, the majority being, growing of Fruits,
floriculture, fruit crop growing for export market.
Structures of Green House

1) Green Houses
Greenhouse it is a structure with transparent covered that is use for
growing certain crops under controlled condition A green houses may differ
in design size and extent of environmental control for light temperature
humidity nutrient and soil moisture Materials used to construct a greenhouse
frame may be wood, bamboo, and steel or even aluminum. Coverings can be
glass or various rigid or flexible plastic materials. Depending on the covering
material, different terminology have been used in the context of greenhouse
structures as mentioned below:
a) Glasshouse: A greenhouse with glass as the covering material is
called as glasshouse.
b) Polyhouse: It is a greenhouse with polyethylene as the covering
material.
Plant Environment and Greenhouse Climate
A plant grows best when exposed to an environment that is optimal for
that particular plant species. The aerial environment for the plant growth can

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be specified by the following four factors:
 Heat or temperature
 Light
 Relative humidity
 Carbon dioxide
Materials of Greenhouses
As mentioned earlier, the purpose of a greenhouse covering is to allow
sunlight to pass through it so that the energy is retained inside. Glass was the
main covering material in the early greenhouses. Within the introduction
plastic materials, there are now several alternatives available for greenhouse
coverings. A brief description of greenhouse covering materials is given
below:
i) Glass: A clean, transparent glass provides the maximum light
transmittance to the extent of 90%. However, being heavier in
weight, it requires elaborate structure for adequate support. It is
brittle and can break with minimum shock or vibrations resulting in
high maintenance costs.
ii) Acrylic: This material has long service life, good light
transmittance (80%), moderate impact resistance, but prone to
scratches. It has a high coefficient of expansion and contraction.
Being inflammable and costly, it is not a preferred material.
iii) Corrugated / Multi Wall Polycarbonate Sheet: It is available in
single or double wall sheets of different thickness. A new
polycarbonate sheet has good light transmittance of about 78%, but
reduces with age. It has excellent impact resistance and low
inflammability. High cost limits its use on large scale.
iv) Fiber-glass Reinforced Plastic Panels (FRP): These plastics
consist of polyester resins, glass fibers stabilizers etc. It has a initial
light transmittance of about 80% and has high impact resistance
with a service life ranging from 6-12 years. Good quality FRP
materials for greenhouse coverings are not quite assured.
v) Polyethylene Film: A clear, new polyethylene sheet has about 88%
light transmittance. Its higher strength and low cost have made it
most popular replacement to glass. An ultra-violet (UV) stabilized
plastic sheet can have a service life of 3 years. These sheets are
generally available in 7 and 9 meter widths with 200 micron (0.2
mm) thic kness.

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vi) Thermal and Shedding Net
 Types of Greenhouses: The greenhouses design and cost range
from a simple plastic walk-in tunnel costing about Rs.100/m2 meter
to a climate-controlled, saw-tooth greenhouse with automatic
heating, ventilation and cooling, costing more than Rs. 3000/m2.
The selection of the greenhouse design should be determined by the
grower's expectations, need, experience, and above all its cost-
effectiveness in relation to the available market for the produce.
Obviously, cost of greenhouse is very important and may outweigh
all other considerations. Greenhouses are classified in different
shapes, which also determine their cost, climate control and use in
terms of Crop production. Commonly used structural designs are
briefly described below
 Gable: This is the most basic structure similar to a hut-like
construction and was perhaps the first version of a greenhouse with
glass as the covering material. The roof-frame can be inclined at
any angle to present an almost perpendicular face to the sun to
minimize losses due to external reflection. The structure also allows
large openings in the side-walls and at the ridge for high rates of
natural ventilation. Modern gable-shaped greenhouses are multispan
units with bay widths of 6-12 meters.
 Gambrel: These structures are similar to the gable but have high
strength to withstand high wind loads during storms. This design is
more suitable where wood or bamboo are to be used for the
greenhouse construction.
 Skillion: In this kind of structure, the roof consists of a single
sloping surface. This is because the greenhouse is built as the
southward extension of a building with a solid wall on the northern
side. Such greenhouses have the advantage of low structural
requirements.
 Curved-Roof – Raised High Arch / Raised Arch: The semi-
circular tunnel greenhouse structures appeared with the introduction
of polyethylene film as the covering material. These structures,
besides being most simple and easy to construct, have the advantage
of high strength with a relatively light frame due to inherent
strength of the curved arch. But these structures have the
disadvantage of poor ventilation efficiency since the curved roof is
not amenable to the incorporation of ridge ventilators. In an attempt
to improve the ventilation efficiency of curved roof greenhouses,

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 raised arch type of structures have been adopted. This design has
vertical side-walls, which permit high head room and improved
ventilation due to the wind velocity.
 Saw-Tooth: In these structures, the roof consists of a series of
vertical surfaces separated by a series of sloping surfaces, all of
which are pitched at the same angle and facing in the same
direction. The vertical surfaces consist entirely of ventilating area.
These types of greenhouses are most efficient from ventilation point
of view. Such greenhouses are also suitable for multi-span
structures. Orientation of saw-tooth greenhouses can also be used as
a means of maximizing natural ventilation. By facing the open
vertical ventilation areas away from the wind, airflow over the
greenhouse roof creates a negative pressure, which facilitates in
sucking out warm greenhouse air. However, this air dynamics relies
on the premise that there are large ventilation areas in the
greenhouse walls on windward side.
 Plastic Low Tunnels / Row Covers: These structures are laid in
open fields to cover rows of plants with transparent plastic film
stretched over steel hoops of about 50 cm height spaced suitably
along the rows. Polyethylene film of 30-40 micron thickness,
without UV stabilization, is used which is perforated in situ as the
season gets hotter. Row covers used in vegetable production have
different purposes in temperate and tropical regions. In cold
conditions, they are used to conserve warmth, stimulate germination
and early growth, protect plants from frost injury, and improve the
quality of the crops. Other beneficial effects, such as maintaining
soil structure, and protecting crops from the attacks of birds and
pests, can also be expected. The main advantage of these covers in
northern India is to grow Fruits, especially cucurbitaceous crops,
ahead of normal season in winters. Experiments on muskmelon
have proved it a highly profitable proposition. The muskmelon
seedlings could be transplanted under such covers in the last week
of January. The crop growth was sustained during the cold period.
Temperature profile inside the cover indicated a difference of about
7°C averaged over 24-hour cycle. This rise in temperature provided
necessary warmth to sustain the growth of plants. In hot season,
however, materials used as row covers need to have adequate
permeability to air and moisture, to prevent the accumulation of
excessive heat inside the covers. The covering materials used in

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 summer are woven polyester wind-break nets, cheese-cloth, and
insect-proof screens. These types of covers are generally laid over
the planted rows without the support of steel hoops, and are also
called as floating covers. To provide adequate space, the seedlings
are planted in the furrows and the covers are laid over the ground.
But such planting should only be adopted in light textured soils
having high infiltration rates.
Benefits of Green House
 Has recorded increase in yield up to 5 to 8 times.
 Saves water up to 50% compare to open filed flood irrigation.
Higher yield from smaller area.
 Crop grows consistently, healthier, uniform quality fruits and
matures fast.
 Early maturity results in higher and faster returns on investment.
 Fertilizer use efficiency increases by 30%.
 Cost of fertilizers, inter-culturing and labour use gets reduced.
 Fertilizer and Chemical Treatment can be given through Micro
Irrigation System itself.
 Undulating terrains, Saline, Water logged, Sandy & Hilly lands can
also be brought under productive cultivation.
New Technologies in Protected Cultivation
Protected cultivation has spread rapidly over the last three decades into
relatively new areas all around the world. The aims to present the latest
technology trends in crop production including conventional glasshouses,
plastic-covered greenhouses and screen-covered greenhouses (screen houses
and net-houses), and to provide new insights and innovative solutions to
improve protected horticulture sustainability worldwide. This will bring
together scientists, technicians, private industry, producers and consumers
from around the world to discuss, with an interdisciplinary approach, how
emerging technologies in covering materials, structures, plant
biotechnologies, crop management, and greenhouse automation can be
managed more efficiently using innovative strategies.
1) Glass House: Greenhouse (also called a glasshouse) is a building in
which plants are grown. These structures range in size from small
sheds to industrial-sized buildings. A miniature greenhouse is
known as a cold frame. It made up of Glass and use for the

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 cultivation of Ornamental and fruit crops
Advantages
Glass has long been the traditional covering. Its favorable properties include:
 High photosynthetic active radiation transmission
 Good heat retention at night
 Low transmission of UV light
 Durability
 Low maintenance costs.
The biggest draw-back of glass is the initial cost, though it has been
demonstrated that over a period of time (10+ years) the cost of glass
compares favorably with other materials.

2) Plastic-Covered Green Houses: Essentially there are three

materials in this category—polycarbonate, acrylic (polymethyl
methacrylate) and fibre glass. Sheeting products are more durable
than plastic films and have fairly good heat retention, good initial
transmission in the PAR range and low UV light transmission.
Plastic Films Films are the most common and lowest cost type of
covering material. The types of film available are polythene (polyethylene),
EVA (ethyl vinyl acetate) and PVC (poly vinyl chloride).
Additives to the plastic determine its:
 Durability
 Capacity to reduce heat loss

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  Capacity to reduce droplet formation
 Transmission of particular wavelengths of light
 Capacity to reduce the amount of dust sticking to the film.
A) Screen-House

B) Shade-Greenhouses

1. Strawberry
Common name – strawberry
B.n – Fragaria ananasa
Family – Rosaceae

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 Fruit type – Aggregate fruit
Climate: Strawberry grows well under temperate climate. Some
cultivars grown in sub-tropical climate. But also strawberry grown in
protected structure its required day light period 12hrs and Rh 50-80%.
Strawberry required 25% sun light.
Soil: Strawberry can be grown in sandy loam soil. In soil organic matter
and drainage is present. soil with ph 5.7-6.5 is ideal for strawberry
cultivation
Propagation: Strawberry is commercially propagated by runners plants.
Generally one plants produces 7-10 runners but under proper management
15 runners / plant
Runners formation can be stimulated with the appalication of IBA
100ppm.
Planting: sept-oct is ideal time for planting.
Irrigation: Plants are irrigated with a drip tape with 5 cm emitter
spacing and 9.45 ml discharge per minute per emitter. Plants receive
nutrients with every irrigation and each plant receives about 140 ml nutrient
solution per day. Irrigation starts at 8.00 A.M. and ends at 5.00 P.M. Every
irrigation event is one minute, with 90-minute intervals between two
irrigations.
Fertilization
Macronutrients (ppm in Final Solution)
N: 80 ppm P: 50 ppm, K: 85 ppm Ca 95-100 ppm, Mg: 40 ppm, S: 56
ppm,
Micro-nutrients (ppm in Final Solution)
Fe: 2.8 ppm, B: 0.6 ppm, Mn: 0.4 ppm, Cu: 0.1 ppm, Zn: 0.2 ppm, Mo:
0.03 ppm
Pollination
Strawberry is mostly self-pollinated under greenhouse conditions, the
activity of these natural agents is highly restricted by the protective structure
and the use of bumble bees is absolutely essential to ensure good pollination.
One beehive containing approximately 50 bumblebees is sufficient for
pollinating about 4,000 strawberry plants (500 m2 greenhouse area).
Heating: Diesel heaters are operated to maintain a base minimum
temperature of 3-5C on days with sub-zero temperatures.

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 Harvesting: Strawberries are harvested when half to three –fourths of
skin develops colour. Picking should be done every second or third day.
Berries should be picked along with a small stem portion atteched.picking
shoud be done in the morning.
Physiological Disorder: Albilism is a physiological disorder in
strawberry due to lake of fruit colour during ripening fruit remain irregularly
pink or even totally white.
2. Rosa
Botanical name: Rosa spp.
Family: Rosaceae
Climate: The climatic conditions of India are well suited to rose
cultivation. Roses need bright sunshine and free ventilation. Sunshine for six
hours is ideal for better growth and flowering. In the northern plains, roses
flower best during winter whereas in the temperate hilly regions of the
Himalayas in summer.
Soil: Although any soil is good for rose cultivation provided it has
proper drainage, the ideal soil should be medium loam having sufficient
organic matter, pH of 6.0 -7.5. The land where the external drainage is poor
and water stagnates during monsoon should not be selected for rose growing.
Propagation: Among propagation methods, budding is most popular in
our country because it produces better quality flowers and faster growth of
plants. Other methods like, seed propagation.
 Budding is the most popular and successful method for multiplying
roses. It provides larger number of plants than cuttings, layering or
grafting. Shield or T- budding is the method ordinarily used.
 Inarching or grafting is another method of propagating roses but the
cost of a grafted plant In the long run may be higher than that of
budded plant. The rootstocks are raised in small pots or polythene
bags. The scions are selected and the stocks are brought near the
selected scion shoots. The scion shoot should be of medium texture,
free from pests and diseases and 1-3 eyes in length. Larger scions
are not recommended.
Planting: At the planting time beds should be thoroughly prepared. At
the planting time the soil should neither be too wet nor too dry. At each
marked spot, a hole measuring 20-30 cm in diameter and 30 cm deep should
be dug, and the plant with earth ball should be lowered into the hole. Then

Page | 19
the soil around the plant should be pressed firm to avoid air pockets in the
soil. The bed after planting should be thoroughly irrigated. Planting should
be done with the bud union 2.5 -5.0 cm above the soil level. Roses can be
planted any time except in very hot summer and during heavy rains when the
soil is very wet.
Pruning: The best time of pruning is the period plant is at dormant or
near dormant stage. The most usual time for pruning is during October-
November after the rains are well over and the cold season is approaching.
Manures: Sandy soils need heavier and more frequent application of
organic manure than heavier soils. Application of well decomposed cowdung
or FYM @ 8-10 kg/plant (4.5 tonnes/ ha) has been found useful for the
growth and flowering of roses.
Fertilizer rates
Groundnut cake -5kg
Bonemeal -6kg
Ammoniumphosphate -2 kg
Ammoniumsulphate -1 kg
Single superphosphate -2 kg
Potassium sulphate -1 kg
Irrigation: Adequate soil moisture at all stages of vegetative growth
and flowering is essential for the rose plants to meet the water loss through
transplantation and evaporation from soil. Water requirement also depends
upon the size of the plant and the growth period.
In lighter soil more frequent irrigation is required than that in heavy soil.
Rose beds can be watered once a week or 10 days in winter and twice a week
during summer season.
Mulching: Mulching conserve soil moisture, supply humus making
material and suppress weeds resulting in improved growth and flowering.
Mulches also keep the soil some what cooler in summer.
Harvesting: The stage at which flowers should be cut, either for
decoration or for despatch, is the tight-bud stage when the buds show full
colour but the petals have not yet started unfolding. If harvested at this stage,
they last longer and retain colour and freshness during transportation. If a
flower bud of red cultivar cut at a little earlier stage it fails to open later.
Pink and red cultivars should be allowed to develop to a stage where one or

Page | 20
two of the outer petals begin to unfurl. Loose flowers, used for making
garlands, preparing perfumes etc. are harvested only when they are fully
open and collected in large open baskets.
Packaging: The cut blooms are graded according to the length of stem
and then packed in corrugated card-board boxes. The size of box varies with
the quality and quantity of roses to be packed. The inside area of the box will
be cushioned with polythene or soft materials. The blooms are generally
packed in bundles. The upper half of each bundle having flower buds is
wrapped in a corrugated paper which is fixed with an adhesive tape. Along
the outer edges of the box, adhesive tapes can be fixed to close it.
Yield: The yield of cut-flower depends on a number of factors such as
type of cultivar, and cultural practices adopted from time to time. Plant
density has much influence on the yield of quality blooms per unit area.
About 1,20, 000 cut flowers of exportable quality from an area of one
hectare is obtained by close planting and providing plastic cover over the
plants during November-February.
3. Carnation
Common name- Carnation
Botanical name- Dianthus caryophyllus
Family- Caryophyllaceae
Climate: Its grown almost every climate, in temperate zones mostly in
glass houses. In subtropical area in plastic and glasshouse as well as open air
and in tropic areas more or less shaded.
Varieties: Divided in to two main groups.standard varieties- one large
flower on an individual stem.(for large scale production).
Soil: Sandy loam soils rich in organic matter content.
Soil pH: Between 5.5 to 6.5.
Temperature-optimum night temperature is 10 to 11 degree. during
winter and 13 to 15.5 degree in summer. the optimum day temperature range
is 18 to 24 degree.
Humidity: 80 to 85% during begning of vegetative growth and 60to
65% during full growth stage.
Spacing: 10 to 12 inches.
Propagation: Propagated both by seeds and vegetative methods.

Page | 21
 1. By seed-seeds are shown during july august and also extented up to
october. Seeds are shown thinly in seed pans, seed boxes or seed
beds filled with sterilized seed compost. The seed should be
covered with a thin layer of well decomposed leaf mould. The
optimum temperature for seed germination is 21°C.Seed germinate
in about 5 to 8 days and at four leaf stage the seedlings are
transplanted in nursery pots.
2. Vegetative propagation- mainly by terminal cutting of about 10 to
15 cm with 4 to 5 pairs of leaves are harvested for multiplication
Planting- Every 3 to 4 months is advisable to ensure regular supply
of flower.25 days old rooted cuttings
Spacing: 15 X 15cm.
Yield: 200 to 350 flowers/m can be obtains from standard carnation.
4. Capsicum
Botanical name- Capsicum spp.
Family- Solonaceae
Temperature: The temperature of day22-250c and night 18-190c.
Soil pH: pH range 6-7.
Bomby, Domino, Magnum -Red
Orobelle, Golden Gem -Yellow
Indira -Green
Bejo Sheetal BSS 89
Spacing: 45 X 30 cm
Planting Time: Low-Hills December
Mid Hills - Mid November - Mid December
Dry temperate regions- Late April - May
Manures and Fertilizers: NPK-50:50:50kg/ha), organic manures-
500kg/ha.
Yield: 65-75t/ha.
5. Gerbera
Botanical name : Gerbera jamesonii
Family : Compositae

Page | 22
 Soil: The soil should be highly porous to have penetration of roots.
Sandy loam with good drainage capacity having a pH of 5.5 – 6.5 is more
suitable for Gerbera cultivation.
Climate: Production of quality flowers requires shade house (50%) or
naturally ventilated polyhouse. Day temperature of 22-25°C and night
temperature of 12-16°C are ideal.
Propagation: Commercially propagated through division of suckers and
tissue culture plants.
Spacing: 40 x 30 cm or 30 x 30 cm
Irrigation: Drip irrigation is done once in 2 – 3 days @ 3.75
litre/drip/plant for 15 – 20 minutes. Average water requirement is about 500
– 700 ml/day/plant.
Season of Flowering and Harvesting: When flowers completely open,
harvesting is done. Flower stalk is soaked in Sodium hypochloride solution
(5-7 ml/lit of water) for 4-5 hours to improve vase life.
Yield: The crop yields 2 stems / plant / month. Harvest starts from 3rd
month of planting and continued up to two years. Under open condition, 130
-160 flowers / m2 / year and under greenhouse condition, 175 - 200 flowers
/m2/ year can be obtained.
6. Tomato
Botanical name - Solanum lycopersicum
Family – solanaceae
Origin – Peru Mexico
Type of fruit – berry
Climate - The optimum temperature range for tomatoes is between 64.4
and 80.6°F. Above 80.6°F, flower formation is adversely affected. Optimum
relative humidities in glasshouse crops range from 60 - 80%. Under
hydroponics, 75% and 85% respectively are typical night and daytime
relative humidities.
Soil Type - Tomatoes can be produced across a wide range of soils as
long as drainage and physical soil structure is good. The plant produces a
fibrous root mass, which can exploit the subsoil given the absence of
cultivation pans.Optimum soil pH is between 6.0-6.5. When pH drops below
5.5, magnesium and molybdenum availability drops and above 6.5, zinc,
manganese and iron become deficient.

Page | 23
 Types and Varieties: Greenhouse varieties include: Arbason, Cobra,
Geronimo, Lola, Rhapsodie, Rebelski and Trust. Rootstock varieties used for
grafting include Colossus and Maxifort, Beaufort.
Nursery Propagation: The seeds should be raised in nursery beds, seed
boxes or germination trays. The seeds should be drilled thinly in rows 20 cm
apart and 1cm deep.
Field Preparation: Soil should be well-prepared, thoroughly dug to 1.5
feet deep to loosen the soil. The land should then be divided into beds of 1m
wide, after which DAP/NPK fertilizers are applied to the surface of each bed
by sprinkling sparingly at a rate of 100g/meter square.
Spacing: Seedlings are planted at a spacing of (60×30) cm, (60×45) cm
or (60×60) cm. Single stem are recommended for narrow spacing and double
stem for wider spacing.
Transplanting: Seedlings are transplanted when pencil thick and
approximately 15cm long. Transplanting is done a month after germination.
The seedlings are uprooted with a ball of soil at 4 to 6 leaves stage.
Prunning
Desuckering - all suckers are removed by hand.
Defoliation – too many leaves increase the canopy cover which may
result in high relative humidity hence more prone to diseases.
Truss pruning- any leaves around the fruit cluster is removed
immediately they appear
Training/Support: Tomatoes are supported early as possible to avoid
bending. This should be done when the crop is half a foot high. Plastic string
is twisted round the plant on a weekly basis.
Fertilizer Application: Top dress with CAN or Urea, to enhance the
vigour after the first harvesting. Trenches are made between rows and the
fertilizer is applied, covered and irrigated.
Irrigation: Green house should be fitted with deep irrigation system
and watering should be done in the morning and in the evening.
Pollination: In the field, tomatoes are self-pollinated by the wind. In the
greenhouse, the flowers must be lightly shaken to get effective pollination.
Daily shaking is necessary, especially during damp and cloudy weather
because the pollen does not release well.
Harvesting: Harvesting starts at 10 weeks after transplanting and when

Page | 24
tomatoes have about 10trusses and each truss with 7-8 fruits. A truss should
appear after every 18cm. Yield: From each tomato plant the expected yield is
at least 20 kg after 8 months.
References
1. Agri Informa World Trends and Techniques of Greenhouse Capsicum
Production.html
2. Rowley D, Black B, Drost D. High Tunnel Strawberry Production,
2010. https://extension.usu.edu/files/publications/publication/Horticultu
re_HighTunnels_2010-02pr.pdf
3. Stokes SE. Future potential, Green house. WordPress.com, 2012.
4. Strawberry Production Around The World, strawberry.htm
5. TNAU Agritech Portal. Horticulture Greenhouse cultivation.html, 2011
6. Agnote DPI/251 First edition, Jeremy Badgery-Parker District
Horticulturist (Protected Cropping), 1999.
7. Hasan M, Singh B. Protected Cultivation Technology for Growing High
Value Horticultural Stefania De Pascale, 2014.
8. New Technologies in Protected Cultivation. The International
Symposium on Innovation and New Technologies in Protected
Cropping will be held in Brisbane, Australia in during the International
Horticultural Congress (IHC2014), 2014.
9. Sylvan Wittwerl H, Nicolas Castilla. Protected Cultivation of
Horticultural Crops Worldwide. Hort Technology, 1995, 5(1).

Page | 25
Page | 26
 Chapter - 2
Organic Agriculture

Authors
Hament Thakur
Department of Vegetable Science, Punjab Agricultural University,
Ludhiana, Punjab, India
Sumeet Sharma
Department of Fruit Science, Dr. YSP, UHF, Nauni, Solan, Himachal
Pradesh, India

Page | 27
Page | 28
 Chapter - 2
Organic Agriculture

Abstract
Organic agriculture (OA) combines tradition, innovation and science to
benefit the shared environment. It is the main alternative farming system for
sustainable production without many harmful effects to the environment and
ecology. The intense use of chemicals is causing environmental pollution,
decreasing soil health and also causes health hazards to humans as well as
animals. OA is emerging as a solution to all these problems including food
and nutritional security of developing countries like India. The area and
number of producers under organic agriculture are increasing and about 6.5
Mha more of organic agricultural land in 2015 than in 2014 was reported.
The number of organic producers in world was almost 2.4 million in 2015.
The foremost objective of OA is to maintain the soil health for long term and
sustainable crop production. Therefore, to prolong the agricultural
productivity and environmental quality soil health management should be
the primary concern of agricultural development. OA has potential to
maintain soil fertility for a longer time and increases availability of organic
carbon in soil. OA not only enable ecosystems to better adjust to the effects
of climate change but also offers a major potential to reduce the emissions of
agricultural greenhouse gases. Generally it is believed that organic
agriculture is environmentally safe as compared to conventional agriculture
because there is avoidance of chemical fertilizers, insecticides and
herbicides. The approaches of controlling a particular stress differ widely
among both the systems. In conventional system the management of any
kind of pest is done by using scheduled applications of broad-spectrum
pesticides (biocides, insecticides, fungicides, herbicides). While, in OA the
use of synthetic fertilizer is not permitted at all. Typically organic food
contains more nutrients as compared to organic food, including sugars and
organic acids, vitamin C, as well as flavonoids and anthocyanins exhibiting
antioxidant properties. In this chapter, the recent research in OA have
discussed thoroughly including recent trends, soil health, environment and
OA, plant protection measures and quality of food in OA.
Keywords: Organic, agriculture, research, trends

Page | 29
1. Introduction
Organic agriculture is based on the principle that the “health of soil,
plant, animal and man are one and indivisible” (1, 2). According to
International Federation of Organic Agricultural Movements (IFOAM)
organic agriculture (OA) is defined as "A production system that sustains the
health of soils, ecosystems and people. It relies on ecological processes,
biodiversity and cycles adapted to local conditions, rather than the use of
inputs with adverse effects. Organic agriculture combines tradition,
innovation and science to benefit the shared environment and promote fair
relationships and a good quality of life for all involved." The growing of
agricultural crops without disturbing nature, environment and its biodiversity
is the critical aim of OA. It was suggested that organic farming is the main
alternative farming system for sustainable production without many harmful
effects to the environment and ecology (3). The practices by which soil
health is maintained in OA includes: crop rotations, crop diversity,
combinations of livestock and crop production, use of legume crops for
symbiotic nitrogen fixation, efficient utilization of crop residue and other
farm waste, organic manure and pest control by biological means (4). The
utilization of artificially synthesized fertilizers, pesticides, plant growth
regulators, antibiotics, sewage sludge and genetically modified organisms
(GMO) is strictly prohibited in OA. The use of GMOs may have harmful
impacts on non targeted organisms and may alter the functioning of
ecosystem. This is because there may be transgene flow from GMOs to other
crops (non-GMOs) growing nearby the field, pollen flow may cause some
irritations in humans and some weeds may also develop resistance with time.
It has been revealed that GMOs can have positive, negative, or neutral
effects on soil fungal community structure and function (5). The genetic flux
from GMOs to organic crops in field crops is a major problem for farms
located nearby the conventional farms (6).
The term “organic farming” was first used in England by W.
Northbourne in 1940 in his book Look to the Land, a holistic and
ecologically balanced farming approach based on the Steiner concept (7).
However, Sir Albert Howard (1873–1947), an English mycologist, has been
known as the father of modern organic farming (8). He believed that a
healthy soil leads to less diseases in plant, animal, or humans and use of
organic techniques helps in maintaining a soil healthy in a better way. In
1972, IFOAM was founded in order to promote the “worldwide adoption of
ecologically, socially and economically sound agriculture systems that are
based on the principles of organic farming.” In world, 86 countries have

Page | 30
legally adopted a definition, standards, and permitted substance lists in OA.
For example, European Commission regulations in 1991 (EC 2092/91) and
1999 (EC 1804/99), which were revised in 2009 (EC 834/2007; EC 889/
2008); the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s National Organic Program, the
national standards of Canada (CAN/CGSB-32.310-2006, CAN/CGSB-
32.311-2006); the Australian National Standard for Organic and Bio-
Dynamic Produce; the Japanese Agricultural Standard (JAS) for organic
agricultural products; and the New Zealand National Organic Standard.
In India approximately 100,000 tons of pesticide is used every year.
Most of these (80%) pesticides are used in crops like cotton (45%), rice
(30%) and vegetables (5%), the remaining 20 per cent is used on all other
crops (9). The intense use of these chemicals is causing environmental
pollution, decreasing soil health and also causes health hazards to humans as
well as animals. OA is emerging as a solution to all these problems including
food and nutritional security of developing countries like India and even for
whole of the world. Numerous problems are arising because of the
conventional agricultural practices, such as decreased prices of agricultural
products and increased costs of inputs. Due to this, 8007 farmers did suicide
in India with maximum cases in Maharashtra (3030), Telangana (1358),
Karnataka (1197), Chhattisgarh (854) and Andhra Pradesh (516) (10). OA is
widely supported and encouraged by nongovernmental organizations
(NGOs), government agencies, associations of farmers and consumers who
are concerned about the detrimental effects of chemicals on human health.
Some of the NGOs in India are: Organic Farming Association of India
(OFAI), Sanjeevani, Chetna Organic etc.
Organic agriculture basically works on some principles as stated by (11):
1) Protect the environment, minimize soil degradation and erosion,
decrease pollution and optimize biological activity and health.
2) Maintain soil fertility by optimizing conditions for biological
activity within the soil.
3) Maintain biological diversity within the system.
4) Recycle
materials and resources to the greatest extent possible within the
enterprise.
5) Rely on renewable resources in locally produced organic food
systems.

