FDN Engg Chapter 7

Foundation
Engineering
Engr. Gabriel Gamana
1.0 Stresses, Strains and Elastic

Deformations of Soil
2.0 Compressibility of Soil
3.0 Shear Strength of Soil
4.0 Lateral Earth Pressure
Table of Contents 5.0 Slope Stability
6.0 Shallow Foundation – Soil Bearing
Capacity
7.0 Deep Foundation – Pile Capacity
8.0 Foundation Design
1
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Types of Piles and Installation
7.3 Vertical Load Capacity of Single Pile for Driven
7.0 Deep Piles
7.4 Vertical Load Capacity of Single Pile for Drilled
Foundation – Shafts
Pile Capacity 7.5 Uplift Capacity of Single Piles
7.6 Negative Skin Friction of Single Piles
7.7 Laterally Loaded of Single Piles
7.8 Pile Groups
7.9 Pile Settlements
7.1 Introduction
2
7.1 Introduction
A pile is a slender, structural member installed in the ground to
transfer the structural loads to soils at some significant depth
below the base of the structure. Structural loads include axial
loads, lateral loads, and moments. Another term commonly used
in practice for pile foundations is deep foundations. Structures
that cannot be supported economically on shallow foundations
are normally supported by pile foundations.
7.1 Introduction
Pile foundations are used when:
1. The soil near the surface does not have sufficient bearing
capacity to support the structural loads.
2. The estimated settlement of the soil exceeds tolerable limits
(i.e., settlement greater than the serviceability limit state).
3. Differential settlement due to soil variability or nonuniform
structural loads is excessive.
4. The structural loads consist of lateral loads, moments, and
uplift forces, singly or in combination.
5. Excavations to construct a shallow foundation on a fi rm soil
layer are diffi cult or expensive.
3
7.2.1 Concrete Piles
There are several types of concrete piles that are commonly
used. These include cast-in-place concrete piles, precast
concrete piles, drilled shafts, and barrette piles.
7.2.1.1 Cast-in-place concrete piles
Are formed by driving a cylindrical steel shell into the ground to
the desired depth and then filling the cavity of the shell with fluid
concrete. They are called displacement piles. The steel shell is
for construction convenience and does not contribute to the load
transfer capacity of the pile. Its purpose is to open a hole in the
ground and keep it open to facilitate the construction of the
concrete pile. Plain concrete is used when the structural load is
only compressive. If moments and lateral loads are to be
transferred, then a steel reinforcement cage is used in the upper
part of the pile. 7
4
7.2.1.2 Precast concrete piles
Usually have square or circular or octagonal cross sections and
are fabricated in a construction yard or a factory from reinforced
or prestressed concrete. They are preferred when the pile length
is known in advance. The disadvantages of precast piles are
problems in transporting long piles, cutting, and lengthening. A
very popular type of precast concrete pile is the Raymond
cylindrical prestressed pile. This pile comes in sections, and
lengths up to 70 m can be obtained by stacking the sections.
10
5
7.2.1.3 Micropiles
(Also called minipiles, pin piles, needle piles, or root piles) are
small-diameter (50 mm to 340 mm) pipe piles (pushed or driven)
or grouted (jet or post or pressure) piles. They are particularly
useful for (1) sites with low headroom, (2) congested areas, (3)
sites with restricted access, and (4) foundation repair or
strengthening.
11
12
6
7.2.2 Steel Piles
Steel piles come in various shapes and sizes and include
cylindrical, tapered, and H-piles. Steel H-piles are rolled steel
sections. They are nondisplacement piles. Steel pipe piles are
seamless pipes that can be welded to yield lengths up to 70 m.
13

They are usually driven with open ends into the soil. A conical tip
is used where the piles have to penetrate boulders and rocks. To
increase the load capacity of steel pipe piles, the soil plug is
excavated and replaced by concrete. These piles are called
concrete-filled steel piles. The soil plug may adhere to the pile
surface and moves down with it during driving. This is called
plugging.
14
7
7.2.3 Timber Piles
Timber piles have been used since ancient times. The lengths of
timber piles depend on the types of trees used to harvest the
piles, but common lengths are about 12 m. Longer lengths can
be obtained by splicing several piles. Timber piles are
susceptible to termites, marine organisms, and rot within zones
exposed to seasonal changes. Timber piles are displacement
piles.
15