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2. Trends in Organic Agriculture
In the latest survey of FiBL on certified organic agriculture worldwide,
data on organic agriculture was available from 179 countries in 2015 which
was 172 in 2014. There was 50.9 million hectares (Mha) of land under
organic agriculture in 2015, including in-conversion areas. World organic
agricultural land (including in-conversion areas) and regions shares of the
global organic agricultural land is presented in Table 1. The largest area
under organic agriculture land is available in two regions viz., Oceania (22.8
Mha) and Europe (12.7 Mha). These two countries cover about 45 per cent
and 25 per cent of land, respectively. Latin America has 6.7 Mha (13%),
followed by Asia (4 Mha, 8%), North America (3 Mha, 6%), and Africa (1.7
Mha, 3%). The countries with highest land under organic cultivation are,
Australia (22.7 Mha), Argentina (3.1 Mha) and the United States (2 Mha)
(12).
It was reported that there was almost 6.5 Mha more of organic
agricultural land in 2015 than in 2014. This is due to 4.4 Mha of land
addition was reported from Australia. However, many other countries
reported an important increase thus contributing to the global growth, such
as the united States (30 % increase) and India (64 % increase). In Africa the
area grew by almost 33.5 per cent or an additional 0.4 Mha and in North
America by more than 21 per cent or over 0.5 million additional hectares.
The decrease in organic agriculture land was only reported from Latin
America. This decrease was due to a reduction of almost 300,000 hectares in
organic grazing areas in the Falkland Islands. The increase of organic
agricultural land was noted in many African countries, such as Kenya,
Madagascar and Zimbabwe. The top ten countries with highest agricultural
land in million hectares are: Australia (22.69), Argentina (3.07), USA (2.02),
Spain (1.96), China (1.60), Italy (1.49), France (1.37), Uruguay (1.30), India
(1.18) and Germany (1.08) (12).
The number of organic producers in world was almost 2.4 million in
2015. Maximum of these organic producers were in Asia (35%), followed by
Africa (30 %) and Latin America (19 %). The countries having most of the
producers are India (585'200), Ethiopia (203'602) and Mexico (200'039). The
number of producers has increased over 160'000, or over 7%, compared with
2014. According to organic monitor, global retail sales of organic food and
drink reached 81.6 billion US dollars in 2015, increasing about ten percent
compared to the previous year.

Page | 32
Table 1: World organic agricultural land (including in-conversion areas) and regions
shares of the global organic agricultural land (12)

Region Organic Agricultural Land (hectares) Percent share

Africa 1'683'482 3%
Asia 3'965'289 8%
Europe 12'716'969 25 %
Latin America 6'744'722 13 %
North America 2'973'886 6%
Oceania 22'838'513 45 %
Total 50'919'006 100 %

The 90 per cent of the organic product sales was generated by North
America and Europe. However, their global share of organic product sales is
decreasing slightly as regional markets take root in Asia, Latin America and
Africa. In 2015, the countries with the largest organic markets (in Euros)
were the United States (35.8), Germany (8.6) and France (5.5). The highest
per capita consumption with more than 170 Euros was found in Switzerland,
Denmark, Luxembourg and Sweden.
3. Soil Health in Organic Agriculture
“Soil health” and “soil quality” are synonymous to each other. It is the
capacity of a soil to function, within land use and ecosystem boundaries, to
sustain biological productivity, maintain environmental quality and promote
plant, animal and human health (13). The foremost objective of OA is to
maintain the soil health for long term and sustainable crop production.
Therefore, to prolong the agricultural productivity and environmental quality
soil health management should be the primary concern of agricultural
development. OA maintains the soil organic matter in a better way, which in
turn maintains the physical, chemical and biological properties of soil (14).
The typical organization of soil takes place through the interactions of
physical, chemical and biological properties of soil. Physical properties
consist of soil texture and soil structure, which together represent the percent
of sand, silt, and clay and their arrangement. The nutrient-carrying capacity
and pH (acidity) of soil are included in chemical properties of soil. The
community of soil organisms like bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes present
in the soil represents its biological properties. The positive effects of OA on
various properties of soil, soil aeration and soil temperature are well-reported
earlier by many workers (15, 16 and 17). The management of soil by organic

Page | 33
means can improve soil structure, organic matter content and porosity in soil
(18). Crop rotation is a crucial element under organic farming which directly
and indirectly influences the physical structure of soil. Mulching of soil
surface with organic materials leads to soft and pulverized soil and also
maintains humidity that ultimately creates a congenial environment for
beneficial microbes to maintain bulk density and porosity in the soil (19).
Mulching with crop residue and zero-tillage increases soil fertility, crop
production and control soil erosion. Further, residue decomposition of
previous year crops enrich soil with the organic matter, which in turn helps
in reducing the soil hydrological response, increase soil water repellency that
reduces infiltration rates (20).
Organic farming has potential to maintain soil fertility for a longer time
and increases availability of organic carbon in soil (21). Application of
different organic inputs like farm yard manure (FYM), vermicompost, green
manuring etc. ensures the sustainability of soil organic carbon to the plants
(22). Use of good quality FYM improves the total nitrogen and organic
matter in the soil. Organic matter is an important substrate of cationic
exchange and the warehouse of most of the available nitrogen, phosphorus,
and sulphur (23). When soil organic carbon, carbon stocks, and carbon
sequestration rates were compared in organically managed plots and non-
organic plots, significant differences and higher values of rate were observed
in organic plots (24). It have been reported in many studies that organically
amended soil holds more available N than the soil receiving inorganic
fertilization (25, 26 and 27), and this may be due to relatively slower and
constant mineralization rates in these soils. The balanced ratio of microbial
biomass and activity in soil ensures consistent release of nutrients to the
plants (21). The microbial biomass and microbial activity have been reported
to be improved in organic agriculture by 20-30 per cent and 30-100 per cent,
respectively (28). The soil consisting of high organic matter leads to greater
microbial activity and greater soil N supplying than the soil having less
organic matter (which is managed inorganically) (29). Also, it has been
reported that the organic soils are rich in a number of beneficial
microorganisms like arbuscular mycorrizal fungi for ensuring improved crop
nutrition and decreasing soil borne diseases (30). Arbuscular mycorrizal
fungi makes symbiotic association with the plant’s root system and enhances
plant nutrient uptake and water absorption (31, 32).
Soil fertility in OA is maintained by including green manures and
legume crops in crop rotations, by adding various organic amendments
(FYM, composts or raw animal manure, farm wastes etc.) and different

Page | 34
biochemical processes that convert nutrients to plant-available forms. Plants
can take up organic forms of N, particularly in some environments, and this
could be important in farming systems relying on mineralization of OM for
their N supply (33, 34). The yields in OA can be made steady or increased as
compared to conventional systems because of heavy and lasting use of
manures and composts in this system which increases soil quality (35). But
over dependence on manures can potentially increase excess nutrient buildup
and eventual loss with negative environmental consequences. For example,
the excess accumulation of nutrients in organic farms can lead to leaching of
surplus nitrogen and phosphorus from the field (36, 37). To avoid these
leaching losses the well-managed organic farms uses proper quantity of
manures and composts to supply P, K and other nutrients to meet crop needs.
These farms utilize nitrogen fixation capability of legume cover crops and
forages to supply N and winter catch crops to reduce leaching loss of any
residual nutrients. Longer rotations which includes forage legumes and green
manures, improves soil physical properties (38, 39), decrease erosion (40),
decrease N leaching potential (41) and increase organic matter (42). The use
of external inputs in a farm can be reduced up to 85% by using crop rotations
including legume crops (43). Effective cover crops for organic systems
include combinations of barley (Hordeum vulgare L.), rye (Secale cereale
L.), wheat (Triticum spp.), hairy vetch (Viciavillosa Roth) and crimson
clover (Triflolium incarnatum L.), due to their quick establishment,
competitiveness and ease of mechanical termination (44, 45).
4. Environment and Organic Agriculture
Generally it is believed that organic agriculture is environmentally safe
as compared to conventional agriculture because there is avoidance of
chemical fertilizers, insecticides and herbicides. Agricultural strengthening
had major adverse impacts on the terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems of the
world. However, agriculture alone is not only responsible for all these ill
effects, but is also affected by it to a major extent. Organic agriculture not
only enable ecosystems to better adjust to the effects of climate change but
also offers a major potential to reduce the emissions of agricultural
greenhouse gases (46).
Soil quality may get affected to a large extent by organic agriculture
practices. It have been revealed that OA performs better in preserving or
improving soil quality with regards to both biophysical (i.e., stored nutrients)
and biological (i.e., biodiversity) (47). The water holding capacity is much
higher in organically managed soils as compared to conventional ones (48).

Page | 35
 Soil loss by erosion may also be greatly reduced under OA management
system. The mycorrhizal population was also found higher under organic
farming than conventional farming. Also, the microbial biomass, its activity
and soil biodiversity is higher in OA farming system. It has been indicated in
many studies that the population and activity of bacteria, fungi, springtails,
mites and earthworms are much more in organic farms (47). The taxonomic
diversity of microarthropods was systematically higher in the OA farms than
the conventional farms. Further, the functional properties such as enhanced
biochemical and biological turnover of organic P appear to be enhanced by
OA farming systems, and may contribute to enhanced P use efficiency (49).
Like conventional agriculture OA can also cause air contamination by
releasing nutrients, heavy metals (i.e., Cu), pathogens, particulate matters
and noxious gases into the atmosphere (50). The air pollutants such as
particulate matters (PM2.5, PM10), oxides of N, C, and S, as well as NH 3,
CH4, H2S, volatile organic compounds, and pathogens have been commonly
tied to processing and surface application of animal manures, and emissions
from feedlots (50). The air quality may also be worsened by OA due to N
losses from organic compost or green manures through volatilization of
surplus N failing to match crop demand (47).
The use of chemical fertilizers and synthetic pesticides in conventional
agriculture pollutes surface and ground water (48). There are very few
reports of water quality risks by pesticides permitted in OA (51). With
regard to nitrate leaching, OA systems may perform differently as, on one
hand, N uptake efficiency may be enhanced at some organically managed
sites. On the other hand, N losses through leaching from organic
amendments may be increased at other sites as N release from organic
compost or green manures may fail to match crop N demand (48). A key to
reducing nitrate leaching from OA systems is the management of residual N
from legumes (51). Tillage of the farms on appropriate time is the most
significant tool available to farmers to manage N synchrony.
It is perceptible fact that the emission of greenhouse gases (GHG) is
very less in organic agriculture as compared to conventional intensive
farming systems. The amount of emission of these GHG gases depends upon
stages of a production cycle. For example in the agro-technical stage, the
higher emission load per one kilogram of production occurs within the
organic farming system. The emission of GHG gases is higher in
conventional farms because of higher use of fertilizer and huge use of
pesticide sprays (Table 2). To sum up, organic farming produces lower GHG
emissions within cultivation of most crops. For example, organic

Page | 36
management reduced crop emissions by 36-65 per cent, with the exceptions
of rice showing an increase of 8 per cent due to methane generation. Product
based emissions of organic crops were also lower by 30 per cent on average,
except for rice (52).
Table 2: Total production of GHG emissions within growing of selected crops in
conventional and organic farming system (53)

Kg CO2 emission per 1 Kg of production

Crop Organic Conventional
Onion 0.100 0.083
Wheat 0.423 0.460
Rye 0.298 0.537
Potato 0.125 0.145
Carrot 0.041 0.099
Tomato 0.067 0.087
Cabbage 0.033 0.078

4. Plant Protection in Organic Agriculture

The crop protection issues are same in both organic and conventional
farms. The approaches of controlling a particular stress differ widely among
both the systems. In conventional system the management of any kind of
pest is done by using scheduled applications of broad-spectrum pesticides
(biocides, insecticides, fungicides and herbicides). While, in OA the use of
synthetic fertilizer is not permitted and it can be said that it is conventional
agriculture minus synthetic fertilizer and pesticide inputs. The organic
practices involve a wide range of soil management and cropping practices
that maintain ecosystem health and foster ecosystem services and are not
merely the avoidance of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides (54). OA includes
treatments like application of microbials, botanicals, soaps, oils and minerals
and releases of predators; synthetic fertilizers or pesticides are generally not
applied, unless exemptions are granted. The healthy soil in OA and diverse
populations of ecologically beneficial microorganisms, resulting in resilience
to adverse events and stress and low pathogen and pest populations (55, 56).
A healthy soil has often been associated with root disease suppression (57,
58). Two kinds of disease suppression have been distinguished: general and
pathogen specific (59). General suppression is mostly a function of
biological factors, such as competition between microorganisms, and
physical-chemical factors, such as the nutrient and energy supply available
for growth of the pathogen through the soil and on the root surface.
Pathogen-specific suppression is due to a specific interaction between a plant

Page | 37
pathogen and its antagonist, for example an antibiotic producer or parasite,
as sometimes found in monocropping situations (60). It was found in some
long-term farming systems experiments, that most root diseases of cereal
crops are less severe in OA than in CA (61, 62).In a meta-analysis conducted
on 57 articles to find out the way plant disease severity of fungal pathogen-
induced infection is modified following fertilization, it was concluded that N
fertilization increased disease severity (63). In a study it was found that
composition of microbial community in soil is related to its biological and
chemical properties. It was reported that higher abundance of beneficial
microbes are positively related the higher soil quality, including better plant
growth, lower disease incidence, and higher nutrient contents, soil enzyme
activities and soil pH (64).
The population of plant-parasitic nematodes was found higher in cereal
crops and corn in conventional fields than in organic and low-input fields
(65, 66). The nematode structure index was higher in organic long-term
experimental plots than in the accompanying conventional plots (65). The
possible reason for reduced plant-parasitic nematode population in the
organic plots could be the higher population of predatory omnivorous
nematodes in those plots. The addition of fresh organic matter may
temporarily increase the risk of damping-off, as facultative saprotrophic
pathogens such as Pythium spp. can multiply in this new substrate. The
seedling damping-off can be either reduced or enhanced in OA, depending
on the time of planting since incorporation of fresh organic matter (67). For
example, seedling damping-off of tomatoes was either similar (Pythium
aphanidermatum) or reduced (Rhizoctonia solani) in organically managed
compared with conventionally managed soils after incorporation of fresh
plant debris into the soils (68).
The incidence of Fusarium wilt was found higher in organic melons
as compared to conventional melons (69). Also, Fusarium wilt on flax
(Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lini) was reduced in soil samples from organic
field or greenhouse plots compared with their conventional counterparts.
This was associated with the use of plant- and animal-derived composts or
manure in the organic plots that led to relatively high soil pH and total
carbon content and composition of ammonia-oxidizing bacteria (70, 58).
The development of biopesticides and lures also contributed to pest
control for organically grown crops (71). These include microbial pesticides
(mostly used Bacillus thruingiensis), incorporated protectants (PIPs) and
biochemical pesticides like insect sex pheromones. The major advantage of
using biopesticides is that they are less toxic than conventionally used

Page | 38
pescticides. Also they affect only targeted pest and their closely related
species. The use of neem leaf extracts, garlic bulb extract and papaya leaf
extract as biopesticides in okra, not only gave efficient control for insect pest
but also have a positive impact on its growth and cropping (72).
Use of methyl eugenol as a biopesticide is very effective in managing
the problem of fruit fly in many organically grown fruit and vegetable crops.
It attracts fruit fly from a distance of about 800 meter owing to its olfactory
as well as phagostimulatory action (73). Use of methyl eugenol with an
insecticide impregnated into a suitable substrate laid down the basis of male
annihilation technique. Peach fruit fly (Bactrocera zonata, Saunders) which
is a devastating pest of peach can be successfully managed by this technique
(74).
Crop diversification is also an important tool for mitigating the problem
of pest management in organic crop production. Natural enemies will be
benefited by crop diversification as it provides a congenial microclimate to
them (75). It also acts as a source of alternative hosts or prey or a supply of
plant based foods such as nectar and pollen (76). Reduction in pest
population by increasing the diversity of ecosystem laid down the principle
of this technique (75).
Intercropping is one of the substantial forms of crop diversification. For
example: In eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) growing of maize as border
crop and coriander as an intercrop resulted in lowest incidence (6.90 insects /
3 leaves/plant) of leafhopper population (77). Further, the growing of
different plant species in close physical proximity suppresses insect pest
problems by releasing different plant volatiles into the surroundings that
have either masking effects or repellency (78).
Growing of trap crops also helps in the reduction of incidence of pests
under organic system. Since trap crops are more attractive to insect pests
than main crops, so they will reduce the incidence of pests on main crop. For
example: Cultivating tomato with marigold in a combination of 3:1 gave
higher reduction in fruit damage caused by Helicoverpa armigera (79). The
ability of species to serve as a trap crop may vary from species to species.
The effectiveness of trap cropping in any crop depends on various factors
like time of planting, spacing and size of the trap crop (80).
5. Quality Produce in Organic Agriculture
Nowadays, food safety is receiving more attention than ever before by
governments and policy makers, health professionals, the food industry, the
biomedical community, and last but not least, the public (81). Generally, it is

Page | 39
believed that organic food is more nutritious and tastier than conventionally
produced food, which leads increase in demand of organic produce in recent
years. Also, it is widely assumed that any benefit derived from organic foods
is due to an absence of pesticide residues.The consumption of organic food
has grown remarkably not only in developed countries but also in developing
countries.
The overall quality characteristics of the plant parts which are used as
food are the result of the interactions among genotype, environmental
conditions, cultural practices and postharvest handling and processing
techniques. Nutritional quality of produce under organic system varies from
farmer to farmer and year to year due to differences in the ground cover and
maturity of the organic farming operation. Another major factor is the time
period that the specific plots of land had been worked using organic
methods. Since, it takes years to build soil quality in a plot using organic
methods and for the persistent pollutants in the ground to be reduced.
Typically organic food contains more nutrients as compared to organic
food, including sugars and organic acids, vitamin C, as well as flavonoids
and anthocyanins exhibiting antioxidant properties (82). Further, their
contents of compounds with adverse or harmful effects, such as residue of
pesticides and mineral fertilizers, particularly nitrates and nitrites, are lower
in comparison to conventionally grown vegetables (83). For example:
organically grown red beet, was found to contain 23 per cent more dry
matter than conventionally grown red beet (82). The trend towards high dry
matter contents in fruits was also found in organic growing of peppers (84)
and tomato (85) as well as potatoes (86). Higher levels of minerals and total
phenolics were also measured in organic eggplant (87). A meta-analysis
reported lower (24% in carrot and 15% in potato) or higher (2.9 times in
lettuce) K contents in organically grown crops, and vitamin C was lower in
carrot (49%) and potato (50%) (88). Ascorbic acid is the most common
vitamin found in higher quantities in organic food. In general, ascorbic acid
content in organically grown produce is about 27 per cent higher than
conventionally grown produce (89, 90). Also, organic produce had 21%
higher iron, 29 per cent higher magnesium and 13.60 per cent higher
phosphorus as compared to inorganic produce (90). Organic products contain
lower nitrogen content, and higher phenolic compounds than conventional
ones. Concentration of total nitrogen was 10 per cent lower in organic
compared to conventional produce (91). The low percentage of nitrogen
forms under organic culture was correlated with a high concentration of
secondary metabolites (such as phenols and vitamins, which do not contain

Page | 40
nitrogen). Higher concentration of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi under
organic soils could be one of the reasons for higher concentrations of Ca, Zn
and Cu and the lower concentration of Mn in some of the organically
produce vegetables (92). The minerals like Cu and Zn are main constituents
of animal feed supplements. So, the manure applications also act as a major
source of additional Cu and Zn, resulting in higher plant uptake. The usage
of Bordeaux mixture (copper sulfate and lime solution) for managing
bacterial and bacterial diseases, also act as an additional source of Cu. The
organically grown produce has 29 per cent magnesium and 21 per cent more
iron than conventionally grown produce (89). The greater produce quality of
organic produce also related to the fact that organically farmed soils have
more total carbon and nitrogen, greater microbial biomass and activity and
higher concentrations of micronutrients.
Since there is no use of pesticide in organic system so the residue
content of pesticide is less in organic produce as compared to conventional
or integrated pest management grown produce. This also contributes for the
nutritional quality of produce grown under organic system. Pesticide
residues in organically grown produce (fruits and vegetables) were found
much less i.e. 18 per cent as compared with 69 per cent in the conventional
produce (93). For example, organically grown tomato is much less likely to
contain detectable pesticide residues (0–28%) than under conventionally
grown tomato (62-64%) or integrated pest management grown tomato (7–
80%) (94). Organic crops with residues are also far less likely to have
multiple residues than are conventional or integrated pest management
grown crops. Smaller amount of residue in organically grown produce is also
reported (95).
Residues of organochlorine pesticide have been detected in tomato fruits
grown under organic soils to which pesticides had never been applied or on
soils that had been treated with insecticides 20 years earlier. This is mainly
due to interminable environmental contamination such as wind, surface
runoff and volatilization and proximate re-deposition by precipitation of
pesticides applied in the surrounding areas (96).
A study regarding residual percentage in Belgium (from 1995-2001)
unveil that about 49 percent of conventionally grown food contain pesticide
residues, whereas it was about 12 per cent in organically grown food (97).
Similarly, US data affirmed that conventionally grown produce recorded
about three fold as many residues as organic produce (98). In Lombardy
(Italy), 2.6 per cent of organically grown produce (53% of fruits and
vegetables) sampled was found to contain pesticide residues, which was

Page | 41
about 10 times lower than the contamination of conventionally grown
produce (99).
Most of the popular natural pesticides are used primarily because they
cause minimal ecological threats to farming systems. On the other hand,
there may be some controversies regarding the risk of natural pesticides (94).
For example, rotenone has not been allowed to use in Canada since
2011because of its negative impact on human health, whereas the use of
pyrethrin does not have such impact so it can be used as pesticide (100).
Other natural but highly toxic pesticides, such as nicotine, cryolite,
strychnine and lead arsenate, are banned from organic production and rarely
used by farmers in other categories. Copper and sulphur compounds,
horticultural oils and insecticidal soaps are much less toxic than conventional
pesticides and thus considered to be safe for use under organic agriculture.
Pesticides that are commonly used on organic farms are exempt from
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) tolerances (i.e. no safety-based
residue limits are deemed necessary), because of their low toxicity or a low
probability of detectable residues in foods, or both.
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Page | 52
 Chapter - 3
Response of Perennial Fruit Crops to Climate Change

Authors
Tanushree Sahoo
Ph.D Scholar, Division of Fruits and Horticultural Technology, ICAR-
Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi-110012, India
Kaluram
Ph.D Scholar, Division of Fruit Crops, ICAR-Indian Institute of
Horticultural Research, Bengaluru-560089, Karnataka, India
Subhash Chander
Ph.D Scholar, Division of Fruit Crops, ICAR-Indian Institute of
Horticultural Research, Bengaluru-560089, Karnataka, India
Debashish Hota
Ph.D Scholar, Department of Fruit Science, Indira Gandhi Krishi
Vishwavidyalaya, Raipur-492001, Chhattisgarh, India
Bhubanananda Adhikari
Ph.D Scholar, Department of Entomology, Orissa University of
Agriculture & Technology, Bhubaneswar-751003, Odisha, India

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Page | 54
 Chapter - 3
Response of Perennial Fruit Crops to Climate Change

Introduction
India is a country with diverse soil and climate comprising several agro-
ecological regions, which provides ample opportunity to grow a variety of
horticultural crops. These form a significant part of total agricultural produce
in the country comprising of fruits, vegetables, root and tuber crops, flowers
and other ornamentals, medicinal and aromatic plants, spices, condiments,
plantation crops and mushrooms. Though, these crops occupy hardly 10% of
the cropped area in India, but approximately 33% significant contribution to
agricultural GDP has been given by the horticultural crops. In the present
context, climate change and its variability are emerging as the major
challenges. Long-term changes in shifting weather patterns result in
changing climate, which threaten agricultural productivity through high and
low temperature regimes, increased rainfall variability, and rising sea levels.
Climate change (and global warming) has influence on all sectors of
human life, but agriculture in particular is vulnerable to it. Higher
temperatures tend to reduce yields of many crops and encourage
proliferation of weeds and pests. Although yield increases in some crops and
other positive benefits have been noted in some regions of the world, the
overall impact of climate change on agriculture is likely to be negative.
Climate change will have a negative effect on yields of irrigated crops across
regions, but, due to increase in temperature and changes in availability of
water, rainfed agriculture will be primarily impacted because of rainfall
variability and reduction in number of rainy days. Climate change might
result in price hike of agricultural commodities, feed supplies and
consequently livestock products like meat and milk.
Climate Change - ‘A change of climate which is attributed directly or
indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global
atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed
over comparable time periods.’ Climate change refers to a change in the state
of the climate that can be identified (e.g., by using statistical tests) by
changes in the mean and/or the variability of its properties, and that persists

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for an extended period, typically decades or longer (IPCC, AR5).
From Ice age to interglacial age to age after industrial revolution, CO2
increases from 180 ppm to 400 ppm and it is projected to increase to 700
ppm by the end of this century. Temperature will increase by 1.8 to 4.0oC by
this century. In fruit producing countries there is a projection of increase in
temperature by 3 to 6 °C in Brazil, 3 to 5 °C in Spain, 3 to 4 °C in Italy, 3.3
to 4.4 °C in southern California and 4.7 °C in China. Climate models predict
a change in precipitation by 5-25% over India by the end of the century with
more reductions in the winter-rainfall than in the summer monsoon, leading
to droughts during summer months. Climate change is also known to
influence chilling requirement.
Responses of Fruit Plants to Climate Change
Climate change is altering the availability of resources and the
conditions,that are crucial to plant performance. So, in the altered
environmental conditions, different plants behave differently. One way
plants will respond to these changes is through environmentally induced
shifts in phenotype (phenotypic plasticity). This phenotype plasticity is now
known to be controlled by genetics of organism and heritable, hence
important in evolution of species (Lande, 2009). By bringing ecological,
evolutionary, physiological and molecular prospectives together; we will
understand the differential plant responses under climate change scenario.
Phenotypic Plasticity: The range of phenotypes a single genotype can
express as a function of its environment.
Genome Plasticity: A change in genome structure or organization
associated with environmental signals, leading to the evolution of new
phenotypes, might result from mutational hotspots, genome expansion,
transposable elements or somatic recombination.
Adaptive Plasticity: Phenotypic plasticity that increases the global
fitness of a genotype.
There is a general acceptance that, high levels of genetic variation
within natural populations improve the potential to withstand and adapt to
novel biotic and abiotic environmental changes including the tolerance of
climatic change. For example, genetic variation in genes encoding
temperature sensors and transcription factors regulating vernalization could
help plant populations adapt to changes in temperature. Plasticity, therefore,
can both provide a buffer against rapid climate changes and assist rapid
adaption.

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 Figure 1: Various Risks Associated with Climate change

Key impacts of Climate Change

1. Global Warming: Early decades of the twenty-first century will
see a moderate warming of 1‑2oC, resulting in reduced crop yields
in seasonally dry and tropical regions, while crop and pasture yields
in temperate regions may benefit. Further warming in the second
half of the century will negatively affect all regions, although
agriculture in many developing countries in semi-tropical and
tropical regions will bear the brunt of the effects.
2. Extreme Climate Events: Increased frequency and severity of
extreme climate events, such as more heat stress, droughts and
flooding, is expected in coming decades due to climate change. It
will increase negative impacts on agriculture, forestry and fisheries
in all regions. In particular, it will modify the risks of fires, and pest
and pathogen outbreaks, with negative consequences for food, fibre
and forestry.
3. Undernourishment: The number of undernourished is likely to
increase by 5‑170 million people by 2080, with respect to a
baseline with no climate change. Even small amounts of warming
will increase risk of hunger in poor developing countries, due to
negative impacts on food production and availability. Most of the
increases are projected in sub-Saharan Africa.
4. Food Stability, Utilization and Access. Additional negative
impacts of climate change on food security, with the potential of
reducing access to and utilization of food in many regions already
vulnerable today, are expected but have not been quantified. In
particular, stability of food supply is likely to be disrupted by more
frequent and severe climate extremes. Utilization of food may be
affected negatively by increases in crop, livestock and human pests
and diseases, as well as by reduced water availability and water
quality, of importance for food preparation.

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What are the Current Challenges?
“The principal impacts of projected climate change are more likely to
result from changes in the frequency of threshold events and extremes, such
as the date of last spring freeze, the length of the growing season, and heat
accumulation, than from changes in mean climatic states” (Winkler et al.,
2011). In other words, the one-to-four degree average increase in global
temperature will not itself be the problem. The problems will be extreme
events such as; storms, droughts, killing frosts, and changes in the length of
the growing season, that have the temperature increase as their root cause.
Drought
Drought has an impact on both annual and perennial crops, but perennial
crops, in general, use more water simply by virtue of being in place longer.
For example, almond trees have to be kept alive even after their nuts have
been harvested, so that they can bear a crop of nuts the following year. In
contrast, annual crops can be started a new each year and, after harvest,
irrigation can be stopped until the next planting. In citrus, severe water stress
causes reduction in leaf initiation, leaf size gets reduced and leaves become
leathery and thick. Root growth is adversely affected by water stress. It may
lead to increase in rooting depth and higher proportion of feeder roots in
citrus. In grapevine, developing water stress reduced inflorescence initiation
in conjunction with reduced shoot growth. Water stress reduces the growth
of grape berries, but does not influence the characteristic double sigmoid
growth curve. Water deficit during stage I (when cell division is occurring)
will generally reduce berry size more than water deficits during stages II and
III (growth cell expansion).
Water deficit positively affected polyphenol accumulation in berry skin
and anthocyanin biosynthesis was strongly induced by water stress and the
wines obtained from water-stressed plants had high anthocyanin
concentration resulting in a more intense colour.
In papaya, water stress imposed by suspending irrigation for 34 days
arrested plant growth, induced leaf abscission and drastically decreased
photosynthetic rate. Thus, it is evident that impact of water stress is more
influenced by stage of growth, water stress before flowering is essential to
get flowering while stress at the growth stage of fruit is detrimental.
Flooding
Flooding has many deleterious effects which include the followings:
 Root damage and reduced yield

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  Soil compaction from use of heavy machinery on wet soils
 Soil loss from erosion during heavy rain events
 Contamination of waterways from agricultural runoff
 Soil crusting
In mango, flooding simultaneously reduced net CO2 assimilation and
stomatal conductance after 2-3 days. However, flooding did not affect leaf
water potential, shoot extension growth, or shoot dry weight, but stem radial
growth and root dry weight were reduced. Mortality of flooded trees ranged
from 0 to 45%. Hypertrophied lenticels were observed on trees that survived
flooding but not on trees that died. The reductions in gas exchange,
vegetative growth, and the variable tree mortality indicate that mango is not
highly flood-tolerant but appears to possess certain adaptations to flooded
soil conditions.
Frost
Most temperate-zone fruit and nut trees bloom in the spring and ripen
their fruit throughout the remainder of the growing season. And most fruit
and nut crops are threatened every spring by freezing temperatures during
their bloom period. Of the major fruit crops, stone fruits (e.g., almonds,
peaches, plums, cherries, and apricots) are the worst for this and already are
grown reliably in only a few parts of the country. A change in the bloom
time or frost date could render an already risky crop commercially
nonviable. Winter snowfall affects flowering. In spring, low fluctuating
temperatures during bloom results in poor fruit setting, while warm
temperatures result in desiccation of floral parts. Mild winter temperatures
followed by warmer springs advanced bud burst and exposing buds to frost
damage in almond and apricot.
Heat
Periods of unrelenting summer heat characterize climate change for
much of the nation. The challenges to fruit and nut growers include serious
physiological stress on trees, bushes, and vines; accelerated ripening and
breakdown of fruits; increased weed, insect, and disease damage; increased
wear on farm machinery; and strain on farm workers. In some areas of the
country, production of certain fruit and nut varieties and even whole species
may be rendered impractical and unprofitable.
Phenological Responses
Plant phenology has undergone a great shift due to the main determining
factor ‘climate’, which is on the verge of gradual transformation compared to

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the pre-existing situation. Temperature, precipitation, photoperiod are the
important triggers, that regulate the life cycle of the plant. There are various
phonological stages observed in case of perennial fruit plants i.e., leaf
unfolding, growing season, flowering, fruit ripening, fruit harvest and leaf
fall stage. Due to increased temperature of earth caused by global warming,
there is acceleration in crop maturity. Untimely and inadequate precipitation
hampers the flowering and crop load to a great extent. Inadequate chilling
hours result in very less or no flowering. Now-a-days, there is rapid
shortening of crop duration, hence optimal yield can not be realized.
 It was observed that, mango trees grown at 20°C days/15°C nights
required 20 weeks while at 30°/25°C required only 6 weeks to
complete a growth cycle (Whiley et al., 1989)
 Early spring temperature increase of 0.45 ◦C/decade (1973-2009)
resulted in advanced bloom of 1.6 d/decade in apple and pear (Grab
et al., 2011).
Responses in Flowering
 In P. communis, autumnal warming delayed anthesis, with the
response being greater for early flowering cultivars (Atkinson and
Lucas, 1996).
 P. avium (cv. ‘Stella’) subject to low chill shows reduced flower
size and pedicel lengths (Mahmood et al., 1999)
 Under mild Californian winter (1950–51) apricot yield was limited
by low fruit set (Brown, 1952).
 Warm winters in pome fruits, may abscise flower primordia
(Brown, 1952)
 Varying chilling resulted in variation in size of apple fruits
(Grebeye and Berg, 2000).
Physiological Responses
 70 % increase in biomass in citrus exposed to 350-650 ppm of CO2
(Kimball et al., 2007)
 Stomatal conductance to water vapour was reduced by 23 % under
elevated CO2 in apple, peach, cherry, citrus etc. (NCA, 2012)
 Leaf water use efficiency increased upto 58% (NCA, 2012)
Ozone
 Reacts with water, ascorbate, thiols, phenolics etc. to yield ROS
(Long and Naidu 2002)

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  Protein oxidation, ozonolysis of membrane lipids, and altered gene
expression
 Impaired photosynthesis
 Ethylene stimulation
 Accelerated leaf senescence (Matyssek et al., 2008)
Inadequate Sunlight
Fruit Firmness
 ‘Fuerte’ avocados exposed to direct sunlight (35 °C) were 2.5 times
firmer than those on the shaded side (20 °C) (Woolf, 2000).
 Decreased Cell wall enzyme activity (cellulase and
polygalacturonase) under higher temperatures during growth and
development delays ripening.
Ripening
 Grapes- berries exposed to direct sunlight ripened faster than those
present in shaded areas of the canopy (Kliewer & Lider, 1968).
 Fruit and vegetable crops harvested with higher pulp temperatures
will demand more energy for proper cooling and raise product
prices (Moretti et al., 2010).
Post-Harvest Quality of Produce
 Production and quality of fresh fruit and vegetable crops can be
directly and indirectly affected by high temperatures and exposure
to elevated levels of carbon dioxide and ozone.
 Temperature increase affects photosynthesis directly, causing
alterations in sugars, organic acids, and flavonoids contents,
firmness and antioxidant activity.
 Ozone-enriched atmospheres increased vitamin C content and
decreased emissions of volatile esters on strawberries.
 Crops maturing at higher atmospheric temperature have relatively
lesser storability.
Physiological Disorders
The fruit crops are very prone to a lot of physiological disorders due to
changing environmental conditions under climate change scenario. Any
fluctuations in temperature and or humidity can drastically affect the fruit
quality, texture and flavour. In mango, spongy tissue is a very serious
physiological disorder causing huge loss. Black tip, soft nose and jelly seed

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are some another problems in mango. Similarly, November dump in banana,
grey pulp and tip burn in avoacado, hen and chicken, pink berry, shot berry,
and calyx end rot in grape, water core in apple and fruit cracking in litchi are
some of the important physiological disorders in fruit crops.
 High temperature- Lime juice vesicle rupture, brown spots on fruit
surface (Moretti et al., 2010)
 Increased CO2- Loss of volatile compounds in mango (Lalel et al.,
2003)
 Elevataed ozone- Persimmon fruits showed highest weight loss.
(Salvador, 2006)
Invasive Diseases and Pests
Climate change could alter stages and rates of development of pathogen,
modify host resistance and physiology of host-pathogen interactions
(Cockley et al., 1999). Warming is most deleterious for tropical insects
(physiological optima) than species at higher latitudes. A reduction in vector
population may decrease the importance of some viruses in tropical regions.
e. g. Pineapple wilt (mealybug), Papaya ringspot (aphid), Citrus leprosis
(mealybug).
Climate change could lead to increased pest population by followings:
 Changes in geographical distribution
 Changes in population growth rates
 Increased overwintering
 Increase in the number of generation
 Extension of developmental seasons
 Changes in crop-pest synchrony of phenology
 Changes in interspecific interactions
 Increased risk of invasion by migrant pests
Consequences of Climate Change in Fruit Crops-
 Changes in time to harvest for some crops and locations
 Changes in the suitability and availability of cultivars for current
and future production locations
 Reduced availability and increased cost of irrigation water in most
locations and in some seasons
 Greater seasonal variability
 Increased pest and disease incidence and ‘new’ pests, diseases and
weeds

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  Damage from extreme events (rain, hail, wind and heat stress)
 Negative impacts on soils and crops due to extreme temperature and
rainfall events and flooding.
 Changes in frost frequency.
Effect of Changing Conditions on Pollination and Pollinating Agents
Effect on Pollination: A minimum of 30-33 per cent pollinizer is
required in our agro-climatic conditions for good fruit set, whereas more
than 70 per cent of orchards have less than 20 per cent pollinizer proportion.
Moreover, there is inadequate diversity in pollinizing cultivars and their
bloom seldom coincides with the flowering period of main cultivars. The
population of natural pollinators has gone down due to indiscriminate use of
pesticides and deterioration in ecosystem. Managed bee pollination is very
limited and available bee hives during bloom hardly meet 2-3 per cent of the
demand. All these factors have lead to poor fruit setting problem in many
fruit crops.
Effect on Pollinating Agents: Gradual warming affect the response of
flowering plants to environment and likely to affect floral visitors in a
number of ways. Elevated temperatures have been found to have varying
effects on flower production. Some plants grown under higher temperature
may be less likely to flower or may produce fewer flowers. Individual flower
size can be affected by temperature. The production of floral scent, nectar,
and pollen can also be affected by temperature. Warmer temperatures might
increase emissions and / or volatility of organic compounds produced by
flowers, although some evidence suggests that endogenous floral scent
production decreases with increasing temperature. Pollinators, too, are
susceptible to many changes as a direct result of climate change. Higher
temperature tends to produce adults that are smaller in size, that are not quite
effective in successful pollination. Warmer temperatures associated with
climate change could reduce the life span of pollinating insects. The tropical
insect species seems to suffer the most under warming up of earth
environment.
Impacts of Climate Change on Overall Horticulture
Two major parameters of climate change, that has far reaching
implications on agriculture in general and horticulture in particular are; more
erratic rainfall patterns and unpredictable high temperature spells which will
consequently reduce crop productivity.
Latitudinal and altitudinal shifts in ecological and agro-economic zones,
land degradation, extreme geophysical events, reduced water availability,

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rise in sea level and salinization are postulated (FAO, 2004).
The climate change will have many impacts on horticulture, e.g.
1. A study conducted at IISR, Calicut using GIS models have shown
that many areas presently suitable for spices would become
unsuitable in another 25 years. There would be new areas which are
presently unsuitable, become highly suitable for cultivation of
spices. This will be applicable in other horticultural crops.
2. Production timing will change due to rise in temperature. Due to
rise in temperature, photoperiods may not show much variation. As
a result, photosensitive crop will mature faster.
3. The winter regime and chilling duration will reduce in temperate
regions affecting the temperate crops.
4. Pollination will be affected adversely because of higher
temperature. Floral abortions, flower and fruit drop will be occurred
frequently. The requirement of annual irrigation will increase and
heat unit requirement will be achieved in much lesser time.
5. Higher temperatures will reduce tuber initiation process in potato,
reduced quality in tomatoes and pollination in many crops. In case
of crucifers, it may lead to bolting; anthocyanin production may be
affected in apples and capsicum. Tip burn and blossom end rot will
be the common phenomenon in tomatoes.
6. Coastal regions can expect much faster percolation of sea water in
inland water tables causing more salinity.
Food Quality- a Major Concern under Climate Change
The horticultural crops especially fruit crops are well-known for their
nutritioinal characterstics. The fruit industry typically aims at producing
better quality produce that is readily accepted by the consumers and fetches
good price. Any adverse environmental conditions may drastically affect the
yield and quality through producing mis-shapen fruit, emission of off flavor,
undesired texture etc.
Fruits are the richest source of minerals and fibres, hence important for
health promoting effects. But, it was seen that, there was an increase in
atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration under climate change. It was
observed that, high carbon dioxide induced decrease in all mineral
micronutrients to the tune of 3.7-18.3% (Hogy & Fangmeier, 2008). Under
carbon dioxide enriched environment, it was also a common notice that,
there was gradual decline in storage proteins as reported in case wheat (Hogy
& Fangmeier, 2008). Increased temperature coupled with drought are often

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associated with production of smaller, more fibrous leaves, which usually
exhibit changes in nutritional quality– for example, decreasing N and
increasing tannins and phenols (Morison & Lawlor, 1999). At raised carbon
dioxide level, tannin and terpene contents also usually increase, especially
under ample N supply (Idso & Idso, 2001).
Therefore, if we want to really ensure nutritional security, we have to
precisely regulate the growing conditions that is suitable for imparting
desired quality traits in fruit crops. When, we are able to achieve best quality
produce it will not only increase domestic earning, but also increases foreign
exchange by export of the produces.

Figure 2: Scheme of adaptation strategy under climate change scenario

Adaptation Strategies
 New varieties: drought/ heat/ pest resistant
 Seamless Weather forecast
 Prediction of extreme events
 Forewarning of Pest & Disease out breaks and intensities
 Weather based Farm management
 Weather based Crop Insurance
Mitigation Strategies
 Mitigation is referred to the process, in which the emission of

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 greenhouse gases are either reduced or sequestered.
 The improved crop management practices can considerably reduce
the emission of greenhouse gasses due to reduced dependence on
energy needs and intensification of perennial horticultural crops
will help in sequestering carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
Conclusion
Climate change has added to the enormity of food security challenges in
India. The value of perennial crops is derived from not only the quantity, but
also the quality of the harvested product. The CO2 fertilization effect may be
amplified and sustained linger for perennial fruit crops, if other sources (i.e.
nutrients and water availability) are amply supplied, and if proper
management options (i.e. spacing, pruning, thinning) are practiced to
facilitate the prolonged CO2 effects. Being long lived trees, adapting to
climate change through varietal change is also a challenge. However, climate
modelling and GIS can help match fruit trees to probable future climate
scenarios and open up avenues for production in new areas.
Future Strategies
 Development of rootstocks that can tolerate biotic and abiotic
stresses.
 Development of stable genotypes, which can perform across
different environments within the region.
 Evaluation of wild species for source of resistant genes.
 Use of precision farming methods, high density orcharding, drip
irrigation would assist in coping with changing environment.
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 Canopy, Rootstock, Environmental Physiology in Orchard Systems.
1996; 451:643-652.
17. Whiley AW, Rasmussen TS, Wolstenholme BN, Saranah JB, Cull BW.
Interpretation of Growth Responses of Some Mango Cultivars Grown
Under Controlled Temperatures. In III International Mango Symposium.
1989; 291:22-31.

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 Chapter - 4
Principles and Procedures of Distinctiveness,
Uniformity, and Stability (DUS) Testing in Tomato

Authors
Praveen Kumar Singh
Department of Agriculture, Baba Farid Institute of Technology,
Suddhowala, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
Divya Prakash Singh
Department of Agriculture, Baba Farid Institute of Technology,
Suddhowala, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
Akanksha Bisht
Department of Agriculture, Baba Farid Institute of Technology,
Suddhowala, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
Nitish Kumar
Department of Agriculture, Baba Farid Institute of Technology,
Suddhowala, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India

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Page | 70
 Chapter - 4
Principles and Procedures of Distinctiveness, Uniformity,
and Stability (DUS) Testing in Tomato

Introduction and Importance

DUS Testing is one of the important criteria to test variety for
distinctness, uniformity and stability. It is necessary for granting Plant
Breeders Rights (PBR), Researcher and Farmers’ right under PPV & FR Act,
2001.The bases for the DUS tests are the morphological characteristics, and
the tests must prove that a variety complies with the following criteria:
a) It must be clearly different to all the collection of reference varieties;
b) It must be even, if the out-of-type plants do not exceed the minimum
permitted and the characteristics are maintained through the different
environments and time
c) They must be stable, so long as all the characteristics are maintained
throughout its reproduction
For characterization, differentiation and protection of varieties specific
descriptors are used in each species. A descriptor is a characteristic that refers
to the form, structure or behaviour of an accession in a germplasm collection.
Descriptors must satisfy with three technical requisites of distinctness (D),
uniformity (U) and stability (S). Distinctness is the capability of a descriptor
that demonstrates clear differences in inter-varietal variation. Uniformity is
the intra-varietal homogeneity, and stability is the absence of temporal or
spatial variation. DUS testing of cultivars is one of the requirements for
granting Plant Breeders’ Rights (PBR) and it is conducted according to the
national guidelines prepared on the basis of UPOV guidelines. Plant
morphological characters have been recognized to constitute universally
undisputed descriptors for DUS testing and varietal characterization of crop
species. Use of morphological descriptors in sequential fashion is useful and
convenient to distinguish different varieties. The best way of determining
whether descriptors comply with the above mentioned prerequisites is by
evaluation of characteristics in field trials in which various varieties are grown
under identical conditions. The analysis of descriptive variables by flow chart

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will determine the validity of the descriptors for discriminating the varieties
under study (Begum and Kumar, 2011).
PPV&FRA has develop DUS guidelines for 81 crops and out of which
newly included crops are Tea, Orchid, Acid lime, Mandarin, Sweet orange,
Bougainvillea, Banana, Canna, Watermelon, Muskmelon, and Gladiolus.
PPV&FRA has protected 452 varieties of various crops
There are 52 DUS centers in India (Venudevan et al., 2014). For tomato
there 2 centers namely Indian Institute of Vegetable Research, (IIVR),
Varanasi and Indian Institute of Horticulture Research, (IIHR), Banglore.
Dus Testing
Under the “Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Act”, a new
plant variety can be registered and protected for a specific duration; 15 years
for annuals and 18 years for vines and trees. Registration and protection can
be granted to a variety only if it conforms to the criteria of Distinctness,
Uniformity and stability. This requires the examination of the variety if it
conforms to the standards of DUS test.
Principles Concept
Distinctiveness-Uniformity-Stability (DUS)
Distinctiveness
The variety must be clearly distinguishable by one or more essential
characteristics from any other variety whose existence is a matter of common
knowledge at the time when the protection is applied for common knowledge
may be established by reference to various factors such as: cultivation or
marketing already in progress, entry in an official register of varieties already
made or in the course of being made, inclusion in reference collection, or
precise description in publication.
Uniformity
The variety is deemed uniform if, subject to the variation that may be
expected from the particular features of its propagation, it is sufficiently
uniform in its relevant characteristics. Relevant characteristics include at least
all characteristics used as a basis for distinctness or included in the variety
description established at date of grant of protection of that variety
Stability
The variety is deemed to be stable if its relevant characteristics remain
unchanged after repeated propagation. It is not usually possible during a

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period of two or three years to perform test on stability. Generally, when a
submitted sample has been shown to be the uniform, the material can also be
considered stable. Careful attention has to be paid to stability when testing for
distinctness and uniformity. Where appropriate, stability is tested by growing
a further generation from new seed stock to be supplied by the applicant to
ensure that it exhibits the same characteristics as those shown by material
supplied previously.
Criteria for Dus Testing
 National Test Guidelines
 Planting material for DUS testing
 Reference varieties
 Duration of DUS tests
 Test locations
 Requirements for conduct of DUS test
 Characteristic
 DUS test design (Chakrabarty et al., 2007)
National Test Guidelines
National Test Guidelines contains details on plant material required,
conduct of tests, methods and observations, grouping of varieties,
characteristics and symbols, table of characteristics, and technical
questionnaire. National Test Guidelines has been developed for 81 crops by
the National Core Committee constituted by ICAR.
Planting Material for Dus Testing
The quantity of planting material requirement is indicated in the
individual test guidelines of respective crops. The material submitted for DUS
test should be representative of the candidate variety. For seed propagated
varieties and especially for cross-pollinated varieties the material tested should
be of the same generation as that to be placed in the market. It is particularly
mentioned for hybrid and synthetic varieties where the plant material tested
should include the final stage in the cycle of propagation. The plant material
should be visibly healthy, not lacking in vigour or affected by any important
pests or diseases. Because several characteristics of the variety may be
affected by external factors such as pests and diseases, chemical treatment,
effect of tissue culture, scions taken from different growth phases of a tree etc.
Therefore, the authorities must ensure that the planting material is free from
such factors. Seed should have sufficient germination capacity. In case, where

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the seed is to be stored, the germination capacity should preferably be higher
than, the Minimum Seed Certification Standards of the crop.
Duration of Dus Tests
Usually the DUS examination required more than one independent
growing cycle with reference to ecosystem of the variety for studying the
consistency of results. There are several options for multiple growing cycles.
i) The candidate varieties are studied in a given location, over at least
two successive seasons,
ii) For many crops, it is possible to complete two growing cycle in the
same year. The two growing cycles should be independent of each
other.
iii) For plants grown in green houses, provided the time between the
sowing is not too short and the trial is randomized, at least partly, two
growing cycles can overlap and still be compared as independent.
iv) For some crops such as fruit trees, the same plants are examined over
successive years. The condition of independence of growing cycle is
also satisfied in this case.
Test Locations
Breeders throughout the world now are pressing the Plant Variety
Protection Authorities for the availability of the DUS test results within
theshortest possible time. For a country adopting Plant Variety Protection first
time it is however, appropriate to conduct DUS test at more than one location
in the same season for some times. There are different' reasons why authorities
may consider to have more than one location.
i) Varieties of different geographical regions may require different
agro-climatic growing conditions. Different locations can be used in
order to meet growing conditions of different varieties.
ii) Some DUS testing centers might have a primary location, backed by
a safety location. Normally, only the data from primary location will
be used, but in case this location has major problem then the second
one will be available to prevent the loss of one year's results.
Requirements for Conduct of Dus Test
1. Facilities: i) land for conduct of DUS test ii) public/private
gardens(collection of roses etc.), orchards(trees etc.) iii) controlled
condition facilities like temperature, light and humidity etc. iv) cold
chamber for storage of seed of reference collection v) DUSTest

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 Guidelines of individual crops vi) reference collection
2. Staff: i) scientist/technical officer In charge of DUS test of each
species or group of species ii) technical staff iii) personnel for
office/secretariat work iv) casual labour to assist the technical staff
in crop season
Reference Collection
To test whether a candidate variety meets the DUS criteria, it is compared
with varieties whose existence is a matter of common knowledge. To satisfy
the requirement of distinctness, a candidate variety must be clearly
distinguishable from all other existing varieties.
Selection of Reference Varieties
The “collection” of varieties of common knowledge for some crops is
very large. Some considerations are:
 Experience and the knowledge of crop experts
 Grouping characteristics listed in TG’s can be used to eliminate
varieties from growing trial
 Other useful characteristics are climatic adaptability, day length
response
 Variety descriptions are used to establish acceptability when plant
material for a variety cannot be obtained due to unavailability or
import restrictions
 Sources of variety information include trade catalogues, scientific
publications, internet searches, searchable industry organization
databases
Varieties of Common Knowledge
Under the PVP & FR Act 2001 a new variety shall be registered, if it is
clearly distinguishable by at least one essential characteristic form any other
variety whose existence is a matter a common knowledge in any Country at
the time of filing of application. Varieties in Common knowledge have to be
considered on a worldwide basis and not restricted to material of geographical
borders? It is clear that the list of varieties for a given species includes a very
large number of entries. The variety of Common Knowledge includes:
i) Protected varieties
ii) Varieties listed in official register
iii) Varieties listed in any commercial document in which varieties are

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 offered for marketing in its territory as propagating or harvested
material, especially where there is no official registration system.
iv) Varieties, subject of an application for protection
v) Ecotypes and land races
vi) Publicly available varieties within plant collection (genetic
resources, collection of old varieties etc.).
Characteristics
The test guidelines are made of table of characteristics chosen by the
experts. The requirement of distinctness, uniformity and stability are assessed
on the basis of characteristics. These characteristics are chosen as being
known by experience to be least affected by the environment. The
characteristics are a feature of whole plant or part of plant. Such characteristics
may be morphological, physiological, biochemical or of another nature. These
are not selected on the basis of any commercial value for a variety. The
characteristics should, however, meet the following criteria.
i) It must be capable of precise definition.
ii) It must be capable to exhibit consistent and repeatable results after
repeated propagation for the varieties.
iii) Allows uniformity testing requirements.
iv) Results from a genotype or combination of genotypes It must be
clearly defined in the observation and evaluation of the results.
Type of Characteristic
i) Truely qualitative characteristics
ii) Pseudo-qualitative characteristics
iii) Quantitative characteristics
Truely Qualitative Characteristics
Truly qualitative characteristics are those that show discrete
discontinuous states with no arbitrary limits. These are recorded on a one
dimensional scale and show discontinuous variation from one extreme to
another. These characteristics are not influenced by the environment.
Example
Plant: Sex dioecious female (1)
dioecious male (2)
monoecious unisexual (3)