7.2.4 Plastic Piles
• Plastic piles comprise a variety of composite materials that
include polymer composites, PVC, and recycled materials.
These piles are used in special applications such as in marine
environments and within soil zones exposed to seasonal
changes.
• Concrete, steel, and timber can be combined to form a
composite pile. For example, the portion of a timber pile
above groundwater level that is likely to suffer from decay due
to termites or rot may be replaced by concrete. Similarly, the
portion of a steel pile within a corrosive environment can be
covered with concrete or other protective materials.
16
8
7.3 Vert. Cap. of Single Pile for Driven Piles
17

Accurate estimation of pile load capacity is a rather difficult task
because it is difficult, if not impossible, to account for (a) the
changes in stress and strain states from installation effects, (b)
the variability of soil types, and (c) the differences in the quality
of construction practice. Therefore, calculations of pile load
capacity are approximations and rely heavily on empiricism or
semiempiricism (part mechanics, part empirical).
= + −
Where; = Ultimate load capacity
= skin friction or shaft friction or side shear
= end bearing at the base or tip of the pile or pile toe
= Weight of pile
18
9
If the skin friction is greater than about 80% of the end bearing
load capacity, the pile is deemed a friction pile and, if the
reverse, an end bearing pile. If the end bearing is neglected, the
pile is called a floating pile.
Allowable load capacity
19

7.3.1 - Method
7.3.1.1 Skin Friction
The a-method is based on a total stress analysis (TSA) and is
normally used to estimate the short-term load capacity of piles
embedded in fine-grained soils. In the -method, a coefficient,
, is used to relate the undrained shear strength, , to the
adhesive stress ( ) along the pile shaft.
= =
where; = embedded length of pile

= number of soil layer within 20
10
The value of to use in determining the load capacity of piles
is a subject of much debate and testing. Most tests to determine
are laboratory tests on model piles installed in a uniform
deposit of soil. The major problems with these laboratory tests
are:
1. It is difficult to scale up the laboratory model test results to
real piles.
2. The soils in the field are mostly nonuniform compared with
carefully prepared uniform soils in the laboratory.
3. Pile installation in the field strongly influences , which
cannot be accurately duplicated in the laboratory.
4. Undefined (peak or critical state and at what initial void ratio)
values of su have been used in building relationships
between and .
21
22
11
7.3.1.2 End Bearing
The end bearing capacity is found by analogy with the
conventional failure mode of shallow foundations and is
expressed as;
= = =
where; = Bearing capacity coefficient
= undrained shear strength of soil at the base of pile
= cross-sectional area of the base of pile
= for ≥ 3 and > 25 kPa
= ≤ 25 kPa
23

Problem 7-1
A 0.36 m square prestressed concrete pile is to be driven in a
clayey soil. The design capacity of the pile is 360 kN, with a
factor of satety of 2.0. The unconfined compression strength of
clay is 115 kPa. Unit weight of clayey soil is 18 kN/m3.
Determine the minimum length of the pile when = 0.76.
Answer
= . 24
12
Problem 7-2
Estimate the allowable pile capacity of a 300-mm round concrete
pile that is 30 m long with 24 m driven into a soft clay soil of
average su = 26 kPa. Assume ' = 8.15 kN/m3 for the soil. The
water surface is 2 m above the ground line = 1.05 and FS = 2.
Answer
= . 25

Problem 7-3
Estimate the pile length required
to carry the 670 kN axial load for
the pile-soil system shown in
figure. The 460-mm pipe is to be
filled with concrete after driving.
FS = 3
Answer
= . 26
13
7.3.2 - Method
The -method is based on an effective stress analysis and is
used to determine the short-term and long-term pile load
capacities of coarse-grained soils and the long term load
capacity of fine-grained soils. The friction along the pile shaft is
found using Coulomb’s friction law, where the frictional stress is
given by = = tan ϕ , and where is the coefficient of
friction, is the lateral effective stress, and ϕ is the interfacial
effective friction angle. The skin friction is expressed as
= = tan ϕ
= tan ϕ =
27

For Fine-grained soils
.
= tan ϕ = 1 − sin ϕ OCR tan ϕ
For Coarse-grained soils
= 1 − sin ϕ tan ϕ
7.3.2.2 End Bearing