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 monoecious hermaphrodite (4)
Flower number of whole one (1), two (2), three (3)
Flower: clour white (1), yellow (2), pink (3), red (4)
Polyploidy level diploid (1), tetraphoid (4),
hexaploid (6), octaploid (8)
Resistance not resistant (1), resistant to one are
several races (2), resistant to all races
Pseudo-Qualitative Characteristics
These are qualitative characteristics of which the range of expression is
at least partly continuous varying in more than one dimension. These
characteristics cannot be defined just by two ends of linear range as in the case
of truly quantitative characteristics. These are treated as qualitative when it is
more reasonable to disregard continuous variation for practical purpose and
the states created are meaningful and sufficiently different from each other.
Example
Shape ovate (1), elliptic (2), round (3), obovate
(4)
Expression absent are very weakly expressed (1),
weakly expressed (2), strongly expressed
(3)
Growt habit upright (1), pendulous (2)
Symmetic symmetric (1), asymmetric (2)
Quantitative Characteristics
These are the characteristics, which are expressed on a one-dimensional
scale and exhibit continuous variation from one extreme to the other. The
expression can be recorded on a one-dimensional, continuous or discrete,
linear scale. They are divided into a number of states of expressions for the
purpose of descriptions. The National Test Guidelines do not specify the
difference needed for distinctness. The state of expression should be
meaningful for DUS assessment. The whole range of variation of a character
is divided into nine states which are normally equally spaced and measured on
one dimensional scale. Some truly quantitative characteristics may be handled
as qualitative when only condensed range is used instead of full range of nine

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states. In all the cases of quantitative characteristics, the full scale 1, 2,
3,4,5,6,7,8,9 is applicable. However, for practical purpose of presentation only
notes 3, 5, 7 or 1,3,5,7, 3,5,7,9 or 1, 3,5,7,9 are given in the Test Guidelines to
indicate the applicability of quantitative scale.
Examples
Intensity of anthocyanin colouration: full range, absent or very weak(1),
very weak to weak(2), weak(3), weak to medium(4), medium(5), medium to
strong(6) strong(7), strong to very strong(8), very strong(9)
More appropriate ranges for practical purpose
a) absent or very weak(1), weak(3), medium(5), strong(7), very
strong(9)
b) absent or very weak(1), weak(3), medium(5), strong(7)
c) weak (3), medium(5), strong(7), very strong(9)
d) weak (3), medium(5), strong(7)
Dus Test Design
The use of experimental design with respect to the number of growing
cycles lay out ofthe trial, number of plants to be examined and method of
observation is largely determined by thenumber and nature of varieties to be
examined in a particular trial. In DUS trials, because of thepresence of only
one treatment factor (variety), DUS trials, the designe most used are:
Randomized Block Design (RBD)
Procedures for Dus Testing
1. Morphological markers
2. Biochemical markers
3. Molecular markers
1. Morphological Markers

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Page | 79
Page | 80
Page | 81
Stage of Recording Observation on Specific Characteristics Will Be as
Follows
Growth Stages Code
a) Cotyledons completely unfolded 10
b) Active vegetative growth before flowering 20
c) Appearance of first flower flush 30
d) 50 % flowering 40
e) First harvest 50
f) Fruits fully developed before colour break 60
g) Harvest maturity 70
Type of Assessment of Characteristics Indicated in Column Seven of
Table of Characteristics is as Follows
MG: Measurement by a single observation of a group of plants or parts
of plants
MS: Measurement of a number of individual plant or parts of plants
VG: Visual assessment by a single observation of a group of plants or
parts of plants
VS: Visual assessment by observations of individual plant or parts of
plants

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Biochemical Markers
The biochemical markers, especially the electrophoresis profiles of
isoenzymes and proteins have been widely used for identification of crop
varieties (Smith and Smith, 1992; Cooke, 1995).ISTA has recommended
electrophoresis methods for verification of varietal identity in wheat, barley,
pea, maize, oats, and lolium as well as for testing the hybrid purity in maize
and sunflower (ISTA, 2004). UPOV has included electrophoresis of seed
proteins in wheat, isozymes in maize, soyabean, and sunflower.
Electrophoresis
Electrophoresisis a technique which separates molecules on the basis of
their charge and size. This technique was devised by Tiselius in 1937.
Principle
In electrophoresis, the charged molecules migrate across support medium
(a gel), because they are placed in an electrical field. The gel acts as a sieve to
retard the passage of molecules according to their size and shape. The
negatively charged particles move toward the positive electrode while the
positive charge particles move toward the negative electrode.Proteins and
nucleic acids (because of being charged) are separated by electrophoresis.
The Rate of Movements Depends Primarily on Two Factors
1. The Charge: Molecules with higher charge migrate faster than those
with lower charge.
2. The Size of the Molecule: Particles with a small molecular weight
migrate faster than those with higher weights.
Instrumentation
Although modern electrophoresis equipments vary greatly in form and
degree of automation, the basic components common to all systems are;
1. Two reservoirs which contain buffer.
2. A set of electrodes
3. A support for gel or other media.
4. A power supply

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 Figure: Apparatus for Paper Electrophoresie.

Buffers
Buffers have two purposes in electrophoresis:
1. The buffer ions carry the electric current.
2. They help in fixing the pH and determine the charge on the
molecules.
Many different buffers are used depending upon the conditions of
experiment. For the separation of serum proteins barbitalor trisborate-EDT
Abuffers remain most popular.
Support Media
The support medium provides the matrix in which separation of
molecules takes place. Various support media are used in the form of sheets,
slabs, columns or membranes: Starch, Agarose, Polyacrylamide, Cellulose
acetate. The pore size is controlled by changing the concentration of the
medium.

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Detection and Quantification
1. After Separation the Molecules are Detected Either by:
 Staining followed by quantification using a densitometer
 By direct measurement using an optical detection system
2. The Generally used Stains are
 Proteins: Coomassie Brilliant Blue G-250,
Coomassie Brilliant Blue R-250
 Isozymes: Nitrotetrazolium Blue
 DNA: Ethidium bromide
Fully automated systems are available now for electrophoresis with all
the facilities.
An Electrophoretogram

Types of Electrophoresis
There are Four Main Types of Electrophoresis Namely
1. Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE)
2. Capillary
3. Slab
4. Paper
Applications of Electrophoresis
Electrophoresis is used for
1. Separation and identification of serumproteins of the varieties.
2. Separation and quantification of nucleic acids.
3. Identification of abnormal proteins and other molecules in clinical
laboratories.

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 4. DNA Fingerprinting of the varieties and hybrids to be identified.
Molecular Markers
Although biochemical techniques have overcome the limitations of field
tests to some extent, these still have certain shortcomings such as the low level
of polymorphism, less number of loci analysed per assay, limited genome
coverage.Thus the analysis variability in the form of DNA profiling is now
becoming a reality. Several different types of DNA markers are currently
available for genetic analysis. The advent of these methods has widened the
possibilities for applying such technologies to the problem of varietal
identification and variety protection (Cooke, 1995).The two commonly
adopted approaches in the use of molecular markers are either probe based i.e.
examination for Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism(RFLPs), or
amplification based i.e. Random Amplified Polymorphic DNAs (RAPD),
Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (AFLP) etc.
In lab, an attempt was made to characterize thirty two rice varieties based
on molecular markers systems and all varieties were identified individually
(Khandelwal, 2004). Maximum polymorphism for distinctness tests was
detected.However these technologies were relatively slow process; requiring
elaborate laboratory infrastructure and high technical expertise. Thus, a need
to look for PCR based DNA profiling techniques are being introduced.
PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction)
The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a technique to amplify a piece of
DNA very rapidly outside of a cell. It was invented in 1983 by Dr. Kary
Mullis, for which he received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1993.It is called
“polymerase” because the only enzyme used in this reaction is DNA
polymerase.It is called “chain” because the products of the first reaction
become substrates of the following one, and so on.
The “Reaction” Components
a) Target DNA - contains the sequence to be amplified.
b) Pair of Primers - oligonucleotides that define the sequence to be
amplified.
c) dNTPs - deoxynucleotidetriphosphates: DNA building blocks.
d) Thermostable DNA polymerase - enzyme that catalyzes the reaction
e) Mg++ ions - cofactor of the enzyme
f) Buffer solution – maintains pH and ionic strength of the reaction
solution suitable for the activity of the enzyme

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DNA Isolation and Purification
The automated DNeasy Plant Mini Kit (Qiagen) can be used for isolation
of plant DNA. We can also isolate the plant DNA manually by following series
of steps but these are time consuming.
1. Tissue sample have to be ground up to release the intracellular
components. Plant cells are mechanically sheared in a blender to
break up tough cell walls.
2. Then wall tissue is digested with enzymes that break up the long
polymers into monomers.
3. Once released, the intracellular components are separated from the
remains of outer structures by either centrifugation or chemical
extraction.
4. Centrifugation separates the components according to size.
5. Centrifugation causes the DNA to form the pallet, but the soluble cell
wall fragments stay in the solution.
6. Chemical extraction uses the property of phenol to remove the
unwanted protein from DNA, dissolves 60-70% of all living matter,
especially proteins.
7. Once the proteins are removed, the sample still contains RNA along
with the DNA. The enzyme ribonuclease (RNase) digests RNA into
ribonucleotides, leaving behind DNA in solution containing pieces
of RNA and ribonucleotides. DNA is separatedfrom these by
centrifugation in alcohol.
8. This DNA is ready to use for various experiments.

Reaction of PCR

Page | 87
PCR Tube Thermocycler
A Cycle of PCR Consists of Three Steps
1. DNA denaturation at 95 degrees C.
2. Primer annealing at 50-60 degrees C.
3. DNA polymerization by a thermostable DNA polymerase at 72
degrees C.
Applications of PCR
1. Classification of organisms
2. Genotyping
3. Molecular archaeology
4. Mutagenesis
5. Mutation detection
6. Sequencing
7. Cancer research
8. Detection of pathogens
9. DNA fingerprinting
10. Drug discovery
11. Genetic matching
12. Genetic engineering
13. Pre-natal diagnosis

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Summary

Statistical Procedure in DUS Testing for tomato

Combined Over Year Distinctness (COYD)-distinctness
Combined Over Year Uniformity (COYU)-uniformity
Both of these methods are used for measured quantitive characters.
Conclusion
For protecting varieties under PPV & FR DUS test is prerequisite.
Morphological descriptors, though useful in distinguishing varieties, need to
be used selectively, based on the precision with which descriptors can be
recorded. Biochemical and Molecular markers can characterize lines directly
and precisely at the enzyme, protein and DNA level. DUS evaluations should
be done by a group of breeders, and over more than one year, under the
appropriate ambient conditions of the region concerned. The validation of the
descriptors proposed by various organizations and their adoption in original
or modified form can help in the formulation of authentic descriptors for DUS
testing.
References
1. Begum T, Kumar D. Usefulness of morphological characteristics for DUS
testing of jute (Corchorusolitorius L. and C. capsularis L.). Spanish

Page | 89
 Journal of Agricultural Research. 2011; 9(2):8473-483.
2. Smith OS, Smith JSC. Measurement of genetic diversity among maize
hybrid. A comparison of isozyme, RFLP, pedigree and heterosis data.
Maydica. 1992; 37:53-60.
3. Cooke RJ. Review: Gel electrophoresis for the identification of crop
varieties, journal of chromatography. 1995; 698:281-299.
4. ISTA. International rules & Annexes for Seed testing, 2004.
5. UPOV. Revised general introduction to the guidelines for the conduct of
tests for distinctness, homogeneity and stability of new varieties of plants.
Document TG/1/2. UPOV, Geneva, 1979.
6. PPV & FR Authority, GOI. New Delhi, Guidelines for the Conduct of
Test for Distinctiveness, Uniformity and Stability, 2015
7. Venudevan B, Sathish S, Vijayalakshmi V, Begum M, Kumar R, Srimathi
P, et al. Seed Science and Technology At A Glance. Parmar Publishers
and Distributors, Jharkhand, 2013, 177.
8. Chakrabarty SK, Sharma SP, Prakash S, Dadlani M. Testing of
Distinctiveness, Uniformity and Stability for Plant Variety Protection.
Division of Seed Science and Technology IARI, New Delhi, 116.

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 Chapter - 5
Effect of Conservation Based Management Practices on
Soil Biochemical Parameters, Chemical Properties and
Crop Yield under Different Cropping Systems

Authors
Rituparna Saikia
Department of Soil Science, Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat,
Assam, India
Sandeep Sharma
Department of Soil Science, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana,
Punjab, India
Nilotpal Hazarika
Department of Agronomy, Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat,
Assam, India

Page | 91
Page | 92
 Chapter - 5
Effect of Conservation Based Management Practices on Soil
Biochemical Parameters, Chemical Properties and Crop
Yield under Different Cropping Systems

Abstract
A better understanding of soil parameters as affected by conservation
based management practices would enable researchers and farmers better
planning and field implementation. A critical review, therefore, is necessary
to scrutinise the performance of different management practices on different
soil parameters. This chapter aims to summarise the effect of conservation
based management practices on soil biochemical parameters (Polysaccharide
carbon, carbohydrate carbon, glomalin related soil protein, microbial
biomass carbon and soil respiration), soil chemical properties, and yield and
yield attributes in different cropping sequence. It can be concluded that
conservation based management practices potentially improves soil
biochemical parameters, yield under diverse cropping system in different
agro-climatic regions. Hence, conservation based management practices hold
a promising option to improve soil health and maintain sustainability of
exhaustive cropping system for long run.
Keywords: Management practices, soil biochemical parameters, yield
and nutrient uptake
1. Introduction
Water, energy and labour scarcity, and increasing cost of production are
major challenges faced by the farmers under intensive agricultural
production system. To address these challenges, various soil and crop
management practices such as crop rotation, tillage, residue management are
being developed and promoted to increase the productivity and profitability.
With the increasing drive towards converting conventional tillage practices
to conservation based management practices, it is imperative to review the
effect of conservation based management practices on soil biochemical,
chemical parameters as well as yield under different cropping systems in
different agro-climatic situations. No tillage (NT) has been beneficial for

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sustainable management to protect soil from erosion and enhance soil
organic carbon (SOC) level (Lal 2004). NT increased enzymatic activities
contributing to the distribution of nutrients and organic C turnover (Dick et
al. 1996). Several studies have indicated that NT increased soil microbial
biomass C, total C, ratio of biomass C to total C (Angers et al. 1993). Many
studies showed that Intensive agricultural practices often leads to changes in
soil health governing properties like, soil structure, aggregation, porosity,
strength, hydraulic conductivity, infiltration, bulk density, soil moisture
content, soil carbon content, microbial biomass and their activities
(Osunbitan et al. 2005). But limited researches are being carried out which
encompasses biochemical parameters like polysaccharide carbon,
carbohydrate carbon, glomalin related soil protein, soil respiration, microbial
biomass carbon, though these parameters are vital in characterising soil
health and quality under diverse agro-climatic regions. So the effect of
different conservation based management practices on different soil
parameters are summarised from different studies and are discussed under
the following heads
2. Soil Biochemical Parameters
2.1 Soil Polysaccharide Carbon
Polysaccharides are of plant and microbial origin, represents a
significant part of the labile pool of soil organic C and thought to act as a
vital binding agent involved in stabilizing soil aggregates (Puget et al. 1999,
Jolivet et al. 2006). Because of their labile nature, polysaccharides are more
sensitive to land use change and management than the more stable and
recalcitrant organic binding agents (Guggenberger et al. 1995, Piccolo et al.
1996) thus it is important to characterize the association of polysaccharides
in soil aggregation. On an average total polysaccharide constitutes 13% of
total organic carbon in soil. Dilute acid-extractable polysaccharides
constitutes 86 to 94% of total polysaccharides, signifying that the easily
hydrolysable polysaccharides represents a major part of polysaccharides in
the soil. Chan et al. (1994) reported significantly higher aggregate stability
and polysaccharide content under direct drilling and stubble retention
practices as compared with conventional tillage with burning of stubbles in
wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and lupin (Lupinus angustifolius L.) crop.
Sandeep et al. (2016) revealed that labile polysaccharide content in soil was
significantly increased (17%) under bed planting system as compared with
conventional tillage. They further observed that total polysaccharide content
in soil was not significantly influenced by tillage practices but the effect of
nutrient management was significant. Treatments which are amended

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organically with incorporation of crop residue showed higher content of total
polysaccharide in soil.
2.2 Soil Carbohydrate Carbon
Soil carbohydrates are labile fraction of soil organic matter, accounting
for approximately 5-25% of total SOM (Stevenson 1994, Schmitt and Glaser
2011). It plays crucial function in formation of soil aggregate and contributes
to nutrition of soil microorganisms (Martín et al. 2011). Soil carbohydrates
constitute a considerable part of the labile SOC pool signifying a huge
contribution of non-cellulosic and cellulosic polysaccharides in the soil.
Several studies (i.e. Ball et al. 1996, Beare et al. 1997) demonstrated
augmentation of microbial derived carbohydrates under NT as compared
with conventional tillage practices. A greater quantity of microbial-derived
as compared with plant-derived carbohydrates under NT compared with
conventional tillage may be attributed to the relatively higher fungal biomass
under NT (Frey et al. 1999). Bottinelli et al. (2017) determined the effect of
no tillage, surface tillage and conventional tillage practices and observed
31% higher hot water extractable carbohydrate under NT than surface tillage
and conventional tillage practices.

2.3 Glomalin Related Soil Protein

Glomalin is secreted by hyphae of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AM)
but not by other groups of soil fungi (Wright et al. 1996). The improvement
in aggregate stability by AM is attributed to the physical effect of a hyphal
network around soil particles, together with the production of significant
quantity of an insoluble glycoprotein referred as glomalin (Wright and
Upadhyaya 1996), which cements soil particles (Wright and Upadhyaya
1998, Wright et al. 1999, Rillig et al. 2002). According to Rilling et al.
(2002), amounts of C in glomalin relative to total organic carbon may be
higher than C in microbial biomass (4-5% against 0.08-0.2%). Glomalin may
be usefull as a sensitive indicator of soil C changes due to land-use practices
(Rillig et al. 2003) and could even be involved in C-sequestration (Rillig et
al. 1999). Borie et al. (2006) highlighted that glomalin content in soil was
significantly affected by tillage practices in a 6 year study in a Chilean
ultisol cropped with wheat. They reported that glomalin content in soil was
significantly increased under no till and reduced till practices as compared
with conventional tillage practices. Sandeep et al. (2016) concluded that
glomalin content in soil was significantly affected by tillage and nutrient
management practices in maize-wheat system. In a spring wheat (Triticum
turgidum L.)–maize (Zea mays L.) cropping system in a mollisol from

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central Chile, Curaquo et al. (2011) observed that the number of mycorrhizal
propagules, glomalin content in soil and water stable aggregates were higher
under NT as compared with conventional tillage practices. Jun et al. (2007)
observed significant increase in both easily extractable glomalin (EEG) and
total glomalin (TG) content in soil under combined application of chemical
fertilizer and straw as compared with sole application of chemical fertilizer
or no fertilizer application. The EEG and TG content in soil under NPKS +
rice straw incorporation treatment were 4.6% and 5.6% greater than the CK
(unfertilized control) treatment and 9.8% and 6.2% greater than those of the
NPK treatment, respectively. Avio et al. (2013) reported that both easily
extractable and total glomalin concentration in soil was higher under no
tilled soil than tilled soil cropped with Medicago sativa L. in a
Mediterranean agro ecosystem. The higher concentrations of glomalin in no-
tilled than tilled soil suggests either the occurrence of higher density of AM
fungi in no tilled soil or a difference in AM fungi community composition
leading to the production of larger amounts of glomalin (Lovelock et al.
2004, Bedini et al. 2009).
2.4 Microbial Biomass Carbon and Basal Soil Respiration
The microbial biomass is a sensitive indicator of soil biological quality
and considered most reliable and frequently used among the specific
biochemical parameter (Gill-sotres et al. 2005). Alvear et al. (2005)
suggested the use of microbial biomass and enzyme activity as indicators of
soil quality due to their relationship with soil biology, ease of measurement,
rapid response to changes in soil management and high sensitivity to
temporary alterations in soil caused by management and environmental
factors. Sun et al. (2016) reported that MBC averaged across all sampling
dates was significantly higher under no tillage and in 0-5 cm soil layer as
compared with ridge till or mouldboard plough and 10-20 cm soil layer
under maize monoculture or maize-soybean cropping system. Heideri et al.
(2016) observed significant increase of MBC, under no tillage cropped with
soybean as compared to conventional tillage. Pal and Marschner (2016)
observed that incorporation of faba bean (Vicia faba L.) residue into soil
significantly increased carbon use efficiency (cumulative respiration per unit
of MBC) as compared with incorporation of wheat straw into soil. Similar
trend was observed for MBC. MBC concentration in soil was higher under
incorporation of residue mixtures of 50% wheat and faba bean as compared
with incorporation of wheat straw residue alone. Guo et al. (2016) observed
11.2% increases in MBC under NT as compared with conventional tillage.
They further observed that MBC was significantly increased (29.8%) with

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incorporation of residue of the previous crop compared to its removal in a
rice-wheat cropping system. Similar study pertaining to increase of microbial
biomass C and N under NT than conventional tillage under rice-wheat and
rice-oilseed cropping systems were reported by Gao et al. (2004), Jiang et al.
(2011) and Li et al. (2012).
Basal soil respiration provides an overall potential of microbial activity
and is considered as a sensitive bio-indicator of soil quality (Puglisi et al.
2006, Dutta et al. 2010). Soil respiration may increase in response to
increase in microbial biomass or as a result of the increased activity of a
stable biomass after addition of organic matter (Harris and Steer 2003).
Generally greater amount of CO2-C is generated in the upper layer of NT
compared with conventional tillage because of greater population and
activity of soil microorganisms (Gajda and Prezewoka 2012, Stark et al.
2007).
3. Soil Chemical Properties
Various studies suggest that soil chemical properties are significantly
affected by conservation based management practices. Some of the studies
are discussed below;
Anyanzwa et al. (2010) observed higher SOC and total nitrogen under
conservation tillage practices with residue retention as compared to
conventional tillage practices with residue removal in a maize-legume
system. Nagar et al. (2016) observed lower bulk density, pH and EC but
higher SOC, available N, P, K under pegionpea+blackgram intercropping
system as compared with sole pigeon pea system. In a soybean-wheat system
in a vertisol in Bhopal, Khushwah et al. (2016) observed that SOC content
and available P in soil was significantly increased under incorporation or
surface retention of wheat residue as compared with the regular practice of
residue burning. Islam et al. (2015) observed that soil organic carbon at 0-
7.5 cm soil layer was significantly higher under strip tillage as compared
with zero tillage (ZT) and conventional tillage (CT) in a rice-maize system.
They further observed that available N, P and K in soil were not significantly
affected by tillage or residue management practices as well as their
interaction at 0-7.5 and 7.5-15 cm soil layer. Balesdent et al. (2000) reported
higher mineralizable N at 0-10 cm soil layer under no tillage than
conventional tillage. The higher mineralizable nitrogen content under no
tillage as compared with conventional tillage is might be due to greater pool
of labile nitrogen with a slow decomposition rate (Germon et al. 1991).
Neugschwandtner et al. (2014) observed that pH and CaCO3 were not

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influenced by tillage practices. But SOC, total N, available N, P and K
increased with the reduction in tillage intensity. Lopez-Fando and Pardo
(2009) observed that soil pH was lower under no tillage as compared with
mouldboard plough after 5 years. This may be due to acidifying processes
such as mineralization of organic matter, nitrification of applied N and root
exudation. Tarkalson et al. (2006) reported that Bray-P and CEC was
increased under no tillage as compared with conventional tillage at 0-5 cm
soil layer after 27 years under dryland spring wheat-sorghum (Sorghum
vulgare L.) cropping sequence. But Ca, base saturation and pH reduced
under no tillage. Sainju et al. (2011) observed that soil pH, Ca and Na
contents at 0-30 cm soil layer was higher under no tillage as compared with
conventional tillage after 9 year in western Montana.
In a maize-wheat system, Martinez et al. (2013) observed that EC was
increased in 0-15 cm soil layer under ZT as compared with conventional
tillage. An opposite trend was observed in case of pH. Soil pH decreased
under ZT practices which can be attributed to the release of H+ ion during
the decomposition of maize residue. Liu et al. (2011) reported 29% increase
in SOC content in soil under ZT as compared with conventional tillage in 0-
5 cm soil layer. While in 10-20 cm and 20-30 cm soil layer no significant
difference in SOC was observed between ZT and conventional tillage
practices. Total N content in soil followed the similar pattern to that of SOC.
Zhang et al. (2016) observed significant increase in SOC and total N in 0-5
cm soil layer under no tillage with straw retention as compared with
traditional tillage with straw removal. Margenot et al. (2017) reported higher
total phosphorus content in 0-15 cm soil layer after 9 years of reduced tillage
as compared to conventional tillage practices in a Kenyan oxisol. Bhattarai et
al. (2015) observed that SOC, total N and available P content in soil was
higher under ZT than conventional tillage. But soil pH and available K
content was higher under conventional as compared with ZT. They further
observed that rice residue retention produced higher SOC, pH, total N,
available P and K than removal of rice residue. Xie et al. (2016) substituted
fertilizer N with green manure (Astragalus sinicus L.) at different
proportions (80%, 60%, 40% and 20% fertilizer N plus 20%, 40%, 60% and
80% N through green manure) in a rice-rice system. They observed that SOC
and total N in 0-15 cm soil layer and rice yield was significantly increased
by substitution of fertilizer nitrogen by green manure. Saikia et al. (2017)
showed that puddle transplanted rice with residue retention and followed by
zero tillage wheat with 100% residue retention significantly increased
oxidisable soil organic carbon, available nitrogen, available phosphorus and
available potassium in surface (0-7.5 cm) and sub-surface (7.5-15 cm) soil
Page | 98
layer in fifth cycle of continuous rice-wheat system in north-western India.
4. Yield and Field Attributes
In rice-wheat system, residues incorporation by disc plough or by
mould-board plough is a better option for effective disposal of residues and
may produce higher yield and net farm returns compared to their removal or
in-situ burning. Yadvinder-Singh et al. (2010) reported that rice straw
incorporation has higher wheat grain yields and builds up soil fertility as
compared with no-rice straw application. Qamar et al. (2012) reported that
ZT recorded higher grain yield of wheat under deep tillage as compared with
conventional tillage. Saharawat et al. (2013) reported that ZT wheat
produced significantly higher yield followed by reduced tillage and CT.
Lowest yield in CT wheat was due to significantly less number of effective
tillers and low 1000-grain weight as compared with ZT. Gathala et al. (2011)
observed that direct-drilling of wheat in the presence of rice residue using
the Happy Seeder produced significantly higher grain yield as compared to
ZT without rice residue and CT. Higher wheat yield was also obtained under
ZT over CT (Yadav et al. 2005). Naresh et al. (2013) showed that before
wheat planting, incorporation of residues of both crops in rice-wheat system
increased the available N, P and K contents in soil over removal and burning.
Surface retention of residues increased N, P and K uptake by 14.6, 28.5 and
17.7%, respectively. Total system productivity increased by 10.9-15.8% in
residue retention with permanent wide beds planting, Happy Seeder sown and
NT planting system over CT. Rahman et al. (2005) reported that rice straw
mulching had a significant effect on conserving initial soil moisture and
reducing weed growth. Khalid et al. (2013) reported that in a hot arid climate
under irrigated conditions when crop residues were left on the soil surface,
the final biomass and grain yield of wheat under ZT were similar to those
obtained under RT and CT. Wasaya et al. (2017) observed that maize crop
under chisel plough exhibited higher leaf area index and crop growth rate,
which finally resulted 23% and 8% higher grain and dry matter yield,
respectively as compared with mouldboard tilled plots.
Incorporation of green manure in combination with wheat residue can be
advantageous in mitigating the adverse effects of wheat residue on rice due
to N immobilization and can increase yield (Yadvinder-singh et al. 2004).
Sharma et al. (1995) reported that Sesbania green manuring and mungbean
residue incorporation in rice increased grain yield of succeeding wheat crop.
Sharma and Prasad (1999) reported that both Sesbania aculeata and
Sesbania rostrata increased the succeeding wheat yield by 0.2-0.3 t ha-1.
Saha et al. (2000) observed that dry matter production of wheat was
Page | 99
significantly influenced by preceding green manure crops. Kumar and
Sharma (2000) found that Dhaincha and blackgram had significant positive
effects on the growth and yield attributes of wheat which ultimately resulted
in significantly higher grain yield of wheat as compared to control (no green
manure application). According to Voisin et al. (2014), growing of
leguminous crop (Astragalus sinicus L.) prior to rice crop leads to maximum
utilization of natural resources (light, water and heat) which ultimately leads
to increase of rice yield at a minimum economic as well as environmental
cost.
Jat et al. (2015) reported that the residual effects of incorporation of
mungbean (Vigna radiata L.) residue resulted in significantly higher grain
yield of succeeding wheat crop. Hossain et al. (2016) concluded that
inclusion of legumes in the wheat rice cropping sequence resulted in higher
wheat equivalent yield and total system productivity. Lampurlanes et al.
(2016) reported higher yield of wheat, barley, canola and pea crop in a long
term tillage experiment under no tillage followed by sub soiling up to 50 cm
soil depth and lowest yield was observed under mouldboard plough. Singh et
al. (2016) observed that grain yield of transplanted puddle rice (TPR) was
higher than CT-DSR (Direct seeded rice) and ZT- DSR in a 5 year study on
rice-maize system in north-west India. They further observed maize yield
was 4% and 14.2% higher under ZT-DSR/zero tilled maize as compared
with conventionally tilled maize preceded by CT-DSR and TPR. Banjara et
al. (2017) observed significantly higher seed and stover yield, pods per plant,
dry biomass, no of branches and plant height of chick pea under minimum
tillage and line sowing of seed at third days after harvesting rice as compared
with zero tillage and conventional tillage practices. Mu et al. (2016)
observed that deep mouldboard ploughing to a depth of 30 cm and chisel
ploughing significantly increased wheat yield by 6% and 7.3% and maize
yield by 8.7% and 9% respectively, as compared with mouldboard ploughing
to a depth of 15 cm.
5. Conclusion
From this extensive review it can be concluded that conservation based
management practices positively influence different soil biochemical and
chemical properties as well as yield of crops in diverse cropping system.
Conservation tillage is superior to conventional tillage in increasing total
productivity and improving soil health in long run.
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 Chapter - 6
Metabolism and Integrated Mechanisms of Seed
Deterioration

Authors
Ranjitha HP
Department of Seed Science and Technology, UAS GKVK,
Bangalore, Karnataka, India

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Page | 110
 Chapter - 6
Metabolism and Integrated Mechanisms of Seed
Deterioration

Introduction
Seed deterioration or ageing described as the loss of seed quality with
time. Damaged seed deteriorate more rapidly.
Seed deterioration is defined as “deteriorative changes occurring with
time that increase the seeds vulnerability to external challenges and decrease
the ability of the seed to survive”. Seed deterioration is the loss of seed
quality with time. t is an undesirable attribute of agriculture, which leads to
reductions in seed performance, stand establishment and crop yields and
thereby causes economic losses. Seeds reach maximum quality at
physiological maturity and from that time until planting only degenerative
changes occur, the rate being dependent upon the degree of deviation from
the optimum conditions.