The end bearing capacity is calculated by analogy with the
bearing capacity of shallow footings and is determined from
= =
where; = bearing capacity coefficient that is a function of ϕ
= vertical effective stress at the base
28
14
For Fine-grained and Coarse-grained soils
= tan ϕ + 1 + tan ϕ
where the angle (called the angle of pastification, varies from
≤ /3 for soft, fine-grained soils to ≤ 0.58 for dense,
coarse-grained soils and overconsolidated fine-grained soils.
Janbu recommended that for soft, compressible soils, should
not exceed /3, while for dense, coarse-grained soils, should
not exceed /2.
29

Problem 7-4
A driven square concrete pile 0.3m x 0.3m is required to support
a dead load of 100 kN and a live load of 60 kN. The soil
stratification consists of 5 m of medium clay ( = 40 kPa, ϕ′ =
26°, OCR = 2, = 18 kN/ ) underlain by a deep deposit of
stiff clay ( = 80 kPa, ϕ′ = 24°, OCR = 4, = 18.80 kN/ ).
Groundwater level is at 2 m below the ground surface. You may
assume that the soil above the groundwater level is saturated.
Estimate the length of pile required with a factor of safety of 2.
Answer
= . 30
15
7.3.3 l- Method
Vijayvergiya and Focht (1972) presented a method of obtaining
the skin resistance of a pile in overconsolidated clays and have
claimed a correlation between design and load tests on the
order of ± 10 percent. The original development was based
primarily on pile load tests. These were on long piles used for
offshore oil production structures and founded in clays located in
or along the U.S. coastline of the Gulf of Mexico. This method
has also been used in other marine installations with some
success (e.g., North Sea oil production structures).
= = +2
31

For layered soil
+ + +, … ,
=
32
16
33

7.3.3.2 End Bearing
The end bearing capacity is found by analogy with the
conventional failure mode of shallow foundations and is
expressed as;
= = =
where; = Bearing capacity coefficient
= undrained shear strength of soil at the base of pile
= ≤ 25 kPa
34
17
Problem 7-5
Determine the allowable pile
capacity for the pile-soil system
shown in figure below using a FS
= 3.0 . The 406-mm pipe is to be
filled with concrete after driving.
= 0.136
Answer
= . 35
7.4 Vert. Cap. of Single Pile for Drilled Shafts
36
18
7.4.1 - Method
The load capacities of drilled shafts are calculated similarly to
driven piles except that the empirical adhesion, friction, and end
bearing factors are different.
= 0.55; ≤ 1.5
= 0.55 − 0.1 − 1.5 ; 1.5 < ≤ 2.5
= ≤ 380 kPa
where = atmospheric pressure (101.125 kPa)
37

7.4.1.2 End bearing
= = =
=6 1+2 ; ≤9
≤ 4.0 MPa
where = the embedded depth of the drilled shaft in the end

bearing layer
= the average undrained shear strength over two
diameters below the base. If < 25 kPa, the value
of should be reduce by one-third.
38
19
7.4.2 - Method
• Fine-grained soils
.
= tan ϕ = 1 − sin ϕ OCR tan ϕ
• Clean sand
= 1.5 − 0.245 ; ≥ 15, 1.2 ≥ ≥ 0.25
= 1.5 − 0.245 ; < 15, 1.2 ≥ ≥ 0.25
15
= ≤ 200
• Gravel and sandy gravel
.
= 2.0 − 0.15 ; 1.8 ≥ ≥ 0.25
= 0.25 > 26
= ≤ 200
39

7.4.2.2 End Bearing
= 57.5 ; ≤ 2900 ; ≥ 10
= 5.75 ; ≤ 290 ; < 10
 The for drilled shafts in coarse-grained soils have been

obtained from back calculations from load tests on 1-m-
diameter drilled shafts in cemented sand at particular
locations (Texas Gulf Coast region and Los Angeles,
California). They are not related to any soil parameters. They
have to be used with careful judgment based on experience.
 The soil near the top of the drilled shaft is subjected to
environmental and construction effects, while the soil just
above the base may develop tensile cracking. Consequently,
the upper 1.5 m of the shaft and one pile diameter above the
base are ignored in calculating skin friction for drilled shafts
40
20
Problem 7-6
A straight drilled shaft of diameter 1
m is installed in a soil profile, as
shown in figure below. SPT were
performed at intervals of
approximately 1 m below the base.
Determine the allowable load
capacity for FS = 2, using Total
stress Analysis.
Answer
= . 41
7.5 Uplift Capacity of Single Piles
42
21
43