Figure 1: A Suggested Scheme for the Matrix Possible Events Occurring During
Seed Deterioration

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Definitions of Seed Deterioration
1. Seed deterioration is an irreversible changes in the quality of seed after
it reaches its maximum quality level (Abdul – Baki and Anderson).
2. Seed deterioration is an irreversible process once Seed deterioration has
occurred, this catabolic process cannot be reversed (Copleland and Mc
Donald).
3. Seed deterioration is a sequence of events tentative events model of
Seed deterioration (Heydecker and Delouche and Baskin).
4. Seed deterioration can be defined as deteriorative changes occurring
with time that increase the seeds vulnerability to external challenges and
decrease the ability of the seed to survive. (Mc. Donald, 2004).
5. Transition from seed maturity to death as follows: “Vigour of life” is at
its greatest level when the seed attains maturity. After maturity, that life
becomes less and less vigorous as the never ceasing ageing process
moves onward towards death, but even long before death, the seed
becomes questionable or worthless for planting purpose (Moore, 1995)
6. ‘The falling from the higher to a lower level of quality, character or
vitality’. It implies the impairment of vigour or usefulness (Gove, 1965)

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 Figure 2: Typical Sequences of Seed Senescence

Concepts of Seed Deterioration

All living thing eventually deteriorate and die. It is possible to retard the
rate of deterioration through optimum storage practices. Once seed
deterioration occurred, this cannot be reversed.
1. Seed deterioration is an inexorable process (unavoidable but rate
can be retarded).
2. Seed deterioration is an irreversible process.
3. Seed deterioration varies among seed populations ( varies with
variety, with seed lots, individual seed in seed lot).
When does Deterioration Occur?
1. Deterioration on the Mother Plant
Physiological Maturity: Maximum dry matter occumulation
(Harrington) Maximum germination
Maximum vigour
Whenever the maximum seed quality reached, if the seeds are left for
prolonged period on the mother plant leads to deterioration.
2. Weathering
 Occurs between physiological maturity and harvesting index.

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  High temperature, high humidity either singly or combination.
 Invasion of seed by microflora.
 Mechanical damage at harvest.
 Weathering causes disruption of membrane
 Change in both lipid and protein bodies.
 Loss of rhibosome impairment of respiratory activity.
3. Sprouting Damage
 Loss of specific primary dormancy mechanism which prevents
germination and development of seed on the parent plant.
 Increase hydrolytic enzymes i.e, α-amylase
 Wet weather during seed ripening and at harvesting time
 Sensitivity to the plant growth regulator s i.e, ABA (an inhibitor of
both germination and amylase production)
 Sprouting damage induced by increased sensitivity to gibberlic acid.
During Storage
 Well before any detectable loss in viability, other deteriorative
changes will become evident.
 The seed will begin to loose vigour which is manifested by marked
decrease in rates of germination
Where does Seed Deterioration Occur?

Monocots: Deterioration begins in root tip and causes radicle extension

to be reduced more than coleoptile extension. Dicots: Deterioration begins in
growing points (shoot and root) of embryonic axis.
Indices for Measuring Seed Deterioration not yet Standardized.
 The difficulty  lack of stable reference for each plant spp. /variety

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 against a given seed lot. Regardless of causal agents, changes in
some quantifiable traits occur when seeds deteriorate. some of these
changes have been used to estimate deterioration
 The most widely accepted and useful index of seed deterioration is
reduction of viability which is often accompanied by reduced
seedling growth (reduction in vigour).
 Recently increasing emphasis is given on biochemical or
physiological changes such as quantitative and qualitative changes
in:
 Specific enzymes
 Respiratory metabolism
 Synthesis of proteins and carbohydrates
 Leaching of organic and inorganic materials
 Degradation of storage compound etc
Expressions of Seed Deterioration
Seed deterioration can be expressed by two means
 Visible symptoms
 In visible symptoms
Visible Symptoms
 Reduction in germination
 Reduction in vigour and viability
 Abnormalities in seedling growth
 Decreased growth uniformity
 Reduction rate of plant growth and development
 Decreased yield
Invisible Symptoms
 Unless the seed storage condition are good, other wise severe the
loss of vigour
 Marked increased in the conductivity of leachates
 Radicle emergence will be restricted.
 Electrical conductivity will increase
 Reduced biosynthesis and Respiration,
 Enzyme action

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  Increased solute leakage
 Decreased Membrane permeability,
 Macro molecule biosynthesis
Types of Seed Deterioration
 Field Weathering
 Harvest and Post harvest Deterioration
 Storage
Field Weathering
 The deterioration of seed quality, vigor and viability, due to high
relative humidity and high temperature during the post-maturation
and pre-harvest period is referred to as field weathering (Bhatia et
al., 2010).
 Deterioration caused by weathering is directly related to seed
exposure to adverse conditions.
 Exposure to hot and humid conditions, rainfall, photoperiod after
ripening are pre-harvest factors, cause seed quality loss.
 Weathering occurs in the period between the attainment of
physiological maturity till harvest in the field.

Harvest and Post-harvest Deterioration

 Seed quality is highly affected by harvesting and handling methods.
 Harvest and post-harvest deterioration comprises threshing,
processing machinery, seed collection, handling, transporting and
drying.
 Mechanical damage is one of the major causes of seed deterioration
during harvest.

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 Such damage may result in physical damage or fracturing of essential
seed parts; broken seed coats permit early entry and easy access for
microflora, make the seed vulnarable to fungal attack and reduce storage
pottential (Shelar, 2008)
Storage
 Storability of seeds is mainly a genetically regulated character and
is influenced by quality of the seed at the time of storage, pre-
storage history of seed moisture content, RH, temperature of storage
environment ,duration of storage and biotic agents (Shelar et al.,
2008; Khatun et al., 2009)
 These environmental conditions are very difficult to maintain
during storage.

Tilebeni et al, 2011

Figure 3: Effect of seed ageing on germination percentage and radicle length in rice
cv. GHAEM seeds. As the ageing period increases the germination percentage of the
seedling will going to decreases and at the initial hours of the radicle length was high
during ageing period the radicle length was decreased.

Factors Affecting Seed Deterioration

 Temperature and RH of the Storage Environment: These are
two interdependent and major factors contributing to seed
deterioration. Temperature determines the amount of moisture the
air can hold (higher temperature's holding more water than lower
temperature).
 Seed Maturity: harvesting the seed crop at right stage of maturity
is an important factor to obtain quality seed. For seed purpose, the
right stage of harvest of the crop would be more appropriate as
delayed or even early harvest results in poor quality.

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  Kind/Genotype: Some kind of seeds are more susceptible to
damage than others within the same kind also variation occurs. So
susceptibility to damage is a genetic and varietal character.
 Seed Moisture Content: it is most important factor. High SMC are
determinate to seed viability under storage.
 Seed Biota: the storage fungi cause huge losses on seeds by
discoloration reducing the viability, vigour through free fatty acids
production, increases respiration, heat generation etc. insect pests
also attack the seeds and cause losses.
 Field Fungi: Invade seeds on mother plant itself (90-95% RH, 30-
35% SMC) during maturation
 Storage Fungi: Can grow without free water (65-90% RH, 30-
33oC). Invade the embryo toxic metabolites. Bacteria will not
effect  as they require free water for their growth.
Interpretation of the Physiology of seed Deterioration have been
Difficult for the Following Reasons
1. The Process of Seed Deterioration is Varied.
Short term deterioration in the field is likely to be a different
physiological event than long term deterioration in storage.
2. Different Methods are used for Studying Seed Deterioration that
Contribute to our Inability to Develop a Unified Concept.
Artificially ageing process might be physiologically different from
natural seed deterioration (Little increase in free radical level of naturally
aged soybean seeds but doubling of free radicals in accelerated aged seeds
[Priestly et al., 1985]).
3. The Rate of Seed Deterioration is Influenced by Confounding
Environmental and Biological factor
Higher temperature and seed moisture content during storage enhanced
seed deterioration.
Physical and Physiological Changes
1. Changes in seed colour
2. Membrane damage and ultra-structural changes
3. Delayed germination
4. Reduced germinability
5. Reduced growth of seedlings

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 6. Increased number of abnormal seedlings
7. Decreased tolerance to sub-optimal environmental conditions
during germination
8. Lowered tolerance to adverse storage conditions
9. Increased susceptibility to fungal invasion
A. Changes in Seed Colour
 Due to factors such as heat, moisture, fungal attack
 Changes in seed colour is associated with low geminability Ex:
Lima bean (wester, 1970)
 Seeds damaged by heat, fungi during storage lose their natural
luster (Christensen and Kaufmann, 1969)
 Darkening of seed coat due to oxidative reaction in the seeds coat
West and Harris (1963)
Effects
 Off-coloured seeds had lower respiration rates
 Lower rates of root growth
 Higher shoot-root ratios than normal seeds
 Aqueous extracts from off-coloured seeds is more acidic than
normal seeds.
B. Membrane Damage
Under harsh storage condition loss in membrane permiability leads to
increse leaching of seed constituents n leads to viability. Disruption of
membrane integrity is a major symptom of seed deterioration. Increased
conductivity of seed leachate. An increase in conductivity can arise from
1. Flushing out the contents of broken cells under areas of mechanical
damage
2. An increase in the amount of specific solutes available to leak out
3. Loss of membrane integrity
Increased Conductivity of seed Lechate
 Disruption of membrane integrity is a major physiological symptom
of Seed deterioration. An increase in conductivity can arise from
 Flushing out of contents from broaken area of mechanical damage
 Increase in the amount of specific solutes available to leak out

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  Loss of membrane integrity
Ultra Structural Changes
 Plasma may with draw from the cell wall as the seed age and
cytoplasmic content may leaked through the membrane
 Fusion of lipid bodies changes in the appearance of mitochondria,
plastid and golgibodies.
 Damage to the nuclear envelope
Loss of Membrane Phospholipids
 Due to increase in membrane permeability and storage condition are
severe loss of phospholipids particularly phosphatidycholine
 Under high moisture content ageing condition seeds
loosephospholipids as the loose viability

Cauliflower

Cabbage Mirdad et al, 2006

Figure 4: Effect of seed ageing on germination percent and solute leakage in
cauliflower and cabbage seeds at 15% moisture content and 450 C temperatures.
Ageing hour increases the germination percentage of cauliflower and cabbage
decreases electrical conductivity increases total dehydrogenase activity decreases.

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Figure 5: Effect of seed ageing on electrical conductivity in rice cv. GHAEM seeds.
In rice seeds Membrane degradation increase electrolyte leakage.
Decline in seed germination, field emergence and seedling vigor is
associated with high level of electrolyte leakage. Electrolyte leakage is
directly proportional to ageing as the ageing advances leachates amount
increases.

Neelesh kapoor et al. (2011)

Figure 6: Effect of accelerated ageing on germination percent and moisture content
in rice cultivars

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 All the genotypes showed decreased germination percentage as the
duration of accelerated ageing duration increases this may be due to
degradation of mitochondrial membrane hence energy synthesis reduced. As
the accelerated duration increases the moisture content increases this may be
due to increase in imbibe water due to the disorganization of cell
membranes.
C. Ultra Structural Changes
Structural changes associated with oxidation are reduced membrane
fluidity. Increased brittleness of the cellular matrix.
Major category of evidence for ultra structure damage can be done by
microscopic examination
 Plasma lemma withdrawn from the cell walls as seeds age
 Fusion of lipid bodies
 Changes in appearance of mitochondria, plastids and Golgi stacks
 Damage to the nuclear envelope
 Lack of dictyosomes and polyribosomes
 Fragmented ER and its contraction from the cell wall
D. Delayed Germination
 Delay in full expression of germination is the earliest detectable
physiological sign of quality loss
 As seed ages, the propensity for genetic mutations increases
 Free radicals have affect on chromosomal DNA
 These chromosomal aberrations delays the onset of mitosis
necessary for germination (Murata et al.1980)
 In non viable seeds, the ribosome's fail to dissociate and protein
synthesis is retarded

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 Figure 7: Effect of ageing on time taken to 50% germination and speed of
germination in pea (Pisum sativum L.) seeds
Free radicals have effect on chromosomal DNA as the ageing advances
breakage of chromosomal DNA increases. This will increase the time taken
for germination by hindering the onset of mitosis necessary for germination
this will reduce the speed of germination as the duration of ageing increases.
E. Reduced Germinability
Table 1: Germination Percentage of Maize, Soybean Seeds under Ambient and
Accelerated Ageing Condition of 90% RH and 400C (With in Brackets are Sine
Value)

Vijay and Dadlani (2003)

Reduction in germination is due to degradation of mitochondrial
membrane leading to reduction in energy supply necessary for germination
(Gidrol et al. 1998). Cellular disintigrity and damage of membrane like
mitochondria leads to reduced germination percentage.
F. Reduced growth of seedlings
 Deteriorated seeds, if they germinate at all often produce seedlings
which grow slowly.
 Reduced seedling growth may be a consequence of less efficient

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 mitochondrial function
 Inner membrane of mitochondria (cristae) has great surface area
and is the site of electron transfer
 Lipid peroxidation of this structure would compromise energy
(ATP) production
Biochemical Changes of Seed Deterioration
Lipid peroxidation
Degradation of functional structures
Inability of ribosomes to dissociate
Enzyme degradation and inactivation
Formation and activation of hydrolytic enzymes
Genetic degradation
Accumulation of toxic compounds
Lipid Peroxidation
Lipid Peroxidation can be defined as the oxidative deterioration of lipids
containing carbon-carbon double bonds. Lipid peroxidation begins with the
generation of free radical either by auto-oxidation or enzymatically by
oxidative enzymes such as lipoxygenases present in the seeds. "Free radical".
These chemical forms are defined as any species (atom or a molecule)
capable of independent existence that contains one or more unpaired
electrons (those which occupy an atomic or molecular orbital by
themselves). They are formed either by the loss of a single electron from a
non-radical or by the gain of a single electron by a non-radical.
Mechanisms of Lipid Peroxidation
1. Auto Oxidation by free radical reaction : Autoxidation may be
primary cause of SD at moisture content below 6%.
2. Enzyme Action: Above 14 % moisture content, lipid peroxidation
may again be stimulated by the activity of hydrolytic oxidative
enzymes such as lipoxygenase.
Several free radicals or relative oxygen species (ROS) are known.
Among them, the most frequently studied are given below.
Superoxide radical (O2.-) is formed when oxygen takes up one electron
and as leaks in the mitochondrial electron transport
Its first production site is the internal mitochondrial membrane (NADH
ubiquinone reductase and ubiquinone cytochrome C reductase). They are

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also produced by autooxidation of hydroquinones, leukoflavins and thiols
2. Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2)
 Hydrogen peroxide is mainly produced by enzymatic reactions.
These enzymes are located in microsomes, peroxysomes and
mitochondria.
3. Hydroxyl Radical (.OH)
 In the presence of Fe2+, H2O2 produces the very active species
.OH by the Fenton reaction
4. Singlet Oxygen: This chemical form of oxygen is not a true radical but
is reported to be an important ROS in reactions related to ultraviolet
exposition (UVA, 320-400 nm).
 LOO + LOO LO + LOH + 1O2 Free radicle damage in dry seeds
and during imbibition

During prolonged seed storage, lipid autoxidation generates free radicles

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(primary free radicals: FR I) resulting in degradation of triacylglycerols
(TAG’s), Mrna, dna and proteins during this peroid, FR I may also damage
antioxidant enzymes.During germination, the resumption of metabolism
leads to the production of new ROS (secondary free radicals: FR II) mainly
via respiratory activity within mitichondria in addition to the already present
FR I
How to Measure Lipid Peroxidation?
1. Direct detection of free radicals Electron spin resonance(ESR)
2. Detection of primary and secondary products of free radical damage
3. Estimation of Hydroperoxides, Conjugated dienes,
Malondialdehyde, Hexaldehyde etc……
4. Loss of substrates: There is preferrential deletion of PUFA(Linoleic
and Linolenic acids)
5. Monitoring changes in antioxidant levels: Tocopherols, Ascorbate,
Glutathione, SOD
6. Effect of antioxidant treatments.

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Sequence of Lipid Peroxidation
Several free radicals or relative oxygen species (ROS) are known.
Among them, the most frequently studied are given below.
1. Superoxide Radical (O2.-)
 Is formed when oxygen takes up one electron and as leaks in the
mitochondrial electron transport

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  They are also produced by autooxidation of hydroquinones,
leukoflavins and thiols
2. Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2)
 Hydrogen peroxide is mainly produced by enzymatic reactions.
These enzymes are located in microsomes, peroxysomes and
mitochondria.
3. Hydroxyl Radical (.OH)
 In the presence of Fe2+, H2O2 produces the very active species
.OH by the Fenton reaction
4. Singlet Oxygen
 This chemical form of oxygen is not a true radical but is reported to
be an important ROS in reactions related to ultraviolet exposition
(UVA, 320-400 nm).
 LOO + LOO
 LO + LOH + 1O2

Kalpana and Rao (1994).

Figure 7: Effect of accelerated ageing of seeds on lipid peroxidation of pigeon pea
cultivars.
During early stages the lipid content was more as the aging duration
prolongs lipid content was going to decrease with the production of free fatty
acids and mda content.

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 Table 5: Specific activities of malate dehydrogenase in cotyledons and embryonic
axis as influenced by accelerated ageing of seeds in different sunflower genotypes.

Malate dehydrogenase (µmol NADH oxi/min/mg protein)

Unaged seeds Aged seeds
Genotype
cotyledon E.axis cotyledon E. ax is
CMS7-1A 0.31 1.59 0.23 0.09
CMS243A 0.39 2.46 0.08 0.22
6D-1 0.57 3.85 0.36 0.11
RHA 271 0.90 5.26 0.42 0.16

Reduced activity of MDA indicted that seeds became more sensitive to

the effects of oxygen and free radical damages which leads to reduced
seedling vigour and viability
Kannababu et al, 2000
Changes in Respiration
Changes in the respiration rate have been the most widely studied
biochemical parameter in seed deterioration. When healthy seeds respire
they produce certain amount of energy which may be utilized as a measure
of deterioration. During deterioration, seeds generally suffer damage to their
respiratory capacity for early germination due to a consequence of damage to
mitochondrial membrane and ultrastructural changes.
Low vigour in Soybean was due to increased levels of toxic products
such as ethanol and aldehydes. This was due to inability of the damaged
mitochondria to keep up with glycolytic activity resulting in anaerobic
Catabolism. (Woodstock and Taylorson, 1981). Subsequent studies on seed
respiration during the early hours of germination in naturally aged seedlots,
indicated that “ Positive correlation between O2 uptake by germinating seeds
with their germinabilbity and seedling growth rate”.
Changes in Enzymes
Enzyme changes during seed deterioration have been investigated by
several workers. They have noticed that enzymes involved in catabolic
reactions, especially hydrolases are more stable than those enzymes involved
in synthetic reactions.Among several enzymes Oxidases (Catalase,
Peroxidase and Phenolase) were the first enzymes investigated with the
objective of establishing correlation between their activity and seed
viability.Decrease activity of enzymes such as catalase, dehydrogenase and
glutamic acid decarboxylase in seeds is well documented in deteriorating
seeds. Decrease in enzymes activity in the seed lowers its respiratory

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potential, which in turn lowers both the energy (ATP) and food supply to the
germinating seed.
Change in the Enzymatic Action
Type of
Type of enzyme Crop Authority
change
Alpha - amylase Decreased Wheat, rice, maize Das and Sen-Mandi, 1992
Beta- amylase Decreased Wheat Livesley and Bray, 1991
Hydrolase Decreased Sweet corn Harris and De Mason, 1989
DNA ligase Decreased Maize Vazquez et al., 1991
Lipoxygenases Decreased Pigeon pea Kalpana and Rao, 1993
Phosphatase Decreased Rice Rajgopal and Sen-Mandi,1992
SOD, catalase,
Decreased Pea nut Jeng and Sung, 1994
peroxidase
RNase Increased Rice, pigeon pea Kalpana and Rao, 1993
Proteinase Increased Maize Basavarajappa et al ., 1991
Isoesterases Increased Peanut Jeng and Sung, 1994
SOD Increased Peanut Jeng and Sung, 1994
Glutathione
Increased Tomato DeVos et al., 1991
oxidase

If the seed moisture is high than various hydrolytic enzymes for

germination are activated but moisture may not be sufficient for actual
germination. So the seed deteriorates because of energy expenditure during
breakdown or accumulation of breakdown products, like increased free fatty
acids due to activation of enzyme lipase, destruction of membrane structure
due to attack of phospholipase on phospholipids of membrane, activation of
phosphotase enzyme convert ATP and ADP, resulting in an energy loss
accompanied by increased phosphate acidity etc
Dey and Mukherjee(1986) found that storage of mustard, Maize and
Soyabean was associated with high levels of lipase and accumilation of free
fatty acids. In contrast dehydrogenase and peroxidase levels decreased.
Table 4: Effect of ageing on SOD, catalase and ascorbate peroxidase in axis and
cotyledon in 2 peanut cultivars Jen and Sung, 2014

SOD Catalase Ascorbate POD

Cultivars
E.axis cotyledon E. axis cotyledon E. axis cotyledon
Un aged 3.10 0.83 1.54 0.56 21.63 2.35
TN 11
Aged (4h) 2.49 0.67 1.05 0.50 16.85 1.83
Li chi trae Un aged 2.88 1.08 1.74 0.56 22.50 4.42

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 Aged (4h) 1.68 0.86 0.99 0.51 14.30 2.45
LSD 0.01% 0.25 0.11 0.79 0.30 3.79 0.39

The activity of these enzymes decreases with ageing, due to this seeds
become more sensitive to oxidation and free radical damages in membrane
and produdce lipid peroxidation.
Changes in Food Reserves
The oldest theory of loss of viability due to depletion of food reserves
was questioned because when seeds loose their viability/capacity to
germinate, they still have a large amount of stored food in their tissue.
However Harrington(1967) suggested that depletion of available
oxidizable material in meristematic cells (embryonic axis) might cause
deterioration even whe adjacent tissues such as cotyledons and endosperms
still contain abundant food. In this case, lack of mobilisation of food in seeds
would lead to starvation of these meristematic cells ultimately lead to death.
Oxley (1948) suggested that the continued life of seeds depends on the
use of some labile organic matter present in the embryo & as this substance
becomes exhausted the seed loses viability.
 Carbohydrates Amylases Reducing and non-reducing
sugars
 Proteins proteases Amino acids
 Lipidsl ipases Free fatty acids
 Phytin phytase Acid phosphates
Change in Lipids
One of the changes associated with deterioration of seeds in general, and
oilseeds in particular is increase in their acidity due to freefatty acids
produced by the action of lipase on lipids Acid phosphates resulting from
hydrolysis of Phytin by Phytase Aminoacids produced by hydrolysis of
proteins by proteases Of these groups the largest and earliest increases occur
in the free fatty acids.
Type of lipid Type of change Crop Authority
Total lipid Decreased Pigeon pea Kaplana and Rao, 1996
Phospholipid Decreased Pigeon pea, maize Kaplana and Rao, 1996
Phosphotidyl Pigeon pea, Petruzzeli and Taranto,
Decreased
choline maize,bean,wheat 1984
Linolenic acid Increased Bean, soybean Gidrol et al ., 1988

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 Linoleic acid Increased Soybean Wood stock et al ., 1984
Free fatty acids Decreased Maize Basavarajappa et al., 1991

Changes in Carbohydrates
Starch is the primary storage material in most of the seeds. In
deteriorating seeds these stored food is prone to breakage and hence more
simple sugars are formed.
Type of sugars Type of change Crop Authority
Reducing sugars Decrease Faba beans El – Refai et al .,1988
Reducing sugars Increase Pigeon pea Rao and Kalpana, 1994
Non reducing sugars Increase Peanut WWadha et al ., 1989
Soluble sugars Decrease Pigeon pea Rao and Kalpana, 1994
Glucose Increase Wheat Petruzzelli, 1986
Bernal – Lugo and
Monosaccharides Decrease Maize
Leopold, 1992
Mc Donald, 1999
Changes in Protein
The changes in proteins of deteriorated seeds may be due to Partial
breakdown of protein moleculesDecreased digestibility of proteins by
proteolytic enzymes Pepsin and Trypsine.Decreased water solubility. Also
due to degradation of protein there will be increase in the aminoacid content.
(Jones, 1942)
Type of
Type of protein Crop Authority
change
Protein synthesis Decreased Wheat, soybean, pea Gidrol et al., 1988
Protein content Decreased Pigeon pea, Rao and Kalpana, 1994
Soluble protein Decreased Peanut Wadha et al ., 1989
Amino acid Mukhopadhyaya et al.,
Increased Rice
content 1986
Leucine Mukhopadhyaya and
Decreased Rice
synthesis Ghosh, 1986
Mc Donald, 1999
 At intermediate MC between 8% and 12%, both lipid auto-
oxidation and enzyme mediated lipid peroxidation are significantly
retarded
 In such conditions non-enzymatic reactions play a prominent role in
the deterioration
Amadori Reaction: It involves a simple, non-enzymatic attack on

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amino groups by reducing sugars to form fructosyl derivatives (or) glycated
proteins.
Maillard Reaction: It represents subsequent complex interactions
between the glycated amadori products to form polymeric brown coloured
products, hence the term “browning reaction.