Piles may be required to resist uplift forces for example, in
foundations of structures subjected to large overturning
moments such as tall chimneys, transmission towers, or jetty
structures. Methods of calculating the adhesion to resist uplift
are the same as those used for friction pile.
, = , +
Where; , = Ultimate load capacity in tension
, = Maximum skin friction of sandy soil in tension is
2/3 of ultimate skin friction in compression.
= Maximum skin friction of clayey soil in tension is
the same of ultimate skin friction in compression.
= Weight of pile
,
, = +
44
22
Problem 7-7
Estimate the allowable pile capacity of a 300-mm round concrete
pile that is 30 m long with 24 m driven into a sandy soil of
average su = 26 kPa. Assume ' = 8.15 kN/m3 for the soil. The
water surface is 2 m above the ground line = 1.05, =
24.5 / and FS = 2.
Answer
, = . 45
46
23
When a fill is placed on a compressible soil deposit,
consolidation of the compressible material will occur. When a
pile is driven through (or into) the compressible material (either
before or after fill placement) before consolidation is complete,
the soil will move downward relative to the pile. This relative
movement will develop skin friction between the pile and the
moving soil termed negative skin friction.
• The principal effect of negative skin resistance is to increase
the axial load in the lower fixed portion of the pile. It may
result also in increased pile settlements due to the axial
shortening and/or additional point penetration of the pile under
the increased axial load.
• Negative skin friction can produce large tension stresses
when the effect is from expansive soils—especially if no, or
insufficient, gap is left between soil and pile cap and the soil
expands against both the pile and the cap.
47

For negative skin resistance forces to develop significantly, a
portion of the pile must be fixed against vertical movement, such
as the point being on rock or the lower part being in a dense
sand. If the entire pile moves down with the consolidation effect
no negative skin resistance forces develop.
Case 1 - Clay Fill Over Granular Soil
where = tan ; 0.5ϕ ≤ ≤ 0.7ϕ

= Pile Perimeter
= lateral earth-pressure coefficient = 1 − sin ϕ
= effective overburden pressure
48
24
Case 2 - Granular Soil Fill Clay Fill Over
− − 2
= + −
2
′
= +
2
where’ ′ = effective weight of fill
′ = effective weight of clay
= Height of fill
49

Problem 7-8
Consider the pile is condition is Case 2, Let = 2.0 m, =
0.305 m, = 16.50 kN/m , ϕ = 34°, ( ) = 17.20 kN/
m and = 20 . The water table coincides with the top of the
clay layer. Determine the downward drag force. Assume that =
0.6ϕ .
Answer
= . 50
25
51

For laterally loaded piles, Broms (1965) developed a simplified
solution based on the assumptions of:
a. shear failure in soil, which is the case for short piles, and
b. bending of the pile, governed by the plastic yield resistance
of the pile section, which is applicable to long piles.
52
26
ϕ
= tan 45 +
2
53

Yield moment for the pile is;
=
where = section modulus of pile section
= Yield stress of pile material
The deflection of the pile head, under working load

conditions can be estimated, the term can be expressed as
=
4
54
27
The term K is the horizontal soil modulus and can be defined as
=
where = Diameter of pile

= Modulus of elasticity in the pile material
= Moment of inertia of pile section
55
56
28
57

Problem 7-9
Consider a steel H-pile (HP 250 x 85) 25 m long, embedded fully
in a granular soil. Assume that the pile is flexible and pinned
head = 12,000 / . The allowable displacement at the top
of the pile is 8 mm. Determine the allowable lateral load, Let
= 123(10) , = 0.254 , = 248 M a , = 18 /
and ϕ = 35°. Use Brom’s Method = 200(10) /
Answer
= . 58
29
7.8 Pile Groups
59
7.8 Pile Groups

The preceding sections have considered the soil aspects of
single piles in some detail together with a brief discussion of
pile-driving operations. Rarely, however, is the foundation likely
to consist of a single pile. Generally, there will be a minimum of
two or three piles under a foundation element or footing to allow
for misalignments and other inadvertent eccentricities. Building
codes may stipulate the minimum number of piles under a
building element.
60
30
7.8 Pile Groups
• When several piles are clustered, it is reasonable to expect
that the soil pressures produced from either side friction or
point bearing will overlap as idealized in the figure.
• The superimposed pressure intensity will depend on both the
pile load and spacing, and if sufficiently large the soil will fail
in shear or the settlement will be excessive.
• The stress intensity from overlapping stressed zones will
obviously decrease with increased pile spacing s; however,
large spacing s are often impractical since a pile cap is cast
over the pile group for the column base and/or to spread the
load to the several piles in the group.
61
7.8 Pile Groups

7.8.1 Efficiency of Pile Groups
When several pile butts are attached to a common structural
element termed a pile cap the result is a pile group. A question
of some concern is whether the pile group capacity is the sum of
the individual pile capacities or something different either more
or less. If the capacity is the sum of the several individual pile
contributions, the group efficiency = 1.0. There are mixed
opinions on pile group efficiency defined as
=
∑
where; = group capacity
∑ = sum of individual pile capacities of group
62
31
7.8 Pile Groups
• The ASCE Committee on Deep Foundations report [CDF
(1984)] recommends not using group efficiency as a
description of group action. It suggests that friction piles in
cohesionless soils at the usual spacings s of s = 2 to 3D will
have a group efficiency > 1.0.
• The reason given is that in cohesionless soil the pile
displacement + driving vibrations increase the soil density (or
) in a zone in the vicinity of the pile, which is further
increased as other piles are driven nearby.
• For friction piles in cohesive soils the block shear + point
bearing of the group in plan is used as the group capacity, but
in no case is the group capacity to be considered greater than
the single pile capacity times the number of piles in the group.
63
7.8 Pile Groups

Converse-Labarre equation
−1 + −1
=1−
90
where; = tan .
64
32
7.8 Pile Groups
7.8.2 – Method (Total Stress Analysis)
, = +
where; =2 s −1 + +s −1 +
= s −1 + s −1 +

= ≤ 25 kPa
65
7.8 Pile Groups

7.8.3 – Method (Effective Stress Analysis)
, = +
where; =2 s −1 + +s −1 +
= s −1 + s −1 +
= tan ϕ + 1 + tan ϕ
66
33
7.8 Pile Groups
Problem 7-10
A pile group consisting of 9 driven piles, each 0.4 m in diameter,
is arranged in a 3 x 3 matrix at a spacing of 1.2 m. The piles
penetrate a medium clay soil ( = 40 kPa , ϕ = 30° , =
18 / , OCR = 2) of thickness 8 m and are embedded 2 m in
a stiff clay ( = 90 kPa, ϕ = 28°, = 18.50 / , OCR = 5).
a. Calculate the group allowable load capacity for a factor of
safety of 2. Groundwater level (GWL) is at 2 m below the
surface but can rise to the surface due to seasonal changes.
b. Using the general equation, determine the group efficiency.
c. Using the Converse Labarre equation, determine the group
efficiency.
Answer
a. = .
b. = .
c. = . 67
7.8 Pile Groups

Problem 7-11
A pile foundation shown consists of five piles. The foundation is
subjected to vertical load on the 600 x 600 mm column section
equal to 890 kN and a moment of 190 kN m with respect to y –
axis. Determine the maximum pile reaction under the pile cap.
Answer
= . 68
34
7.9.1 Elastic Settlement of Single Pile
The total settlement of a pile under a vertical working load is
given by
= ( ) + ( ) + ( )
where; ( ) = elastic settlement of pile

( ) = settlement of pile caused by the load at the pile tip
( ) = settlement of pile caused by the load transmitted
along the pile shaft
69

If the pile material is assumed to be elastic, the deformation of
the pile shaft can be evaluated, in accordance with the
fundamental principles of mechanics of materials, as
+
( ) =
where; = load carried at the pile point under working load

condition
= load carried by frictional (skin) resistance under
working load condition
= area of cross section of pile
= length of pile
= modulus of elasticity of the pile material
= between 0.50 and 0.67
70
35
The settlement of a pile caused by the load carried at the pile
point may be expressed in the form:
( ) = 1−
where; = width or diameter of pile

= Poisson’s ratio of soil
= Influence factor = 0.85
= modulus of elasticity of soil at or below the pile point
71