Kalpana and Madhava Rao (1997)

Figure 9: Effect of accelerated ageing of seeds on the total protein content of
pigeonpea cultivars
 There was decrease in protein content was higher in ICPL 87 >
PDM 1 > T21 and this may bedue to variations in rates of protein synthesis
and degradation

Figure 10: Effect of accelerated ageing of seeds on the total free amino acid content
of pigeonpea cultivars

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 Increase in Accelerated ageing levels is due to greater degradation of
proteins by proteinases and the same trend was followed in all the pigeon
pea cultivars

Figure 11: Influence of accelerated ageing on total soluble seed protein profiles of
tomato
Protein Profiles of different aged lot seeds of Cv. Pusa Ruby and
Zymograms of total soluble proteins of different aged seed lots of tomato cv.
Pusa Ruby this may be due to Lost of elasticity of proteins and increased
brittleness of the cellular matrix

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 Neelesh kumar et, al 2011
Figure 12: Effect of accelerated ageing on soluble protein(mg/ g fresh
weight) in rice
Decrease in soluble protein content due to denaturation of protein, and
lack of ATP production by mitochondria this may be due to loss of elasticity.
Changes in Membranes
It has been known for over a century that electrical conductivity of a
solution in which plant tissues are immersed increases as the tissues
die.(Webber, 1836). Such a increase in the conductivity is caused by
increased membrane permeability of the dying tissue.
Since seed is a living entity, it is also prone to ageing. So, disruption of
membrane integrity could be taken as a major physiological symptom of
seed deterioration and increased conductivity of seed leachate shall be used
as an index of deterioration.
Fergnon (1990) noticed increased conductivity of leachate from isolated
axes of deteriorating Soyabean seeds during storage However these
conductivity changes shall be treated with caution because, an increase in
conductivity can arise from, Fleshing out of the contents of broken cells
under areas of mechanical damage .An increase in amount of specific solutes
available to leakout Loss of membrane integrity.
mtDNA is more susceptible to free radical attack than nuclear DNA
Susceptibility is due to ----
1. mtDNA is more exposed to radical attack > nuclear DNA
Because mitochondria – principle site of O2 utilization results in greater

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 level of free radical production in mitochondria
2. mt DNA is naked, no protective histones
3. Repair of nuclear DNA is more successful than mtDNA – less
repair enzymes in mitochondria
Losses of Membrane Phospholipids
As the conductivity increases, changes in the membrane composition
has been found to occur at very early stage of deterioration.
Powell and Mathews (1981) were able to demonstrate that losses in
phosholipid particularly phosphotidyl choline during the early hours of
ageing in Pea seeds.
Changes in the Endogenous PGR’s
Another possible cause of seed deterioration is the disruption of the
Phytohormonal control which is very much essential for germination
process.
Change in Enzyme Activities
Disruption of Metabolism.
Loss of sensitivity to PGR --membrane damage decreased capacity of
cell to respond Several workers have shown that application of PGR’s Such
as gibberellins, cytokinins, and ethylene are very effective in improving
vigour of aged, still viable seed (Harrington, 1973).
Application of a combination of kinetin and KNO3 improved
germination rates of ten year old viable tomato seeds. (Lambeth and Puls,
1974)
So the data from these kind of works suggest the beneficial effect of
PGR’s by the promotion of metabolism favoring repair activity at
appropriate stages of the germination process.
Accumilation of Toxic metabolites
Scientists have reported the possible involvement of accumulated toxic
metabolites in the deterioration process.
 Ethanol (anaerobic respiration)
 Aldehydes (anaerobic respiration and lipid peroxidation)
 Short chain fatty acids (lipid breakdown)
 Phenolics (secondary products of lipid peroxidation)

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 Products of lipid peroxidation also form a major portion of toxic
compounds.
• Primary Products
Monohydroxy peroxides
• Secondary Products –
Hydrocarbons: Alkanes and Alkenes
Aldehydes – Malondialdehyde
Hydroxyaldehydes
Epoxides
Genetic Degradation
Apart from other causes, damage to the genome is most commonly cited
as a likely primary cause of seed deterioration
A little damage may result in the accumulation of ‘Point mutation’
where small changes are non lethal and carried through a sufficient number
of daughter cells to affect plant morphology or function either at a later stage
of growth (abnormal seedling production, Pollen sterility) or to be carried
through a recessive genes to later generations.
For each genotype there is a critical proportion of cells which can be
damaged before seed viability affected/ injured.
Eg: Generally this level shouldn’t exceed 15%.
Considerably low for barley(4%)
Such a genetic damage is the result of impaired breaks in the genome
which may be caused by variety of agents such as
 Free radical damage
 Hydrolytic enzyme activity
 Mutageneic compounds which may accumulate in deteriorating
seeds
Types of Genetic Damage
1. Chromosomal Aberrations: Where both chromatids are damaged
at the same point (suggesting damage before the first round of
germinative DNA replication)
2. Chromatid Aberration: Where only one of the pair of chromatids
is damaged (a lesion likely to have occurred after the first S-phase

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 of cell division on germination).
Inability of Ribosomes to Dissociate
 Recent evidence indicate that the dissociation of polyribosomes
must occur leading to protein synthesis in germinating seedlings
 In deteriorating seeds, the ribosomes fail to dissociate and protein
synthesis is retarded
 Such declines in protein synthesis are measurable symptoms of seed
senescence
 Dissociation of polyribosome's must occur before attachment of
preformed m-RNA occurs, leading to protein synthesis in
germinating seedlings(App et al. 1971)
 In non viable seeds, the ribosome's fail to dissociate and protein
synthesis is retarded.
 Ageing depresses the synthesis of newly formed m-RNA(Weinder
and Zalewski 1982).
 Long lived m-RNA is lost during extended seed storage(Ghosh and
Choudhuri 1984)
Conclusion

At cellular level, seed ageing is associated with various alterations

including loss of membrane integrity, reduced energy metabolism,
impairment of RNA and protein synthesis, and DNA degradation (Kibinza et

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al. 2006).
Lipid peroxidation and products resulting from these processes lead to
DNA denaturation, prevent translation and protein transcription, and cause
oxidation of the most reactive amino acids. When these types of damages
occur in seed, they may cause decrease in vigour and seed germination
(Popovic , 2014).
Seeds that possess mucilage around their seed coats under high relative
humidity environments would be more likely to transfer that moisture into
the seed causing more rapid deterioration. It has been known for a long time
that a progressive fragmentation of embryonic nuclear DNA occurs during
seed ageing (Cheah and Osborne, 2014). ROS act as a messenger at lower
concentrations, and a threshold increase will damage the polyunsaturated
fatty acids of phospholipids, DNA and proteins (Jeevan Kumar et al. 2015)
References
1. Cheah SE, Osborne DJ. DNA lesions occur with loss of viability in
embryos of ageing rye seeds. Nature. 2014; 272:593-599.
2. Jeevan Kumar SP, Prasad RS, Banerjee RS, Thammineni C. Seed birth
to death: dual functions of reactive oxygen species in seed physiology.
Annals of Botany. 2015; 7:1-6.
3. Kalpana, Mahadev RAO. Physiology and Biochemistry of deterioration
in soybean seeds during storage; I. mobilization efficiency and
metabolism. Seed Res. 1994; 2:26-32.
4. Kibinza S, Vinel D, COˆME D, Bailly C, Corbineau F. Sunflower seed
deterioration as related to moisture content during ageing, energy
metabolism and active oxygen species scavenging. Physiologia
Plantarum. 2006; 128:496-506.
5. Mc. Donald. Physiological and Biochemical differences in deterioration
barley seeds. Crop Sci. 1990; 10:36.
6. Mohammadi H, Soltani A, Sadeghipour HR, Zeinali E. Effect of seed
aging on subsequent seed reserve utilization and seedling growth in
soybean. International Journal of Plant Production. 2011; 5(1):65-70.
7. Neelesh Kumar. Physiological and biochemical deterioration of seeds.
Seed Biology, ed. T.T. Kozlowski, Academy Press, New York, 2011.
8. Popovic B. Lipid peroxidation, sugar hydrolysis, Maillard reactions and
their relationship to glass state transition. Journal of Experimental
Botany. 2014; 54:1057-1067.

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9. www.googlescholor.comw
10. www.google.com
11. www.researchgate.com

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 Chapter - 7
A Credulous Attitude of Indian Farmers Towards
Intensive Farming and Its Detrimental Effects

Authors
Utkarsh Singh Rathore
Division of Crop Protection, ICAR-Indian Institute of Pulses
Research, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India
Sandeep Kumar
Division of Crop Protection, ICAR-Indian Institute of Pulses
Research, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India
Monika Mishra
Division of Crop Protection, ICAR-Indian Institute of Pulses
Research, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India

Page | 141
Page | 142
 Chapter - 7
A Credulous Attitude of Indian Farmers Towards Intensive
Farming and Its Detrimental Effects

Introduction
Agriculture is the backbone of India’s economy and contributes to feed
the growing world’s population. Agriculture includes farming of different
food commodities, such as Pisciculture for fish production, Sericulture for
silk production, Apiculture for honey, Poultry for eggs and meat production,
etc. The growing population is one of the major issues of any developing
country and to fulfil the requirements of this population is a challenge. If
dependent on the traditional ways of farming, the output will feed only a
limited population. Various colour (green, white, blue, yellow, golden,
silver, etc.) revolutions were initiated to enhance the yield of these farm
products. This was the beginning of intensification of farming.
Intensive farming is the practice where a large number of labour and
capital is engaged to get maximum yield per unit area. The practice
concentrates primarily on getting profit in terms of output from available
area; by intensive use of pesticides, fertilizer, mechanical ploughing, plant
and animal growth hormones, plant growth regulators and other production
inputs which helped improving agricultural production.
Intensified farming has become a culture and is being practiced in the
regions of dense population which involves western and eastern coastal
regions of India, flood plains and the areas adjacent to them. Uttar Pradesh,
Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Orissa
are major followers of this culture.
In recent years, the excessive external input in agriculture has put
negative impact on environment and making the biological diversity
vulnerable to diseases. At the same time, many underprivileged and small
holder farmers are being forced to exploit the resources available to
them so intensively that degradation of soil health occurs, there too (FAO,
1992).

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Features
1. Rigorous use of small area or lands are involved
2. Production is dependent upon technology associated inputs
3. Intensive farming focuses on high value crops, craving profits
4. Yield per hectare is high
Advantages of Intensive Farming
Intensification of agriculture has played an important role in reducing
the prices of farm produce such as vegetables, fruits and poultry products,
making them affordable to low income population. The practice have also
aided in the extricate hunger problem to a great extent in developing
countries. It helps the farmers to easily supervise and monitor the land and
protect their livestock being hurt or hounded by wild animals.
Table 1: Positive environmental implications of different sources of increased crop
production

Sources of increased
Positive impacts
crop production
 Reduced pressure to increase intensity of cultivation
 Maintained fallow system and time
Increase in cropping
 Restrained tail away of soil fertility
area
 Potential for some improvements to general living
environments
 Stress on small holder farmers is reduced to occupy new
land
Increase in cropping
 Improved soil conditions by integrated farming
intensity
 Reduced erosion risk through double cropping

 Greater incentives in terms of economic growth of

Increase in yields farmers
 Efficient use of land and water resources

High Crop Yield

One of the main rewards of intensive farming is the production of higher
livestocks, their products and crop yields. Farm products such as meat, eggs,
milk, fish, and cereals are highly demanded in the contemporary world’s
food markets such as restaurants and supermarkets. Satisfying the market
demands has maximally been achieved through intensive farming, since
surplus yields are obtained in large quantities on a small piece of land.
According to ministry of agriculture, India, 272 million tonnes food grain
production was estimated in 2016-17, surpassing the previous record of 265
million tonnes in 2013-14 and production of cotton was 32.5 million bales in

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2016-17. Similarly, other crops also gave higher yield. Table 2 summarizes
some commodities exported during 2013-2017 (till Sept.).
Table 2: India’s Top Agricultural Export Commodities

2016-17
2013-14 2014-15 2015-16
Sl. (Apr-Sept.)
Commodity
No. Qty Value Qty Value Qty Value Qty Value
(tons) (Crores) (tons) (Crores) (tons) Crores) (tons) (Crores)
Marine
1 1,001 30,627 1,073 33,685 976 3,1183 493 18,686
products
Rice
2 3,754 29,292 3,702 27,599 4,045 22,714 2,067 10,924
(Basmati)
Rice (except
3 7,148 17,795 8,226 20,336 6,374 15,086 3,369 8,616
Basmati)
4 Spices 897 15,146 923 14,842 821 16,374 475 9,416
5 Cotton 1,948 22,338 1,143 11,643 1,346 12,816 210 2,061
6 Sugar 2,478 7,179 1,954 5,327 3,826 9,772 1,392 4,318
7 Cashew nut 121 5,095 135 5,566 103 5,025 37 2,158
8 Oil Meals 6,577 17,070 3,904 8,129 2,056 3,599 814 1,380
Source: Department of Agriculture, Cooperation & Farmers Welfare

Variety of Food can be produced

Since intensive farming mainly focuses on mass food production of
specific food crops or animal production, it leads to more variety of food for
human consumption. Accordingly, the engagement of manpower in different
areas of the practice, such as fruit and vegetable production, livestock
farming and aquaculture. Variety in food commodities provides option to
choose among commodities according to the need and strength to spend in a
population.
More Worth While
A farmer always seeks to maximize the yield as to compensate the
amount of inputs delivered. Orthodox farming methods need large tracts of
land and produce lesser yields. Whereas, Intensive farming utilizes less farm
inputs (i.e. requirements for equipments, space and other inputs are
minimized) and less land per unit of the food grains or other commodities
yielded, it is regarded more efficient and economical. As discussed above,
efficiency of intensive farming can also be compared to conventional
cropping or culturing system in terms of verity of commodities produced per
unit area on a given land. It is evident that mono-cropping requires higher
inputs and in turn lower yields are rewarded.

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Affordable Food Prices
Many axiom affirms that organic food can be afforded only by the top
sections of the society. Intensive farming practices produce more
and cheaper food per acre, which has helped feed a growing human
population and may prevent output at the lowest possible cost to the
operator, factory farms operate without regard for public health, the
environment, food safety, rural extravagances, animal health
Ensuring Regulated Farming
Numerous agricultural institutes and environmentally friendly agencies
have taken the initiative to monitor and control the possible adverse effects
of intensive farming. Consequently, the organisations and agricultural
research institutes have set certain rules and regulations on the use of farm
inputs such as fertilizers, pesticides, growth hormones, herbicides, and have
even stated clear trials on how to maintain and manage livestock and thus
ensuring safe, healthy and affordable produce reaches to market.
Sustainable Supply of Food
With the demand for food soaring across the world due to ever-
increasing number of human populations, intensive farming system offers
the benefit of high crop productivity with the possibility of meeting the food
market stresses. Besides, it requires less amount of land which means that it
significantly contributes to economies of scale in meeting the ever-escalating
demand for food supplies. Other than this, to ensure food security increased
food productivity per unit area should be to optimally utilize available land,
water and energy as well as adequate concern and commitment is needed to
significantly minimizing, if not eliminating totally, the current level of food
wastages. To maintain sustainable supply chains of agricultural produce an
efficient link must be established between farmers and consumers, with
adequate financial investments in cold storages and refrigerated vans.
Hindrances of Intensive Farming
Intensive agriculture has a lot of deleterious effects on environment. It is
clear that intensive agriculture is profit making practice but it causes
increased level of pathogens and chemicals in our land and water as well as
increased levels of greenhouse gases in air (Rodriguez et al. 2004).
Poor Living Conditions and Hygiene for Livestock
Intensive farming is highly criticized and thought to be cruel to the
animals. Because it involves the use of various chemicals, growth hormones
and excess crowding on a small space, the outcome is usually poor living

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conditions and hygiene for the livestock. Keeping livestock above their
capacity is associated with pollution and poor hygiene which results in
infections and various diseases.
Excessive Use of Agro-Chemicals
During last few decades, agricultural development policies have been
remarkably successful, emphasizing external inputs as the means to increase
food production. This has produced remarkable growth in global utilization
of pesticides, inorganic fertilizers, herbicides, insecticides, acaricides, animal
feed, tractors and other machineries (Coen and Ann, 2001). Intensive
farming as discussed above involves the utilization of numerous types of
agro-chemicals. Unbalanced and unspecific use of agro-chemicals dissipates
the fertility of soil as well as lowers the beneficial microbes present in the
plant-soil micro-biome. Similarly, insecticides and pesticides also kill
beneficial insects which contribute to biodiversity loss. When these
chemicals are used they not only destroy their intended targets such as pests,
weeds and parasites but also contaminate the food products. The workers and
nearby population are equally affected by the chemical sprays and whoever
consume the food are indirectly taking the chemicals into their system
causing the threat of bioaccumulation.
Deforestation and Alteration of the Natural Environment
Environmental studies and reports indicate impacts of intensive farming
showing degradation of environment in countless ways. The removal of
trees, slush and burn techniques, and the clearing of forest areas to create
room for agriculture has led to massive deforestation and soil erosion. Rates
of soil erosion appear to be increasing due to more intensive cultivation and
mechanisation (Harris, 1990). Mechanised land clearing can result in high
initial rates of soil loss (Thomas and Middleton, 1994).
As an outcome, natural habitats and wild animals have been heavily
affected as the destructive practices have persistently contributed to habitat
loss. The use of chemical fertilizers and herbicides contaminates soils,
wildlife habitats, and water bodies like oceans, rivers and lakes. Fertilizer
nutrients in particular are the main cause of eutrophication in most of the
world’s water bodies such as oceans, lakes, and rivers. Local extinctions are
common where insecticides are frequently used. Such insecticides have been
shown to eliminate important predators and parasitoid species from
agricultural systems (Pimentel et al., 2005; Kughur, 2012).

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Risks on Human Health
The vegetables and fruits sourced from areas that practice intensive
farming and full of invisible pesticides. The challenge is that the pesticides
cannot be washed away easily and since the fruits and vegetable appear clean
after a simple wash, humans indirectly consume the chemical pesticides.
Agricultural intensification through excessive and inappropriate use of agro-
chemical had resulted in many respiratory diseases and cancer in humans. In
addition, consumption of the pesticides affects the health of humans with
health risks such as physical deformity, skin allergy, and congenital diseases.
One of the recent tragedy reports from Kattukukke in Kasargod, Kerala,
where excessive use of “Endosulfan”- a pesticide slowly started poisoning
the population in the area. Soon enough by 2012 half of the population of
new borns’ were disabled. Whereas, in adults Chronic Obstructive
Pulmonary Disease (COPD) was observed. Similarly, children unknowingly
consuming pesticides in agricultural food products may suffer from
Attention Deficit/ Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD).
Higher Risks of Cancer and Birth Defects
Public health publications and cancer statistics prove a direct correlation
between the consumption of food sourced from intensive farming areas and
an increasing number of cancer victims. The consumption of food products
procured from intensive farming areas is also said to be responsible for the
increase the number of congenital abnormality cases. The public health
researchers states that the rising cases of children born with defects and
cancer is probably caused by the consumption of inorganic agro-chemical
sourced through fruits, meat, vegetables, and poultry into human system.
Table 3 represents the incidence and mortality caused by cancer, information
gathered through surveys worldwide was meta-analysed by two PhD
scholars Aaron Blair and Laura Beane Freeman.
Table 3: Meta-analyses showing cancer mortality and incidence surveys of farmers
worldwide

From: Acquavella et al.,

From: Blair et al., 1992
1998
Cause # of Studies Relative Risk # of Studies Relative Risk
All causes 10 0.86* 7 0.76*
*
Ischemic heart disease 12 0.89 14 0.86*
All cancer 20 0.89* 22 0.84*
Lip 8 2.08* 14 1.95*
Oesophagus 18 0.74 25 0.77*

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 Lung 24 0.66* 29 0.66*
Bladder 21 0.85* 29 0.79*
Skin 8 1.04 19 1.15*
Stomach 24 1.12* 29 1.05
Colon 15 0.87* 29 0.84*
Pancreas 20 0.98 28 0.94
Prostate 22 1.08* 30 1.07*
Testis 10 0.88 14 0.97
Brain 18 1.05 28 1.06*
Non Hodgkin lymphoma 14 1.05 23 1.03
Hodgkin disease 12 1.16* 26 1.09
Myeloma 12 1.12* 22 1.09
Leukaemia 23 1.07* 27 1.10*
Connective tissue 7 1.06 6 1.06
Source: doi: 10.1080/10599240902779436
Use of Hormones in Food and Compromise with Low Quality Food
Products
The majority of the food products used in intensive farming systems,
especially vegetables, fruits, poultry, and livestock are full of growth
hormones. If one takes a keen look at the intensive farming systems, he or
she will realize there are many hybrid varieties of plants, poultry and
livestock are injected with growth hormones and other chemicals
prematurely to augment production.
Since intensive farming centres primarily on mass production of nice
looking food products, the production strategies overlook the need for
quality and nutritious food products. As a consequence, the quality of foods
sourced from such practice sites often lacks the same nutritive values as
compared to those produced using the conventional farming methods or
organic farming.
Table 4: Negative environmental impacts of different sources of increased crop
production

Sources of increased
Negative impacts
crop production
 Changes in land-use (reduced areas of forests and
grasslands, and increased pressures on remaining
resources
Increased cropped areas
 Loss of special habitats and reductions in biodiversity
 Increased soil loss and downstream impacts of
opening new land

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  Increased cultivation of marginal soils with greater
risks of soil loss and degradation
 Release of greenhouse gasses (from cleared forest and
reduced soil organic matter)
 Reduced fallow periods, with potential for reductions
in soil fertility and organic matter contents
 Increased frequency of cultivation (loss of organic
matter, effects on soil structure and water holding
Increased cropping
capacity, increased risks of soil erosion
intensity
 Increased use of inputs and water (with impacts as
outlined below
 Potential for landscape and amenity changes, and
further loss of habitats and biodiversity
 Increased use of inputs (risks of waste, losses and
pollution due to fertilizer and pesticide use, and
effects of increased energy consumption in
agriculture
 Increased mechanisation (risks of soil damage, effects
Increased crop yields
of energy use
 Effects of agro-chemicals on non-target organisms,
biodiversity and human health
 Increased water use in irrigated areas (risks of aquifer
depletion, raised water tables, salinization

Conclusion
Traditional farmers are unable to gain enough profits and less job
creation opportunities; Green Revolution initiated the use of agrochemicals
and machineries to enhance the agricultural produce. Thus, Intensive
farming came into role which utilizes less space, labour and resources to
produce much greater volumes. This makes very hard for traditional farmers
to compete, as a result farmers started opposing traditional farming methods.
Intensive agricultural land use limits gene flow among population and
fragment habitats available to any particular species. The practice simply
aims to produce perfectly looking yields and to possibly extend their shelf
life instead of enhancing nutritional value and taste which breeds room for
poor quality food products in the long-run.
Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice
(SBSTTA, 2003) has reported negative externalities such as massive habitat
losses due to expansion of agricultural land for intensive agriculture
practices and the associated impact on biodiversity, soil degradation such as
erosion, depletion and pollution of natural water resources and climatic
changes are only a few examples of the former practice. The world’s forests
and woodlands contribute to majority of diversity, which is declining

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progressively. Tillman 1999 and 2002 reported that approx. 2% of total
woodlands and 8% of natural forests has been depreciated, consequently
contributing to loss of terrestrial as well as aquatic biodiversity within and
around agricultural fields of intensive farming.
However, agriculture intensification is a need of time, although it should
be in sustainable manner to ensure the food and nutritional security in a long
run. Major steps towards sustainable intensification of agricultural practices
must involve regular maintenance of soil inhabitant, thus it is necessary to
promote, enhance and support sustainable agriculture. which consequently
will improve food and nutritional security as well as conserving land, water,
plants and animals genetic resources, biodiversity and ecosystems.
sustainable farming approach also contribute to flexibility in climate change
and natural disasters. Good agronomical practices such as crop rotation,
conservation tillage, agro-forestry, system of rice intensification, integrated
pest and plant nutrient management, integrated crop and livestock system
should be promoted in the intensified practices. Adjustments in policies, both
at national as well as international levels are required to frame effective
agricultural and environmental policies, creating conditions for sustainable
agriculture.
References
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Agricultural Sustainability and Intensive Production Practices.
Nature. 2002; 418:671-677.
13. UNHQ. TST Issues Brief: Sustainable Agriculture, Sustainable
Development Knowledge Platform, Department of Economic and
Social Affairs, 2013.

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 Chapter - 8
Export Potential, Competitiveness and Determinants of
Tomato Export in India

Authors
Meenu Punia
Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Agriculture Economics, CCSHAU,
Hisar-125004, Haryana, India
Kavita
Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Agriculture Economics, CCSHAU,
Hisar-125004, Haryana, India
Anju Duhan
Research Scholar, HSB, GJUS & T, Hisar-125001, Haryana, India
Monu Devi
Extension Lecturer in Government College, Haryana, India
Satbir Singh
Research Scholar, HSB, GJUS & T, Hisar-125001, Haryana, India

Page | 153
Page | 154
 Chapter - 8
Export Potential, Competitiveness and Determinants of
Tomato Export in India

Introduction
Tomato is the most important vegetable crop, next to potato. The major
tomato growing countries are China, USA, Italy, Turkey, India and Egypt.
India ranks second in the area as well as in production of tomato next to
China. In total world production, the share of China and India was 23.61 and
8.49 per cent, respectively (FAO 2013). Sometimes the surplus production of
tomato causes glut in the market, causing distress sale and low profit to the
growers. One of the probable solutions to the problem of this glut is to
export the surplus tomato production in fresh or processed form. In total,
exports of tomatoes originating from around the world amounted to US
$8,696,599,000. During the year 2013, the contribution of India as an
exporting country in fresh tomatoes was 1.49 per cent and highest share was
taken by Mexico (21.4 %). The overview of producing and exporting
countries demonstrate the great diversity in production conditions between
the competitors on global tomato markets. There is varied potential for the
demand of processed food. Products like tomato paste and juices are
exported to USA, Russia, UK, UAE and Netherlands. Export of tomato in
the year 2013-14 was 428536 MT with value of Rs. 86091 lakh (APEDA
website January 2015). It is important to analyse its performance and
identify the factors affecting it. This paper has discussed some of these
issues with the objectives to study the trends in area, production and
productivity of tomato in India, the performance and competitiveness of
tomato export from India and also to enlist the major destinations of Indian
tomato and tomato products, and also to identify the determinants of tomato
export from India.
Production and Trade Performance
Among the various tomato producing countries in the world, China
ranked first (47.16%) in which share of China was 23.61 per cent and China
mainland was 23.55 per cent. India ranked second (8.49%) followed by
U.S.A. (5.86%) and Turkey (5.51%) during the year2013 (Table 1). The

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major tomato growing countries are China, USA, Italy, Turkey, India and
Egypt.
Table 1: International production of tomatoes, fresh/chilled

2013
Sr. No. Country Production (in MT) Share (%)
1 China 5,06,64,255.00 23.61
2 China Mainland 5,05,52,200.00 23.55
3 India 1,82,27,000.00 8.49
4 United States of America 1,25,74,550.00 5.86
5 Turkey 1,18,20,000.00 5.51
6 Egypt 85,33,803.00 3.98
7 Iran 61,74,182.00 2.88
8 Italy 49,32,463.00 2.30
9 Brazil 41,87,646.00 1.95
10 Spain 36,83,600.00 1.72
Source: Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO)
Production, export and import of tomato and its processed products from
India during different decades since 1960s, the production of tomatoes in
India was about 0.5 Mt per annum from an area of 5.75 thousand hectares
with an average productivity of 9.35 t/ha. The production of tomato
increased throughout the study period and reached 16.6 Mt per annum during
2000s. The share in world area under tomato has increased from 3.28 per
cent during 1960s to 11.39 per cent during 2000s and yield has increased
from 9.35 t/ha to about 17.0 t/ha during this period.
Table 2: Area, production and trade of tomato in India (1960s-2000s)

Total value of trade

period Area Production Yield Export Import Net export
(‘00ha) (Mt) t/ha
(‘000 US$) (‘000 US$) (‘000 US$)
57.5 0.54 9.35 0.0 0.00
1960-70 0.00
(3.28) (1.70) (51.79) (0.0) (0.0)
104.1 0.94 8.98 0.9 0.0
1971-80 0.09
(4.67) (2.03) (43.19) (0.0001) (0.0)
247.4 2.69 10.88 52.0 15.0
1981-90 37.0
(9.05) (4.14) (44.64) (0.002) (0.001)
1991- 369.8 6.47 16.00 319.8 252.0
67.8
2000 (10.45) (6.44) (59.89) (0.007) (0.006)
2001- 979.5 16.6 17.0 2964.7
13142.4 10177.7
2010 (11.39) (6.72) (56.67)
Source: www.faostat.fao.org
Note: Figures within the parentheses indicate their percentages to world values.

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 Export in tomato from India started in 1978 and in tomato products
during 1980s. The total values of export in tomato and its processed
products, which was only US $ 52 thousand per annum during 1980s
increased to US $ 13 million per annum during the 2000s. India started
import of tomato and its processed products with a total value of US $ 15
thousand per annum during 1980s increased to US $2.9 million per annum
during 2000s, after removal of quantitative restriction in vegetable import in
late 1990s.
Composition of Tomato Trade
India trades mainly in tomato, peeled tomato, tomato paste and juice of
tomato. The Indian export of tomato and its processed products during 1970s
was of the value US $ 900 per annum which was of fresh tomatoes only.
During 1980s the export basket of tomato products expanded and the share
of tomatoes in their total export value become 42.7 per cent, followed by
tomato juice (39.8 %), tomato paste (14.62 %) and peeled tomato (2.89 %).
Table 3: Tomato Export & Import

Period Peeled tomatoes Tomato paste Fresh tomatoes Tomato juice Total
Qty. value Qty. Value Qty. value Qty. value value
Export
1971-80 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.1 0.9 0.0 0.0 0.9
1.5 7.6 22.2 20.7
1981-90 3.7 15.9 71.6 23.2 52.0
(2.89) (14.62) (42.69) (39.8)
27.1 26.7 131.6 134.3
1991-2000 35.7 16.0 688.7 145.9 319.8
(8.47) (8.35) (41.15) (42.0)
115.3 147.3 12845.5 34.3
2001-10 176.6 109.9 51095.6 36.9 13142.4
(0.88) (1.12) (97.7) (0.26)
Import
1981-90 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 14.0 15.0 15.0
33.0 168 51.0
1991-2000 22.0 189.0 0.0 0.0 67.0 252.0
(13.23) (66.54) (20.13)
318.4 2524 23.0 99.3
2001-10 430.9 3452.9 23.0 105.0 2964.7
(10.74) (85.14) (0.77) (3.34)

1. Performance and Export Competitiveness of Export of Tomato and

its Processed Products in India
The export performance Ratio/Revealed Comparative Advantage (RCA)
and Revealed Symmetric Comparative Advantage (RSCA) for export in
tomato and its processed products were estimated to compare the export
competitiveness of India and have been presented in Table 4. It can be
viewed from the Table 5 that RCAs in both tomatoes and tomato products
were far less than unity and the RSCAs were negative, almost -1. This

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indicates that India was not competitive in tomato export throughout the
study period; however, an increasing trend in RCAs and RSCA was
observed during recent years with a reversal in some years. An increasing
trend in RCAs in recent years indicates improvement in the export
competitiveness of India in tomato and its processed products with the
passage of time. Therefore, it is required to give a support to improve India’s
competitiveness by adopting some appropriate measures like improvement in
infrastructural facilities like cold chain, faster transportation at cheaper rates,
better port facilities and socialization of improved and efficient technology
in production and processing of tomato with quality improvement
techniques.
Table 4: Revealed Comparative Advantage (RCA) and Revealed Symmetric
Comparative Advantage (RSCA) of India in tomato and its processed products:
TE1991 to TE 2009

Year RCA RSCA Average RCA RSCA Average

TE 1991 0.0043 0.0020 0.0032 0.0043 0.0020 -0.9916
TE 1994 0.0073 0.0066 0.0070 0.0073 0.0066 -0.9862
TE 1997 0.0062 0.0404 0.0233 0.0062 0.0404 -0.9550
TE 2000 0.0108 0.0090 0.0099 0.0108 0.0090 -0.9805
TE 2003 0.0517 0.0148 0.0333 0.0517 0.0148 -0.9362
TE 2006 0.0781 0.0108 0.0445 0.0781 0.0108 -0.9169
TE 2009 0.0979 0.0518 0.0749 0.0979 0.0518 -0.8616
(Source: www.faostat.fao.org)
Note: data are for triennium ending (TE) average

Compound annual growth rate of export quantity, export value and unit
value of fresh tomatoes at different points of time is presented in Table 5.
The table shows that export quantity and export value of fresh tomatoes
increased at a CAGR of 25.7 and 19.97 per cent per annum during the first
period (1991-2000), respectively. The unit value decreased at a CAGR of
4.59 per cent per annum. During second period (2001-10), export quantity,
export value and unit value increased at a CAGR of 54, 63.42 and 6.11 per
cent per annum, respectively. In overall period (1991-2010), export quantity
and export value increased at a CAGR of 44.57 and 45.82 per cent per
annum. The coefficient of variation for the export quantity during the first
period was 57.59 per cent and during second period, it was 102.99 per cent.
Similarly, during the first period coefficients of variation for export value
and unit value were 62.85 and 64.90 per cent, respectively. During the
second period, coefficients of variation for export value and unit value was
increased by 108.99 and 29 per cent, respectively. The overall coefficients of

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variation for export quantity and export value were 171.88 and 178.80 per
cent, respectively.
Table 5: India’s Export in fresh tomatoes (Quantity in tonne; value in ’000 US$; unit
value in US$/tonne) (CV in per cent; CAGR in per cent per annum)

Export of Fresh Tomatoes

Export Per cent share Export Per cent share Unit
Year
quantity in world export value in world export value
1991 88 0.00 54 0.00 614
1992 331 0.01 69 0.00 208
1993 187 0.01 20 0.00 107
1994 1072 0.03 201 0.01 188
1995 646 0.02 112 0.00 173
1996 690 0.02 118 0.00 171
1997 863 0.02 112 0.00 130
1998 643 0.02 114 0.00 177
1999 1233 0.03 282 0.01 229
2000 1134 0.03 234 0.01 206
2001 1413 0.03 304 0.01 215
2002 12886 0.30 2437 0.07 189
2003 11328 0.25 1472 0.03 130
2004 7427 0.15 1299 0.03 175
2005 11743 0.24 2464 0.05 210
2006 33593 0.59 7530 0.14 224
2007 134845 2.12 37050 0.54 275
2008 124617 1.91 29528 0.40 237
2009 105557 1.52 21340 0.30 202
2010 67547 0.95 25031 0.30 371
CAGR (1991-2000) 25.70 19.97 -4.59
CAGR (2001-10) 54.00 63.42 6.11
CV (1991-2000) 57.59 62.85 64.90
CV (2001-10) 102.99 108.52 29.00
(Source: www.faostat.fao.org)
CAGR of export quantity, export value and unit value of peeled
tomatoes at different points of time is presented in Table 6. The table shows
that export quantity and export value of peeled tomatoes increased at a
CAGR of 191.12 and 165.62 per cent per annum during the first period
(1991-2000), respectively. The unit value was increased at a CAGR of
243.50 per cent per annum. During second period (2001-10), export quantity,

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export value and unit value increased at a compound annual growth rate of
8.81, 9.72 and 0.82 per cent per annum, respectively. In overall period
(1991-2010), export quantity and export value increased at a compound
annual growth rate of 122.27 and 101.10 per cent per annum, respectively.
The coefficient of variation for the export quantity during the first period
was 156.52 per cent and during second period, it was 54.20 per cent.
Similarly, during the first period, coefficient of variation for export value,
unit value was 153.41 and 108.85 per cent. During the second period
coefficient of variation for export value and unit value was increased 51.80
and 21.48 per cent, respectively. The overall coefficients of variation for
export quantity and export value were 99 and 94.79 per cent, respectively.
The CAGR shows that the exports are steadily increasing.
Table 6: India’s Export in Peeled Tomatoes (Quantity in tonne; value in ’000 US$;
unit value in US$/tonne) (CV in per cent, CAGR in per cent per annum)

Export of Peeled Tomatoes

Export Per cent share Export Per cent share Unit
Year
quantity in world export value in world export value
1991 0 0.00 0 0.00 0
1992 0 0.00 0 0.00 0
1993 76 0.01 77 0.02 1013
1994 0 0.00 0 0.00 0
1995 0 0.00 0 0.00 0
1996 17 0.00 15 0.00 882
1997 108 0.01 63 0.01 583
1998 4 0.00 3 0.00 750
1999 0 0.00 0 0.00 0
2000 152 0.02 113 0.02 743
2001 144 0.01 69 0.01 479
2002 272 0.02 169 0.03 621
2003 51 0.00 49 0.01 961
2004 132 0.01 75 0.01 568
2005 69 0.01 57 0.01 826
2006 135 0.01 87 0.01 644
2007 259 0.02 206 0.02 795
2008 120 0.01 94 0.01 783
2009 244 0.02 147 0.01 602
2010 340 0.02 200 0.02 588
CAGR (1991-2000) 191.12 165.62 243.50

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 CAGR (2001-10) 8.81 9.72 0.82
CV (1991-2000) 156.52 153.41 108.85
CV (2001-10) 54.20 51.80 21.48
(Source: www.faostat.fao.org)
Table 7: India’s Export in tomato paste (Quantity in tonne; value in ’000 US$; unit
value in US$/tonne) (CV in per cent, CAGR in per cent per annum)

Export of Tomato Paste

Export Per cent share Export Per cent share Unit
Year
quantity in world export value in world export value
1991 6 0.00 6 0.00 1000
1992 14 0.00 15 0.00 1071
1993 4 0.00 8 0.00 2000
1994 0 0.00 0 0.00 0
1995 17 0.00 16 0.00 941
1996 23 0.00 23 0.00 1000
1997 35 0.00 27 0.00 771
1998 2 0.00 3 0.00 1500
1999 34 0.00 123 0.01 3618
2000 25 0.00 46 0.00 1840
2001 40 0.00 28 0.00 700
2002 136 0.01 145 0.01 1066
2003 118 0.01 120 0.01 1017
2004 69 0.00 87 0.01 1261
2005 140 0.01 165 0.01 1179
2006 81 0.00 78 0.00 963
2007 65 0.00 84 0.00 1292
2008 139 0.01 179 0.01 1288
2009 154 0.01 361 0.01 2344
2010 157 0.01 226 0.01 1439
CAGR (1991-2000) 33.18 43.09 44.03
CAGR (2001-10) 8.37 17.29 8.23
CV(1991-2000) 81.11 136.55 70.60
CV (2001-10) 38.45 64.24 34.77
(Source: www.faostat.fao.org)
Compound annual growth rate of export quantity, export value and unit
value of tomato paste at different points of time is presented in Table 7. The
table shows that export quantity and export value of tomato paste increased
at a compound annual growth rate of 33.18 and 43.09 per cent per annum

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during the first period (1991-2000), respectively. The unit value was
increased at a compound annual growth rate of 44.03 per cent per annum,
respectively. During second period (2001-10), export quantity, export value
and unit value increased at a compound annual growth rate of 8.37, 17.29
and 8.23 per cent per annum. In overall period (1991-2010), export quantity
and export value increased at a compound annual growth rate of 31.40 and
32.95 per cent per annum, respectively. The coefficient of variation for the
export quantity during the first period was 81.11 per cent and during second
period it was 38.45 per cent. Similarly, during the first period coefficient of
variation for export value and unit value was 136.55 per cent and 70.60 per
cent. During the second period coefficient of variation for export value and
unit value was increased by 64.24 and 34.77 per cent. The overall
coefficients of variation for export quantity and export value were 90.50 and
107.20 per cent, respectively.
Table 8: India’s Export in tomato juice (Quantity in tonne; value in ’000 US$; unit
value in US$/tonne) (CV in per cent, CAGR in per cent per annum)

Export of Tomato Juice

Export % share in Export % share in Unit
Year
quantity world export value world export value
1991 0 0.00 0 0.00 0
1992 15 0.03 11 0.04 733
1993 5 0.01 7 0.03 1400
1994 48 0.06 54 0.14 1125
1995 1361 1.20 1229 1.89 903
1996 5 0.00 12 0.02 2400
1997 1 0.00 1 0.00 1000
1998 2 0.00 1 0.00 500
1999 22 0.03 28 0.08 1273
2000 0 0.00 0 0.00 0
2001 20 0.03 8 0.03 400
2002 13 0.02 9 0.03 692
2003 73 0.13 53 0.19 726
2004 126 0.22 114 0.39 905
2005 46 0.08 41 0.13 891
2006 8 0.01 11 0.03 1375
2007 2 0.00 2 0.00 1000
2008 60 0.08 73 0.13 1217
2009 12 0.02 14 0.03 1167
2010 9 0.01 18 0.04 2000

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 CAGR (1991-2000) -10.94 -11.30 -0.39
CAGR (2001-10) -12.96 -0.87 13.88
CV (1991-2000) 292.80 286.67 75.72
CV (2001-10) 107.52 105.74 42.54
(Source: www.faostat.fao.org)
Compound annual growth rate of export quantity, export value and unit
value of tomato juice at different points of time is presented in Table 8. The
table shows that export quantity and export value of tomato juice decreased
at a compound annual growth rate of 10.94 and 11.3 per cent per annum
during the first period (1991-2000), respectively. The unit value was
decreased at a compound annual growth rate of 0.39 per cent per annum.
During second period (2001-10), export quantity and export value decreased
at a compound annual growth rate of 12.96, 0.87 and unit value increased by
13.88 per cent per annum, respectively. In overall period (1991-2010),
export quantity and export value increased at a compound annual growth rate
of 15.25 and 16.25 per cent per annum, respectively.
Table 9: India’s Import in Fresh Tomatoes (Quantity in tonne; Value in ’000 US$;
Unit value in US$/tonne) (CV in per cent, CAGR in per cent per annum)

Import of Fresh Tomatoes

Import Per cent share Import Per cent share Unit
Year
quantity in world import value in world import value
1991 0 0.00 0 0.00 0
1992 0 0.00 0 0.00 0
1993 0 0.00 0 0.00 0
1994 0 0.00 0 0.00 0
1995 0 0.00 0 0.00 0
1996 0 0.00 0 0.00 0
1997 0 0.00 0 0.00 0
1998 0 0.00 0 0.00 0
1999 0 0.00 0 0.00 0
2000 0 0.00 0 0.00 0
2001 0 0.00 0 0.00 0
2002 0 0.00 0 0.00 0
2003 32 0.00 20 0.00 625
2004 5 0.00 7 0.00 1400
2005 51 0.00 25 0.00 490
2006 41 0.00 23 0.00 561
2007 33 0.00 26 0.00 788

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 2008 62 0.00 55 0.00 887
2009 42 0.00 31 0.00 738
2010 62 0.00 43 0.00 694
CAGR (1991-2000) 0 0
CAGR (2001-10) 278.04 266.18
CV (1991-2000) 1.43 1.43 316.22
CV (2001-10) 72.67 77.01 66.38
(Source: www.faostat.fao.org)
The coefficient of variation for the export quantity during the first
period was 292.80 per cent and during second period it was 107.52 per cent.
During the first period coefficient of variation for export value and unit value
was 286.67 and 75.72 per cent. Similarly, during the second period
coefficient of variation for export value and unit value was increased by
105.74 and 42.54 per cent, respectively. The overall coefficients of variation
for export quantity and export value were 328.81 and 321.53 per cent,
respectively.
Compound annual growth rate of import quantity, import value and unit
value of fresh tomatoes at different points of time is presented in Table 10.
The table shows that import quantity and import value of fresh tomatoes had
compound annual growth rate of 0 per cent per annum during the first period
(1991-2000), it means nil growth because no quantity was imported by India
during the first period. During second period (2001-10), import quantity and
import value increased at a compound annual growth rate of 278.04 and
266.18 per cent per annum, respectively. In overall period (1991-2010),
import quantity and import value increased at a compound annual growth
rate of 153.72 and 148.10 per cent per annum, respectively. The coefficient
of variation for the import quantity during the first period was 1.43 per cent
and during second period it was 72.67 per cent. During the first period
coefficient of variation for import value and unit value was 1.43 and 316.22
per cent, respectively. Similarly, during the second period coefficient of
variation for import value and unit value increased by 77.01 per cent and
66.38 per cent, respectively. The overall coefficients of variation for import
quantity and import value were 143.29 per cent and 147.52 per cent,
respectively.
Compound annual growth rate of import quantity, import value and unit
value of peeled tomatoes at different points of time is presented in Table 10.
The table shows that import quantity and import value of peeled tomatoes
increased at a compound annual growth rate of 355.11 and 360.55 per cent
per annum during the first period (1991-2000). During second period (2001-

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10), import quantity and import value increased at a compound annual
growth rate of 63.67 and 68.05 per cent per annum, respectively. In overall
period (1991-2010), import quantity and import value increased at a
compound annual growth rate of 184.5 and 178.31 per cent per annum,
respectively. The coefficient of variation for the import quantity during the
first period was 211.88 per cent and during the second period it was 94.18
per cent. During the first period, coefficient of variation for import value and
unit value was 239.97 and 196.83 per cent. Similarly, during the second
period coefficient of variation for import value and unit value was increased
by 100.35 and 21.83 per cent, respectively. The overall coefficients of
variation for import quantity and import value were 154.73 per cent and
153.41 per cent, respectively.
Table 10: India’s Import in peeled tomatoes (Quantity in tonne; value in ’000 US$;
unit value in US$/tonne) (CV in per cent, CAGR in per cent per annum)

Import of peeled tomatoes

Import Per cent share Import Per cent share Unit
Year
quantity in world import value in world import value
1991 0 0.00 0 0.00 0
1992 0 0.00 0 0.00 0
1993 0 0.00 0 0.00 0
1994 0 0.00 0 0.00 0
1995 0 0.00 0 0.00 0
1996 0 0.00 0 0.00 0
1997 0 0.00 0 0.00 0
1998 96 0.01 248 0.04 2583
1999 125 0.01 84 0.01 672
2000 1 0.00 1 0.00 1000
2001 15 0.00 8 0.00 533
2002 5 0.00 5 0.00 1000
2003 16 0.00 14 0.00 875
2004 477 0.05 264 0.04 553
2005 429 0.04 263 0.03 613
2006 418 0.04 271 0.04 648
2007 1141 0.09 797 0.09 699
2008 1015 0.08 893 0.07 880
2009 181 0.02 156 0.01 862
2010 576 0.05 513 0.04 891
CAGR (1991-2000) 355.11 360.55

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 CAGR (2001-10) 63.67 68.05
CV (1991-2000) 211.88 239.97 196.83
CV (2001-10) 94.18 100.35 21.83
(Source: www.faostat.fao.org)
Table 11: India’s Import in tomato paste (Quantity in tonne; value in ’000 US$; unit
value in US$/tonne) (CV in per cent, CAGR in per cent per annum)

Import of tomato paste

Import Per cent share Import Per cent share Unit
Year
quantity in world import value in world import value
1991 0 0.00 0 0.00 0
1992 0 0.00 0 0.00 0
1993 0 0.00 0 0.00 0
1994 0 0.00 0 0.00 0
1995 0 0.00 0 0.00 0
1996 0 0.00 0 0.00 0
1997 1 0.00 7 0.00 7000
1998 1885 0.15 1657 0.15 879
1999 2 0.00 5 0.00 2500
2000 2 0.00 8 0.00 4000
2001 8 0.00 13 0.00 1625
2002 878 0.05 654 0.06 745
2003 3239 0.18 1933 0.16 597
2004 2133 0.10 1242 0.08 582
2005 3918 0.19 2275 0.15 581
2006 3947 0.18 2616 0.16 663
2007 7058 0.30 4818 0.26 683
2008 3227 0.14 3432 0.14 1064
2009 4094 0.18 3435 0.13 839
2010 6027 0.24 4822 0.18 800
CAGR (1991-2000) 413.16 493.81
CAGR (2001-10) 56.57 54.64 -1.23
CV (1991-2000) 315.29 312.04 166.11
CV (2001-10) 61.68 64.78 39.10
(Source: www.faostat.fao.org)
Compound annual growth rate of import quantity, import value and unit
value of tomato paste at different points of time is presented in Table 11. The
table shows that import quantity and import value of tomato paste increased at
a compound annual growth rate of 413.16 and 493.81 per cent per annum

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during the first period (1991-2000). During second period (2001-10), import
quantity and import value increased at a compound annual growth rate of
56.57 and 54.64 per cent per annum, respectively. In overall period (1991-
2010), import quantity and import value increased at a compound annual
growth rate of 222.70 and 212.12 per cent per annum, respectively. The
coefficient of variation for the import quantity during the first period was
315.29 per cent and during second period it was 61.68 per cent. During the
first period coefficient of variation for import value and unit value was 312.04
and 166.11per cent, respectively. Similarly during the second period
coefficient of variation for import value and unit value was increased by 64.78
and 39.10 per cent. The overall coefficients of variation for import quantity
and import value were 124.26 and 125.59 per cent.
Table 12: India’s Import in tomato juice (Quantity in tonne; value in ’000 US$; unit
value in US$/tonne) (CV in per cent, CAGR in per cent per annum)

Import of tomato juice

Import Per cent share Import Per cent share Unit
Year
quantity in world import value in world import value
1991 0 0.00 0 0.00 0
1992 0 0.00 0 0.00 0
1993 0 0.00 0 0.00 0
1994 0 0.00 0 0.00 0
1995 20 0.04 13 0.04 650
1996 5 0.02 13 0.04 2600
1997 0 0.00 0 0.00 0
1998 122 0.20 72 0.22 590
1999 181 0.29 129 0.39 713
2000 338 0.49 280 0.82 828
2001 218 0.30 217 0.67 995
2002 264 0.31 279 0.69 1057
2003 56 0.09 46 0.12 821
2004 171 0.27 106 0.27 620
2005 51 0.07 61 0.16 1196
2006 58 0.07 55 0.11 948
2007 119 0.14 94 0.18 790
2008 31 0.04 37 0.06 1194
2009 47 0.04 30 0.04 638
2010 35 0.03 68 0.09 1943
CAGR (1991-2000) 534.43 514.32

Page | 156
 CAGR (2001-10) -17.85 -15.40 2.98
CV (1991-2000) 171.89 179.88 149.55
CV (2001-10) 80.22 83.68 37.52
(Source: www.faostat.fao.org)
Compound annual growth rate of import quantity, import value and unit
value of tomato juice at different points of time is presented in Table 12. The
table shows that import quantity and import value of tomato juice increased
at a compound annual growth rate of 534.43 and 514.32 per cent per annum
during the first period (1991-2000). During second period (2001-10), import
quantity and import value decreased at a compound annual growth rate of
17.85 and 15.40 per cent per annum, respectively. In overall period (1991-
2010), import quantity and import value increased at a compound annual
growth rate of 106.74 and 106.96 per cent per annum. The coefficient of
variation for the import quantity during the first period was 171.89 per cent
and during second period it was 80.22 per cent. During the first period
coefficient of variation for import value and unit value was 179.88 per cent
and 149.55 per cent. Similarly, during the second period coefficient of
variation for import value and unit value was increased by 83.68 and 37.52
per cent, respectively. The overall coefficients of variation for import
quantity and import value were 116.30 and 118.00 per cent, respectively.
Export Demand Function Estimated by OLS Technique
To identify the factors affecting demand for export of tomato, regression
analysis was carried out using time series data for the period 1991-2010 and
the results have been presented in Table 13 Four factors, viz. volume of
international trade in tomato, domestic production of tomato, ratio of Indian
and non-Indian international export price and exchange rate could explain
the total variations in the export of tomato from India.
Table 13: Estimates of export demand model for Indian tomato

Standard
Items Coefficients
error
Intercept 1.73 2.01
Production of tomato (MT) -0.53 0.66
Volume of international trade in tomato (MT) 1.09*** 0.09
Ratio of Indian Export price and Non-Indian
-0.05 0.07
international prices of tomato
Exchange rate (Rs/US$) -0.07 0.58
Observations 20
R square 0.98
Note: *** indicate level of significance at 1 per cent.