The settlement of a pile caused by the load carried by the pile
shaft is given by a relation
( ) = 1−
where; = perimeter of the pile
= Influence factor = 2 + 0.35
72
36
7.9.2 Elastic Settlement of Group Pile
In general, the settlement of a group pile under a similar working
load per pile increases with the width of the group and the
center-to-center spacing of the piles (s). Several investigations
relating to the settlement of group piles have been reported in
the literature, with widely varying results. The simplest relation
for the settlement of group piles was given by Vesic (1969),
namely,
( ) =
where; = width of group pile section

= width or diameter of each pile in the group
= elastic settlement of each pile at comparable working
load
73

Problem 7-12
The allowable working load on a prestressed concrete pile 21-m
long that has been driven into sand is 502 kN. The pile is
octagonal in shape with D = 356 mm. Skin resistance carries
350 kN of the allowable load, and point bearing carries the rest.
Use = 21 × 10 / , = 25 × 10 / , = 0.35 and
ξ = 0.62. Determine the settlement of the pile. From table =
1045 , = 1.168 and = 350
Answer
= . 74
37
7.9.3 Consolidation Settlement of Group Pile
Sometimes, a pile group may be embedded above a soft clay
layer and transfer sufficient load to it (soft clay) to cause
consolidation settlement
• to estimate the consolidation settlement, the full design load is
assumed to act at a depth of
• then distributed in the ratio of 2:1 (vertical : horizontal). The
increase in vertical stress at a depth z in the soft clay layer
shown in figure below.
75
76
38
Problem 7-13
A group pile in clay is shown in figure. = 16.2
Determine the consolidation settlement
of the piles. All clays are normally
consolidated. Lg = 3.3 m and Bg = 2.2
m
= 18
= 0.82
= 0.30
= 18.9
= 0.20
= 0.70
Answer
= 19
( ) = . = 0.25 77
= 0.75
39

FDN Engg Chapter 7

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Foundation

1.0 Stresses, Strains and Elastic

7.2 Types of Piles and Installation

7.2 Types of Piles and Installation

7.2 Types of Piles and Installation

7.2 Types of Piles and Installation

7.2 Types of Piles and Installation

7.3 Vert. Cap. of Single Pile for Driven Piles

7.3 Vert. Cap. of Single Pile for Driven Piles

where; = embedded length of pile

7.3 Vert. Cap. of Single Pile for Driven Piles

7.3 Vert. Cap. of Single Pile for Driven Piles

7.3 Vert. Cap. of Single Pile for Driven Piles

7.3 Vert. Cap. of Single Pile for Driven Piles

7.3.2.2 End Bearing

7.3 Vert. Cap. of Single Pile for Driven Piles

7.3 Vert. Cap. of Single Pile for Driven Piles

7.3 Vert. Cap. of Single Pile for Driven Piles

7.4 Vert. Cap. of Single Pile for Drilled Shafts

= 0.55 − 0.1 − 1.5 ; 1.5 < ≤ 2.5

where = atmospheric pressure (101.125 kPa)

7.4 Vert. Cap. of Single Pile for Drilled Shafts

where = the embedded depth of the drilled shaft in the end

7.4 Vert. Cap. of Single Pile for Drilled Shafts

= 5.75 ; ≤ 290 ; < 10

 The for drilled shafts in coarse-grained soils have been

7.5 Uplift Capacity of Single Piles

7.5 Uplift Capacity of Single Piles

7.6 Negative Skin Friction of Single Piles

7.6 Negative Skin Friction of Single Piles

where = tan ; 0.5ϕ ≤ ≤ 0.7ϕ

7.6 Negative Skin Friction of Single Piles

7.7 Laterally Loaded of Single Piles

7.7 Laterally Loaded of Single Piles

The deflection of the pile head, under working load

where = Diameter of pile

7.7 Laterally Loaded of Single Piles

7.7 Laterally Loaded of Single Piles

7.8 Pile Groups

7.8 Pile Groups

7.8 Pile Groups

= for ≥ 3 and > 25 kPa

7.8 Pile Groups

7.8 Pile Groups

where; ( ) = elastic settlement of pile

7.9 Pile Settlements

where; = load carried at the pile point under working load

where; = width or diameter of pile

7.9 Pile Settlements

where; = perimeter of the pile

= Influence factor = 2 + 0.35

where; = width of group pile section

7.9 Pile Settlements

7.9 Pile Settlements

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