Page | 157
 It is evident from the Table 14.that in case of the fresh tomatoes, Mexico
was the major exporting country and its share was 21.47 per cent during the
year 2013. During 2013, India’s rank as an exporting country was 13th with
the share of 1.49 per cent. It indicates that the India’s position in world trade
in case of fresh tomatoes improved during recent years due to increase in
area and production of tomato.
Destinations for Export of Tomato and Tomato Products
Destinations for exports depend on several factors like geographical and
political proximities, differences in comparative advantage and degree of
trade barriers. The shares of different countries in export of tomatoes are
presented in Table 14. Pakistan, UAE, Bangladesh, Nepal, Oman and
Maldives have been major importers of fresh tomatoes from India and their
share was about 99 per cent in total export of fresh tomato from India in
value terms in the year 2013-14. Pakistan was the largest importer (85.88 %)
in terms of total value of export of fresh tomatoes from India, followed by
UAE (7.85 %), Bangladesh (3.65 %) and Oman (1.05 %). A perusal of Table
14 revealed that fresh tomatoes are being exported mainly to the neighbour
countries like Bangladesh, Pakistan and Nepal, while its processed products
are being exported to distant markets like USA, UAE and France, etc. It is
due to the perishable nature of tomato. It indicates that quality standards and
their requirements were being met by the Indian products.
Table 14: India’s position as an exporting country for product tomatoes, fresh/chilled
(Quantity in MT; value in ’000 US$)

2013
Rank Exporting country Qty. Value Share (%)
1 Mexico 14,96,773.00 19,08,407.00 21.47
2 Netherlands 12,48,075.00 17,85,811.00 20.09
3 Spain 10,77,365.00 16,14,051.00 18.16
4 Morocco 5,46,397.00 6,52,163.00 7.34
5 Turkey 4,79,815.00 5,86,453.00 6.60
6 Canada 1,40,886.00 3,26,906.00 3.68
7 Italy 5,79,450.00 2,62,747.00 2.96
8 France 1,46,362.00 2,59,084.00 2.91
9 Belgium 1,79,129.00 2,13,966.00 2.41
10 USA 1,05,259.00 1,54,339.00 1.74
11 Germany 84126.00 1,50,321.00 1.69
12 China 1,15,249.00 135230.00 1.52
13 India 2,61,244.00 132285.00 1.49
(Source: UN Comtrade)

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Table 15: Exports from India tomatoes, fresh/chilled (Quantity in MT; value in lakh)

2011-12 2012-13 2013-14

Sr.
Country Qty. Value Qty. Value Qty. Value
no.
207083 37046 267783 40639 344508 73931
1 Pakistan
(77.56) (78.77) (77.91) (76.24) (80.77) (85.88)
25385 4772 11680 20786 40834 6757
2 United Arab Emirates
(9.51) (10.15) (3.40) (38.99) (9.57) (7.85)
23390 3859 9562 1220 20786 3140
3 Bangladesh
(8.76) (8.21) (2.78) (2.29) (4.87) (3.65)
828 207 3664 855 11680 908
4 Oman
(0.31) (0.44) (1.07) (1.60) (2.74) (1.05)
5439 573 9922 1111 6606 781
5 Nepal
(2.04) (1.22) (2.89) (2.08) (1.55) (0.91)
2761 229 2004 200 644 224
6 Maldives
(1.03) (0.49) (0.58) (0.38) (0.15) (0.26)
968 270 3149 867 538 180
7 Saudi Arabia
(0.36) (0.57) (0.92) (1.63) (0.13) (0.21)
0 0 40 9 618 109
8 Qatar
(0.00) (0.00) (0.01) (0.02) (0.14) (0.13)
3 1 37 7 88 22
9 Singapore
(0.00) (0.00) (0.01) (0.01) (0.02) (0.03)
66 8 436 113 126 19
10 Baharain
(0.02) (0.02) (0.13) (0.21) (0.03) (0.02)
1064 65 634 91 109 20
Others
(0.40) (0.14) (0.18) (0.17) (0.03) (0.02)
266986 47031 343692 53305 426536 86091
Total
(100) (100) (100) (100) (100) (100)
(Source: APEDA website January 2015)
Note: Figures within the parentheses indicate their percentages to total quantity.

Conclusion
India ranks second in production of tomato. During 2012-13, India
produced 18227(in ’000 Metric tonne) of tomatoes and its share was 8.49 per
cent in world production of tomato. In overall period (1991-2014), area,
production and productivity of India increased at a compound annual growth
rate of 4.9, 6.4 and 1.1 per cent per annum, respectively. Similarly, linear
growth rate was 4.8, 6.3 and 1.1 per cent per annum, respectively. Revealed
Comparative Advantage (RCA) in both tomatoes and tomato products was
far less than unity and the Revealed Symmetric Comparative Advantage
(RSCA) were negative, almost -1. Tomatoes and its processed products had
low comparative advantage. Export of fresh tomatoes increased, while

Page | 159
declined in export of other processed products. We are importing more
tomato paste in recent years. Fresh tomatoes contributed maximum in the
export basket of India. During 2013, the contribution of India as an exporting
country in fresh tomatoes was 1.49 per cent. The values of CV in export of
all tomato and its products, except fresh tomatoes, came down during the
second period (2001-10) than first period (1991-2000), which indicated that
export of tomato and tomato products from India had become more stable
during the second period than first period. High instability was found may be
due to involvement of mainly small private traders having short-term interest
in the business to earn profit during the period of high international prices.
Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, UAE, USA and Maldives have been the major
importers of tomato and its processed products from India. Fresh tomatoes
are being exported to the neighbour countries, whereas the processed tomato
products were found to be exported to the distant markets. During 1991, the
production of tomatoes in Haryana was 93000 tonne from an area of 5000 ha
and productivity was 18.60 t/ha. During the study period, the trends showed
positive growth in area and production of tomato. During 2013, total area in
tomato was 27605 ha and the production was 400811 tonne and productivity
was 14.52 t/ha. The states having maximum production were Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh with the maximum share of 28.63,
10.52 and 10.12 per cent, respectively. Haryana ranked 12th in tomato
production with 2.2 per cent share (2012-13). The study revealed that the
existence of high instability in export of tomato and its products required the
attention of policymakers to retain hold on the international market.
References
1. APEDA. Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export and
Development Authority, 2015.www.apeda.gov.in
2. Clinton SK. Lycopene: chemistry, biology, and implications for human
health and disease. Nutrition Rev. 1998; 56:35-51.
3. FAO. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAOSTAT@faostat.org)
GOI, Various issues of Economic Survey of India, Ministry of Finance,
Govt. of India, New Delhi, 2013.
4. Indian Horticulture Database. Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India,
2014. www.nhb.gov.in.
5. Kumar, Ranjan Nalini, Mathur Rai. Performance, Competitiveness and
Determinants of Tomato exports from India. Agricultural Economics
Research Review Vol.20 (Conference Issue), 2007, pp551-562, http://
ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/47477/2/11-NR-Kumar.pdf.

Page | 160
6. National Horticulture Board. National Horticulture Board Data base,
2011. (http://nhb.gov.in
7. UshaTuteja, Impact of the National Horticulture Mission (NHM) in
Haryana. Research study no. 2011/03, Agriculural Economics Research
Centre, University of Delhi, 2011.

Page | 161
 Chapter - 9
Integrated Management of Bakanae Disease of Rice,
Incited by Fusarium Moniliforme Sheldon

Authors
Pankaj Kumar
Department of Plant Pathology, CCSHAU, Hisar, Haryana, India

Anil Kumar Saini

Department of Plant Pathology, CCSHAU, Hisar, Haryana, India

Annie Khanna
Department of Plant Pathology, CCSHAU, Hisar, Haryana, India

Page | 162
Page | 163
 Chapter - 14
Integrated Management of Bakanae Disease of Rice, Incited
by Fusarium moniliforme Sheldon
Pankaj Kumar, Anil Kumar Saini, Annie Khanna

A Nomenclature
Hori (1898) first identified the causal organism as Fusarium
heterosporum Nees. The development of ascigerous stage on host was first
reported by Sawada (1917) as Lisea fujikuroi. Wollenweber (1931); Ito and
Kimura (1931) transferred L. fujikuroi to the genus Gibberella as Gibberella
fujikuroi with Fusarium moniliforme Sheldon as its anamorph. Till 1945, it
was identified as G. moniliforme (Sheld.). Finally, Sheldon named it as F.
moniliforme (Sheld.). Wollenweber's (1931) identification was, however,
generally accepted as F. moniliforme Sheld. With its perfect state as G.
fujikuroi (Saw.)
In Iran, foot rot is known to be caused by F. proliferatum (Matsushima)
Nirenberg var. proliferatum (Damadzadeh and Hasanpoor, 1987) while in
China, F. moniliforme var. zhejiangensis has been identified as predominant
pathogen associated with the disease (Luo, 1995 a, b).
B Morphological Characters
Micro conidia are abundant, hyaline, borne basipetally in chains of 15-
32 spores on the host, pyriform, short, naviculate to obovate, aseptate, 5-12 x
3-3.5 μm, pale pinkish in mass on simple or verticillate conidiophores (Ou,
1985). Macro conidia are delicate, awl-shaped, slightly sickle-shaped or
somewhat straight, narrow at both ends, occasionally bent into a hook at the
apex, scattered, formed in sporodochia or pionnotes, in mass clear, buff or
salmon-orange, when dry carrot red or cinnamon-brown or rather pale, 3-5,
rarely 6-7 septate measuring 8.4-66.0 x 2.4-3.5 μm (Ou, 1985).
Perithecia on host plants are dark blue, spherical to ovate, somewhat
roughed outside, 250-330 x 220-280 (190-390 x 160-420) μm (Ou, 1985).
Asci are long, cylindrical, hyaline, attenuated to the base. Ascospores
elliptical, mostly 1- (rarely 2) septate, slightly constricted at septum and
contain several oil granules. Paraphyses obclavate, 3-5 septate, constricted at

Page | 164
septa, hyaline, 120-135 x 15 μm (Hashioka, 1971).
Chlamydospores are absent both in mycelium and conidia. Sclerotia
dark blue, spherical to irregularly globose, 80-100 μm, may or may not be
present. Stroma is more or less plectenchymatous, yellowish, brownish or
violet (Ou, 1985).
C Symptoms
The most conspicuous and common symptoms are the bakanae
symptoms i.e. abnormal elongation of the plants. The disease occurs both in
seed beds as well as in transplanted field. Diseased seedlings are lanky, pale
yellow and taller than the healthy ones. Such seedlings die either before or
after transplanting. Similar symptoms are also observed in the transplanted
crop. Plants surviving till maturity bear only empty panicles. Presence of
white or pink mycelial growth, development of adventitious roots from the
lower nodes and wider leaf angles are other diagnostic features of the disease
(Ou, 1985). Not all the infected seedlings have the `bakanae' symptoms;
sometimes they are stunted or they may appear normal (Seto, 1932).
Perithecia are also produced on diseased plants under favourable conditions
as observed in Taiwan (Sun and Snyder, 1978).

Fig 1: White cottony growth of F. moniliforme on dying plants

Different types of symptoms viz. elongation, elongation then normal

growth, elongation then stunted growth, stunted growth and no growth have
been described by Yamanaka and Honkura (1978). The ratio of gibberellic
acid and fusaric acid is the deciding factor for elongation of rice plants
(Thakur, 1974). The elongation symptoms have also been observed in ratoon
plants (Sasaki, 1976).
D Economic Importance
The disease is widely distributed in all the rice growing areas of the

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world and under favourable conditions of disease development, it is known
to cause substantial reduction in grain yield. The disease is particularly
devastating in export quality scented rice varieties which earn substantial
foreign exchange. It is known to cause 3.0 per cent to almost complete loss
in different parts of the world (Singh and Sunder, 2012). Ito and Kimura
(1931) has reported upto 20 per cent loss in Hokkaido and as much as 40-50
per cent loss in Kinkichugoku region of Japan. From other countries, a loss
of 5-23 per cent has been reported in Southern Spain (Marin-Sanchez and
Jimenez-Diaz, 1982), 6.7- 58 per cent in Pakistan (Yasin et al., 2003) and 40
per cent in Nepal (Batsa and Manandhar, 1997).
Yield losses in India were reported as 15 per cent in eastern Uttar
Pardesh (Pavgi and Singh, 1964), 15.4 per cent from Assam (Rathaiah et al.,
1991), 5-7 per cent from Manipur (Singh et al., 1996) and 3.0 - 95.4 per cent
from Haryana (Sunder et al., 1997).
E Management of Disease
i. Host Resistance
Rajagopalan (1961) tested the resistance of rice varieties to foot rot
disease by growing seeds in infested soil. Spore suspensions of F.
moniliforme have been used by different workers for inoculation of grains
and soil for screening varietal resistance and for testing fungicides (Singh
and Sunder, 2012). Several genotypes including RP 5-3, RP 5-32, RP 84-
283, CR 83-23, Co 18, Co 22, PTB 7, GEB 24, IR 20, IR 32, IR 44, IR 45,
AS 34011, BG 936, HKR 86-104, IR 39464-54-1-3-2-1-3, IR 58109-109-1-
1-3 and BR 1067-84-1-3-2-1 have been reported to possess resistance against
the disease in India while genotypes Shiroka, Kairyo-Mochi No. 1 (Japan),
Mecan Bino, Apostal, Macan Binan (Philippines), Dharial, Surjamukhi,
Panbira, IR 8 (Bangladesh), MR 7, MN 62 M (Thialand), Basmati 370, IR 8,
IR 9, Shadab, KS 282, PK 1339-12-1-1-0-6 (Pakistan), Binam, Kadous,
Shafagh (Iran) showed resistance against bakanae disease in abroad (Singh
and Sunder, 2012).
Some genotypes behaved uniformly at different crop growth stages
while the reaction of others varied with crop stage. In China, Lu (1994)
observed that rice genotype Longjiao 86074-6 was resistant at the seedling
stage but moderately susceptible at the adult stage; Qingxi 96 was
moderately resistant at the seedling stage but resistant at adult stage while
Zupei 7, Dongrong 84-21, G-6 and Sui 89-17 were moderately resistant at
both the stages.

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ii Disease Management Through Cultural Practices
a Age of seedling and stage of crop
The disease development was found to be maximum 20 days after
transplanting at maximum tillering stage and at boot stage. Heaton and
Morschel (1965) reported that bakanae infection could be avoided by
postponing the sowing date of early maturing varieties from December to late
January and by rotating rice with pasture. In India, Bagga et al. (2007) also
recorded minimum disease in late planted crop (July 31) owing to the
prevalence of lower temperature during infection.
b Organic amendments
The conidial production, germination and mycelial growth of F.
moniliforme was inhibited by root oil of onion, garlic, bird cherry, pelargonium,
oak, juniper and tarragon (Batikyan, 1975; Gohil and Vala, 1996); neem oil (Vir
and Sharma, 1985); extract from leaves of tobacco or pawpaws infected with
PVX and PVY (Pandey et al., 1989). Panneerselvam and Saravanamuthu
(1996) observed that incorporation of groundnut cake in soil suppressed the
pathogen. Divya Mashra et al. (2003) reported that oil of Hedychium spicatum
and Acorus calamus completely inhibited the growth of F. moniliforme at 1.0 x
103 ml/l and 0.5 x 103 ml/l, respectively and exhibited both fungistatic and
fungicidal properties depending upon the concentration. They have also
reported that aerated vermicompost tea is highly effective in controlling the
disease in field trails.
c Disease management through chemicals
Phenyl mercury acetate, orthocide, carbendazim, fosetyl aluminium,
benomyl, thiophanate-methyl, prochloraz, MEMC, etaconazole, pefurazoate
and propiconazole have been found inhibitory to mycelial growth of F.
moniliforme by different workers (Singh and Sunder, 2012). Seed soaking in
0.1% solution of organo-mercury compounds (acetate and chloride groups)
for 16-24 h or 0.25% solution for 2 h is recommended in Japan. Soaking of
seeds in MEMC (0.5-1.0 g/l) and propiconazole (2 ml/l) suspension for 24-
36 h completely eradicated the pathogen from grains of rice cultivar Taraori
Basmati (Sunder et al., 1998). Takeuchi (1972) observed that wet seed
treatment with organo-mercurials was better than the dry one. Effective
disease control has been reported by seed treatment with benomyl,
carbendazim, MEMC, PCNB, propiconazole, thiophanate-methyl,
prochloraz, iprodione and kasugamycin in different parts of the world (Singh
and Sunder, 2012). In Japan, EC formulation of triflumizole was more
effective in controlling bakanae than its WP formulation (Suzuki et al.,

Page | 167
1994). Carbendazim as soil drench, nursery application 7 days before
uprooting and seedling dip treatment before transplanting has been found
effective in managing the disease while foliar application of benzimidazoles
and propiconazole protected grains from infection (Singh and Sunder, 2012;
Sunder et al., 2014).
Seed dressing with chitosan S-II, widely used in medicine and food
industry provided >90% control of bakanae (Jiang et al., 1999). Soluble
chitin fragments released from fungal cell wall through the action of
constitutive rice chitinases served as biotic elicitors of defense responses in
rice (Ren and West, 1992).
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 Chapter - 10
Management of fruit rot (Penicillium islandicum) in
Indian gooseberry

Authors
Anil Kumar Saini
Department of Plant Pathology, CCSHAU, Hisar, Haryana, India
Pankaj Kumar
Department of Plant Pathology, CCSHAU, Hisar, Haryana, India

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Page | 174
 Chapter - 10
Management of fruit rot (Penicillium islandicum) in Indian
gooseberry
Anil Kumar Saini and Pankaj Kumar

Aonla is an important crop indigenous to Indian subcontinent which is

used as alternative medicine, health foods and in herbal products (Nayak et
al., 2012). Aonla fruit contains different essential nutrients viz.,
carbohydrates, proteins, phenol, calcium, phosphorus, zinc, and vitamin B. It
is a rich source of vitamin C ranging from 400-1300 mg/100 gm pulp and
vitamin B 300 mg/100 gm pulp (Singh, 2006; Kore et al., 2013). Its
constituents serve as important source of food and medicine (Kumar and
Singh, 2002). Banarasi, Chakaiya, Krishna, Francis (Hathijhul), Kanchan,
NA-6, NA-7, Anand-1, 2, 3 are some of the commercially cultivated
varieties of aonla in India. (Goyal et al., 2008; Singh et al., 2009).
Association of various fungi with different fruit rots of aonla have been
observed by various researchers (Bhargava et al., 1932; Setty, 1959; Chahal
and Singh, 1969; Jamaluddin et al., 1973, 1975; Pandey et al., 1981, 1984;
Chauhan and Gupta, 1985; Geeta and Kusum, 1990; Arya and Arya, 2004;
Pandey et al., 2004). About 24 fungi belonging to 14 genera have been
reported to cause fruit rots in aonla during harvest, transit and storage.
Among post harvest diseases in aonla, fruit rot caused by Penicillium
islandicum Sopp. is the most important as it affects the fruit quality and
quantity in relation to market value (Bhardwaj and Sharma, 1999). Barring
few reports on preliminary studies on incidence and symptomatology, no
work has been done on the pathogen with regard to aonla, therefore, the
information available on fruit rots of aonla and other fruit crops caused by
Penicillium spp. in particular and other fungi in general has been reviewed as
under.
Disease management
Literature scanned revealed that a very meagre research work has been
carried out on blue mould rot (Penicillium islandicum) of aonla and their
management. The open wounds, created during harvesting, handling and
packaging are the major sites of invasion by postharvest wound pathogens,
Page | 175
the protection of wounds by chemicals considerably decrease decay in
storage (Yadav et al., 2012) Many chemical compounds have been used as
part of post harvest treatment of fruits for the retardation of microbial
infection (Mecteau et al., 2002; Hervieux et al., 2002; Mills et al., 2004)
1. Screening of Commercial Varieties Of Aonla For Resistance
Tiwari et al. (2008) reported field screening of aonla varieties against
Deudorix isocrates (Fabr.). The maximum 43.70% fruit damage was
observed in NA-7 (Narendra-7) and the minimum 33.60% was observed in
Chakaiya. The order of susceptibility of different varieties was NA-7
(43.70%), Kanchan (41.25%), NA-6 (40.80%), NA-10 (38.40%) and
Chakaiya (33.60%). Similer observations were also reported by Padmavati et
al., (2002). Meshram and Soni (2011) screened certain varieties for
resistance to insect pests and diseases in central India. They reported that ten
varieties of Emblica officinalis Gaertn. including Kanchan, Chakaiya,
Francis, NA-7, NA-10 (Narendra 10), Anand-1, Anand-2, Krishna, Hatizola
(Local) and Local-wild were screened against insect pests {gall forming
insect (Betousa stylophora Swinhoe), leaf roller (Garcillaria acidula
Forster), bark eating caterpillar (Indrabela quadrinotata walker)} and
diseases that is vascular wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f.sp., albedinis Killian
and Maire), fruit disease (Alternaria sp.). The results revealed that variety
NA-10 followed by Kanchan was found to be least preferred by B.
stylophora, G. acidula, I.quadrinotata and Alternaria sps. in clonal seed
orchards. Whereas, variety Hatizola (Local) followed by Francis showed less
incidence of Fusarium oxysporum in nursery stage.
2. Chemical Control
For controlling the development of white specks in aonla (Emblica
officinalis) fruits (Varieties Chakaiya and Desi) during storage period of 90
days in solution at ambient temperature (11.33ºC), a chemical solution
containing 10 per cent salt and 0.04 per cent KMS (Potassium
metabisulphite) was found effective (Premi et al., 1999). The uniformly
harvested mature fruits of aonla var. Chakaiya were dipped for 10 minutes in
an aqueous solution of Gibberallic acid (GA3 10 or 25 ppm) and Kinetin
(100 or 150 ppm), the minimum decay loss due to (Aspergillus spp;
Penicillium spp. and Colletotrichum spp.) was observed in fruits treated with
GA3 at 25ppm, followed by GA3 at 10 ppm (Singh and Kumar, 2000). Post
harvest application of thiabendazole (0.5%), benomyl (0.05%) and
carbendazim (0.05%) were found effective against the various fungal rots
caused by Aspergillus niger, Penicillium digitatum and Penicillium italicum

Page | 176
in citrus fruits (Verma and Tikoo, 2003). Sodium metabisulfite, a compound
with antimicrobial activity has been shown to completely inhibit in vitro
mycelial growth and sporulation of H. solani and Fusarium sambucinum a
wide range of potato postharvest pathogens (Hervieux et al., 2002; Mecteau
et al., 2002; Mills et al., 2004) at a concentration of 0.2 M. Carbendazim at
1000 ppm gave 100 per cent control of Penicillium italicum in Kinnow fruits
upto 60 days in storage (Singh and Thakur, 2005). Rathod and Patel (2005)
observed carbendazim (500 and 1000 g/l) and mancozeb (2000 and 4000
g/l) most effective against the colletotrichum, Penicillium and Alternaria
rots in aonla fruits both in pre and post-inoculation treatments. Application
of bavistin (0.05%) and Kavach (0.2%) found effective in minimizing the
Penicillium rot (Penicillium fellutanum) severity in aonla fruits (Meena,
2006). Verma (2008) reported that post-inoculation treatments with
thiabendazole, benomyl and carbendazim (@ 0.05%) were most effective
against the green mould (Penicillium digitatum) and blue mould (Penicillium
italicum) rots of mandarin oranges.
Latifa et al., (2011) reported the effect of organic acids and salts on the
development of Penicillium italicum, the causal agent of citrus blue mould.
Tested at 0.2 M concentration 14 out of 28 studied compounds completely
inhibited the mycelial growth and sporulation of Penicillium italicum.
Among these chemicals, ammonium carbonate, ammonium molybdate,
sodium phosphate, sodium sulfite, EDTA, sodium metabisulfite and sodium
salicylate were also fungicidal. Montesinos- Herrero et al. (2011) reported
that postharvest green mold and blue mold, caused by Penicillium digitatum
and Penicillium italicum respectively, were effectively controlled by
fumigation of lemons and oranges with ammonia gas. Yadav et al. (2012)
recorded lowest Penicillium rot severity (P. funiculosum Thom.) in aonla
fruits treated with carbendazim at 1000 ppm both in pre (12.49%) and post-
inoculation (12.83%) followed by benomyl 1000 ppm both in pre (13.49%)
and post-inoculation (15.03%) treatment at 4 days after inoculation.
3. Plant Extracts
Extract of the indigenous plant parts have shown success in plant
disease control and are proved to be harmless and non-phytotoxic unlike
chemical fungicides (Spencer et al., 1957). The extract of the plant also
exhibited marked effect on germination of fungal spores as well (Shekhawat
and Prasad 1971; Singh et al., 1983). Sonawane et al. (2012) studied the
effects of leaf extracts of some medicinal plant against Aspergillus niger a
causal agent of storage disease of amla. Among the 10 plant extracts tested

Page | 177
against A. niger, extract of Tinospora cordifolia (78.10%) were significantly
superior over all other plant extracts followed by Boerhavia diffusa
(72.45%), Ocimum santum (71.00%), Tribulus teristrie (62.18%) and
Adathoda vasica showed less inhibitory effect (6.60%). Tinospora cordifolia
(78.10%) was found to be best followed by Boerhavia diffusa (72.45%),
while extract of Adathoda vasica showed less inhibitory effect (6.60%).
Goswami and Sumbali (2010) evaluated the plant bulb extracts of Allium
sativum (garlic) and A. cepa (onion) and rhizome extract of Zingiber
officinale for the management of Penicillium rot of Phyllanthus emblica.
They reported that the extract of onion bulb was comparatively less effective
than garlic extract. Aqueous extract of onion bulb gave 8.8 to 36.5 per cent
control as a pre-infection dip and 26.4 to 46.3 per cent control as a post-
infection dip treatment whereas acetone extracts Onion extracted in Acetone
gave 19.3 to 41.9 per cent control as a pre-infection dip treatment and 16.7-
36.8 per cent control as a post-infection dip treatment. Efficacy of onion bulb
extract may be due to the presence of protocatechuic acid and catechol in the
bulb, which were responsible for the bursting of young fungal hyphae. In
addition, onion bulb was reported to contain certain active components like
cycloallin, Ace-AMP I and allicepin, which might be responsible for its
antifungal activity (Wang and Ng, 2003). Bhujbal (2011) reported that
maximum per cent disease control due to Aspergillus niger was observed in
treatment of carbendazim (89.88%) followed by chlorothalonil (84.91%),
Trichoderma viride (83.29%) and Trichoderma viride + Bacillus subtilis
treatment (76.68%) while tulsi extract (74.61%), Bacillus subtilis (62.46%)
and onion extract (60.15%) were found to be effective in reducing the
infection of A. niger. Among all treatments, the neem extract was found to
be least effective. Bio-efficacy of nine phytoextracts at 10 per cent
concentration were tested against the mycelial growth and sporulation of
Penicillium funiculosum in vitro. Among them significantly lowest mycelial
growth was recorded in neem leaf extract (7.75 mm) showing 89.49 per cent
growth inhibition. Further, it also proved most effective in reducing the
Penicillium rot severity both in pre (20.44%) and post-inoculation (20.87%)
treatments at 7 day after inoculation, respectively (Yadav et al., 2013b). In
three years studies, Jat et al. (2013) found maximum blue mold rot of aonla
control with Azadirachta indica leaf extract (5%) followed by carbendazim
(0.1%), Curcuma longa rhizome extract (5%) in both pre- and post-
inoculation treatments
4. Biological Control
Bagwan (2003) reported the potentiality and viability of Trichoderma
Page | 178
spp. and Candida spp. to control green mould (Penicillium digitatum) and
blue mould (Penicillium italicum) of citrus (Citrus sinensis L.) respectively.
The biocontrol agent Trichoderma viride was also found effective in
controlling the green mould and blud mould fruit rots of citrus (Bagwan,
2003). Krol (2004) observed Trichoderma spp. as best antagonist to control
Phomopsis viticola on grape vines. Rathod (2004) found Trichoderma
harzianum as most efficient antagonist in controlling the rots caused by
Penicillium islandicum, Colletotrichum gloeosporioides and Alternaria
alternata in aonla fruits. Etebarian et al. (2005) observed biological control
of apple blue mould (Penicillium expansum or Penicillium solitum) with
Pseudomonas fluorescens. However, Trichoderma viride was superior over
Pseudomonas fluorescens. Choubey and Patil (2009) evaluated the
antagonists namely Trichoderma viride, T. harzianum and T. virens against
Phomopsis fruit rot of aonla caused by Phomopsis phyllanthi both in pre-
inoculation and post-inoculation methods. In pre and post-inoculation
methods, Trichoderma harzianum was found significantly most effective in
reducing the Phomopsis fruit rot severity (2.07 and 18.59%) on 4 th and 7th
day of inoculation followed by Trichoderma viride (2.13 and 19.82%) over
control. Management of blue mould rot (Penicillium italicum) of Kinnow
fruits was explored using biocontrol agents viz. Trichoderma, Gliocladium,
Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Debaryomyces, and Sporidiobolus spp. revealed
variable efficacy in vitro. On further testing as pre and post-inoculation
treatment, the yeasts showed an edge over other fungal and bacterial spp.
with D. hansenii and S. pararoseus exhibiting 89.12 per cent and 84.12 per
cent as pre-inoculation, and 86.37 per cent and 78.26 per cent as post-
inoculation treatments, respectively (Maharshi et al., 2009). Jat et al. (2013)
found maximum fruit rots (Aspergillus rot and Penicillium blue mould rot)
control with Azadirachta indica leaf extract (5%) followed by carbendazim
(0.1%), Curcuma longa rhizome extract (5%), Trichoderma viride and
Pseudomonas fluorescens in both pre and post-inoculation treatment.
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